craft, industry and everyday life: finds from medieval york

Craft, Industry and Everyday Life: Finds from Medieval York

Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council for British Archaeology 2002

By Patrick Ottaway and Nicola Rogers

Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 2673Archaeological Introductions to the Sites .......................................................................................................... 2674Conservation Report by J. Jones, with a contribution by E. Paterson .................................................................. 2696

Craft and Industry ...................................................................................................................................................... 2703Building................................................................................................................................................................... 2705Metalworking with a contribution by C. Mortimer .............................................................................................. 2707Woodworking ........................................................................................................................................................ 2724Leatherworking ..................................................................................................................................................... 2728Textile production by P. Walton Rogers ................................................................................................................ 2732Jet working ............................................................................................................................................................. 2745Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................................. 2745Fishing ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2747Knives with contributions by J.G. McDonnell, D. Starley and K. Wiemer ........................................................... 2751

Everyday Life ............................................................................................................................................................... 2799Domestic with contributions by G.D. Gaunt and R. Tyson ................................................................................... 2799Structural items and fittings with a contribution by R. Tyson ............................................................................ 2827Locks and keys ....................................................................................................................................................... 2861Dress, dress accessories and personal ornament with contributions by M.E. Hutchinson, S. Rees and P. Walton Rogers .............................................................................................................................................. 2880Medical and toilet instruments ............................................................................................................................ 2931Writing and literacy............................................................................................................................................... 2934Funerary and devotional objects ......................................................................................................................... 2942Music and recreation ............................................................................................................................................. 2949Trade and exchange............................................................................................................................................... 2952Horse and riding equipment ............................................................................................................................... 2956Weapons and armour ............................................................................................................................................ 2967Miscellaneous objects with a contribution by G.D. Gaunt .................................................................................. 2971Unidentified objects .............................................................................................................................................. 2971

Intra- and Inter-Site Analyses .................................................................................................................................... 2975

Economy and Society in Medieval York .................................................................................................................. 2998

Future Research on Medieval Artefacts ................................................................................................................... 3003

Additional Anglo-Scandinavian Ironwork with a contribution by K. Wiemer ...................................................... 3005

Catalogue...................................................................................................................................................................... 3013

Appendix One: Data used in the chronological analysis of the ironwork .......................................................... 3161

Appendix Two: Data used in the inter- and intra-site spatial analysis of the ironwork .................................. 3164

Appendix Three: Analysis of non-ferrous platings and deposits on ironwork ................................................. 3167

List of Figures

1301 Plan showing position of (1) 1622 Coppergate; (2) area of Watching Brief; (3) 22 Piccadilly; and (4) St Mary, Castlegate ............................................................................................................................. 2676

1302 Plans of the site at 1622 Coppergate showing the area of deposits excavated for Period 6 ........... 26801

1303 Plan showing the location of excavations, and building recording in the Bedern area ....................... 2686

1304 Plan showing the position of the excavations at 4654 Fishergate .......................................................... 2689

1305 Order of construction of the original (Period 6a) priory and reconstructed plan of the west range at 4654 Fishergate ................................................................................................................................ 2692

1306 Plan of the priory in Period 6c ...................................................................................................................... 2693

1307 Comparison of the ratio of finds of metal to finds of other inorganic materials from Coppergate, Bedern (all sites) and Fishergate ................................................................................................................................. 2698

1308 Metal finds from Coppergate, Bedern (all sites) and Fishergate .............................................................. 2699

1309 Non-metal finds from Coppergate, Bedern (all sites) and Fishergate ..................................................... 2699

1310 Ratio of ferrous to non-ferrous metals at all Bedern sites before the addition of ironwork from bulk finds ................................................................................................................................................. 2700

1311 Ratio of ferrous to non-ferrous metals at all Bedern sites after the addition of ironwork from bulk finds ................................................................................................................................................. 2700

1312 Ratio of ferrous to non-ferrous metals at Fishergate .................................................................................. 2700

1313 Ratio of ferrous to non-ferrous metals at Coppergate ............................................................................... 2700

1314 Other sites in York mentioned in the text .................................................................................................... 2702

1315 Map of Britain showing the main sites mentioned in the text.................................................................. 2703

1316 Builders tools: trowel 13676 from Bedern; pickaxe head 13156 from the Foundry .............................. 2704

1317 Plumb-bobs 12938 f rom 1622 Coppergate, 1451112 f rom Bedern, 152578 f rom 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................................................................................... 2705

1318 Debris from ironworking in the form of bars, strips and plates from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern ................................................................................................................................. 2706

1319 Ironworking hearth, c.1340, from The Romance of Alexander ..................................................................... 2707

1320 Crucible 13512 from Bedern .......................................................................................................................... 2710

1321 Stone casting moulds: 134367 from Bedern; 14734 from 4654 Fishergate ........................................... 2713

1322 Failed castings from the Foundry and Bedern ............................................................................................ 2714

1323 Failed castings from St Andrewgate ............................................................................................................. 2714

1324 Copper alloy scrap 141712 from Bedern, 151402 from 4654 Fishergate; silver wire 14643 from Bedern Chapel ........................................................................................................................................ 2715

1325 Lead alloy scrap from Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ................................................................................. 2716

1326 Tongs 13677 from Bedern and 14860 from 4654 Fishergate; hammer 11460 from 1622 Coppergate............................................................................................................................................. 2719

1327 Metalworking tools: punches and tongs ..................................................................................................... 2720

1328 Punches from 1622 Coppergate, the Coppergate watching brief, 22 Piccadilly, the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate.......................................................................................................................... 2721

1329 Tanged punches from 1622 Coppergate .................................................................................................... 2722

1330 File 11484 from 1622 Coppergate ................................................................................................................ 2723

1331 Detail of file 13687 from Bedern, showing cross-cut teeth ........................................................................ 2723

1332 Axes 12974 from the Coppergate watching brief and 13020 from 22 Piccadilly .................................... 2724

1333 Noah building the Ark using woodworking tools, c.142030 .................................................................. 2724

1334 Axe 13020 from 22 Piccadilly ......................................................................................................................... 2725

1335 Spoon augers from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate; twist auger from 1622 Coppergate............................................................................................................................................. 2725

1336 Woodworking tools: drawknife, wedges, saw blade, tanged chisel and rasp ....................................... 2726

1337 Woodworking tools: augers, twist auger, chisel, wedges, rasp and drawknife ..................................... 2727

1338 Awls from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate .................................................................... 2729

1339 Awls from 1622 Coppergate ........................................................................................................................ 2730

1340 Curriers knife 11537 from 1622 Coppergate ............................................................................................ 2730

1341 Curriers knives from 1622 Coppergate and leatherworkers slicker from the Foundry ................... 2731

1342 Tools used in fibre processing: part of a wool-comb from Bedern; iron spikes from 1622 Coppergate, 22 Piccadilly and Bedern ............................................................................................... 2733

1343 A woman using long-toothed wool combs in a 15th century French manuscript ................................ 2736

1344 Globular medieval spindle whorls from the Foundry and Bedern ......................................................... 2737

1345 Tools used in weaving: toothed weft-beater from 1622 Coppergate and a bone pin-beater from Bedern ...................................................................................................................................................... 2738

1346 Iron tenter hooks or hooks for suspending wall hangings from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern ........................................................................................................................................................ 2738

1347 Iron needles from 1622 Coppergate, copper alloy needles from Bedern, copper alloy thimbles from the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate, iron scissors from Bedern ......................... 2740

1348 Needles from Bedern and 22 Piccadilly ....................................................................................................... 2741

1349 Netting needles from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern, so-called couching needles from 2 Aldwark and 4654 Fishergate, knitting needle from 2 Aldwark ......................................................... 2742

1350 Copper alloy knitting needles from 2 Aldwark and the Foundry ........................................................... 2744

1351 Iron spade sheaths from 1622 Coppergate and the Foundry, iron sickle from the Coppergate watching brief ............................................................................................................................. 2746

1352 Fishing equipment: iron fish hooks from 1622 Coppergate, lead alloy net sinkers from 4654 Fishergate, lead alloy net weights from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern, stone net weights from 4654 Fishergate ..................................................................................................................................... 2748

1353 Iron shears from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern ........................................................................................ 2749

1354 Iron scissiors from Bedern, iron shears from 22 Piccadilly, Bedern and 1622 Coppergate ................ 2750

1355 Iron knives of blade back form A and B....................................................................................................... 2751

1356 Iron knives of blade back form C1 ................................................................................................................ 2752

1357 Iron knives of blade back form C3 and Ci ................................................................................................... 2754

1358 Iron knives of blade back forms D and E; iron knife with a blade of unusual form; iron knife with curled over blade tip .............................................................................................................................. 2755

1359 Detail of 11837, an iron knife from 1622 Coppergate, showing inlaid copper wire ............................ 2757

1360 Detail of 13777, an iron knife from Bedern, showing inlaid crosses ........................................................ 2757

1361 Detail of 13792, an iron knife from Bedern, showing inlay of mercury gilded silver ........................... 2757

1362 Detail of 13184, an iron knife from the Foundry, showing inlaid silver wire ......................................... 2757

1363 Knives of indeterminate blade back form ................................................................................................... 2758

1364 Jet handle fragment from Bedern, copper alloy hilt-plates from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern ....... 2759

1365 Scale tang knives from the Foundry, Bedern and Bedern Chapel; knives with iron tangs from Bedern ...................................................................................................................................................... 2761

1366 Micrograph of ferritic iron ............................................................................................................................. 2764

1367 Micrograph of phosphoric iron ..................................................................................................................... 2764

1368 Micrograph of tempered martensite ............................................................................................................ 2765

1369 Micrograph of pattern welding ..................................................................................................................... 2765

1370 Schematic cross-sections of knife types ....................................................................................................... 2766

1371 Location of metallographic sections and schematic cross-sections for Group 1 knives ....................... 2767

1372 Early medieval knife 11817 showing macro-structure Type 0 .................................................................. 2768

1373 Early medieval knife 11818 showing manufacture Type 1d ..................................................................... 2768

1374 Location of metallographic samples and schematic cross-sections for Group 2 knives ....................... 2771

1375 Knife 11803 showing Type 1e manufacture ................................................................................................. 2772

1376 Knife 11830 showing Type 1c manufacture ................................................................................................. 2774

1377 Knife 11860 showing Type 1e manufacture ................................................................................................. 2775

1378 Knife 11888 showing Type 2 manufacture ................................................................................................... 2776

1379 Location of metallographic sections and schematic cross-sections for Group 3 knives ....................... 2778

1380 Pivoting knives from 1622 Coppergate; miscellaneous blades from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; paring knife from 4654 Fishergate; folding knife from Bedern; sharpening steel from 4654 Fishergate ..................................................................................................................................... 2792

1381 Schist hones from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ....................................................... 2795

1382 Phyllite hones from 1622 Coppergate; sandstone hones from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate; possible hones from 1622 Coppergate ......................................................................... 2796

1383 Fragment of a rotary grindstone 14746 from 4654 Fishergate ................................................................ 2797

1384 Manuscript illustration showing the use of a rotary grindstone to sharpen a knife ............................. 2798

1385 Stone mortars from 1622 Coppergate, 22 Piccadilly and the Foundry .................................................. 2801

1386 Stone mortars from Bedern; stone pestles from Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ...................................... 2802

1387 Copper alloy spoon 14190 from Bedern; unfinished lead alloy spoon handle 4279 from 1622 Coppergate............................................................................................................................................. 2803

1388 Iron f lesh hooks from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; i ron s tr ike-a- l ights f rom 1622 Coppergate and the Foundry; iron shovels from 1622 Coppergate; shovel handle from the Coppergate watching brief ............................................................................................................. 2804

1389 Kitchen scene from the Luttrell Psalter showing the use of a flesh hook and skimmer, knives, and wooden pestle with stone mortar .......................................................................................................... 2805

1390 Iron shovel 11918 during excavation ............................................................................................................ 2806

1391 Wooden bucket with iron fittings 8742 from 1622 Coppergate .............................................................. 2807

1392 Wooden bucket 8742 in situ in an early 15th century well at 1622 Coppergate .................................. 2808

1393 Iron vessel handle 11920 from 1622 Coppergate and 13037 from 22 Piccadilly ................................... 2809

1394 Parts of cast copper alloy vessels from the Foundry and Bedern; leg and foot of a cast lead alloy vessel from Bedern ........................................................................................................................ 2810

1395 Complete bowl of copper alloy sheet from 4654 Fishergate; fragments of copper alloy sheet vessels from 1622 Coppergate and the Foundry; rim fragments of a pewter sheet vessel from 1622 Coppergate ....................................................................................................................................2811

1396 Top view of copper alloy bowl 15150 from 4654 Fishergate ................................................................... 2812

1397 Detail of copper alloy bowl 15150 showing turning marks ...................................................................... 2813

1398 Copper alloy box 13004 from the Coppergate watching brief .................................................................. 2814

1399 Copper alloy repair patches from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry, 2 Aldwark and 4654 Fishergate; copper alloy sheet rivet from Bedern ............................................................................ 2815

1400 Map of Europe showing the main sites mentioned in the glass report................................................... 2816

1401 Glass vessels in use c.1500, from the Sforza Hours ...................................................................................... 2817

1402 Vessel glass fragments from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern ...................................... 281819

1403 Fragment of blue glass with black painted decoration from Bedern ...................................................... 2821

1404 Fragments of jug or pouring flask 13538 from Bedern with blue-green trailing ................................... 2823

1405 A mid 15th century illustration showing physicians examining glass urinals ...................................... 2825

1406 Reconstruction of glass still with alembic ................................................................................................... 2826

1407 Stone vessel, possibly a trough, from Bedern ............................................................................................. 2828

1408 Tin-plated iron nails from Coppergate; tin-plated iron stud from Bedern; iron nail with a pointed head from 2 Aldwark; decorative iron bosses from Coppergate; copper alloy tacks from Bedern and Fishergate; lead alloy nail from Fishergate; copper alloy and lead alloy knops from Bedern; iron clench bolts from Coppergate; iron staple from Bedern; copper alloy staples from Bedern and Fishergate; iron collars from Coppergate ............................................... 2829

1409 Iron wall anchors from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; iron eyed bar from Bedern; iron gutter support from 4654 Fishergate; iron window bar from Bedern .................................................... 2831

1410 Diagrammatic reconstruction showing how a wall anchor was used .................................................... 2832

1411 Diagrammatic reconstruction showing how a gutter support was used ................................................ 2832

1412 Roofing lead from 4654 Fishergate; lead window cames from Bedern Chapel and 4654 Fishergate; gilded cast lead star from 4654 Fishergate .................................................................. 2833

1413 Iron hinge pivots from Coppergate; iron latch rests from Coppergate and Fishergate; iron wall hooks from Coppergate, the watching brief, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate ...................... 2835

1414 Iron S-hooks from 1622 Coppergate, the Coppergate watching brief and 2 Aldwark; small iron swivel hooks from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate .................................................. 2836

1415 Complete iron hinge straps on a wooden shutter from 1622 Coppergate ............................................ 2837

1416 Iron hinge straps from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate ............................................................. 2838

1417 Iron hinge straps from Bedern ...................................................................................................................... 2839

1418 Iron U-eyed hinge straps from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern ................................................................ 2840

1419 Iron figure-of-eight-shaped hasps from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate ................................ 2841

1420 Iron T-shaped hinge strap from Coppergate; small iron U-eyed hinge from a casket from Coppergate; tin-plated iron pinned hinges from Bedern; copper alloy hinge fittings from Bedern; parts of iron corner brackets from Coppergate and the watching brief .................................... 2842

1421 Iron stapled hasps from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ............................................ 2843

1422 Iron stapled hasps from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ............................................ 2844

1423 Iron drop handles from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; copper-plated handle, possibly from a ritual sprinkler, from 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................................ 2845

1424 Miscellaneous iron fittings from 1622 Coppergate .................................................................................. 2846

1425 Miscellaneous iron fittings from 1622 Coppergate, 22 Piccadilly, the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................................................................................... 2847

1426 Spirally twisted iron fittings from 1622 Coppergate ................................................................................ 2848

1427 Non-ferrous binding strips or mounts from Coppergate, the Foundry and Fishergate ....................... 2849

1428 Small iron eyed fittings and suspension fitting from Coppergate; iron swivel fitting from Bedern; copper alloy swivel fittings from Coppergate, 22 Piccadilly and Bedern; iron linch pins from Coppergate ..................................................................................................................................... 2850

1429 Iron figure-of-eight chain links from Coppergate and Fishergate; iron oval chain links from Coppergate and the watching brief; elongated iron chain links with a looped eye at each end from Coppergate and Fishergate; iron chain link with wire wrapped around it from Bedern; copper alloy chain or chain links from Coppergate, the Foundry and Fishergate .................. 2851

1430 Iron rings from Coppergate and Fishergate; copper alloy rings from Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate; iron washer from Coppergate; copper alloy discs from Bedern; lead alloy disc from Fishergate; iron collar from Fishergate; copper alloy collar from Bedern .................... 2852

1431 Iron tube from Fishergate; copper alloy cylinders from Bedern and Fishergate; iron ferrules from Coppergate; copper alloy ferrules from Coppergate and Fishergate; copper alloy perforated strip from the Foundry; copper alloy fittings from Coppergate and Fishergate ................ 2854

1432 Iron candleholders and prickets from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern .................................................... 2855

1433 Candleholders and prickets from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern .......................................................... 2856

1434 Copper alloy candleholders from Bedern and 4654 Fishergate; lead alloy drip tray for a candlestick from the Coppergate watching brief ........................................................................................ 2857

1435 Stone lamps from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern ...................................................................................... 2858

1436 Stone lamp with five reservoirs from the Foundry .................................................................................... 2859

1437 Glass hanging lamps from Bedern ............................................................................................................... 2860

1438 Glass hanging lamp, St Albans, from a late 12th century manuscript .................................................... 2860

1439 Diagram to explain the operation of mounted lock 9045, with a key similar in form to 12599 ...... 28623

1440 Front and back of complete lock in oak housing, 9045 from 1622 Coppergate ................................... 2864

1441 Iron bolts for locks from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate; iron lock ward plate from 4654 Fishergate ..................................................................................................................................... 2864

1442 Iron barrel padlock cases from 1622 Coppergate, the Coppergate watching brief, 22 Piccadilly, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate .................................................................................................. 2865

1443 Reconstruction of barrel padlock with key hole at end, 12563 ............................................................. 28667

1444 Reconstruction of barrel padlock 13045, using key 12648 ..................................................................... 28689

1445 Iron barrel padlock case 12563 from 1622 Coppergate ............................................................................ 2868

1446 Iron barrel padlock case 12564 from 1622 Coppergate ............................................................................ 2869

1447 Barrel padlock bolts and cases, copper alloy-plated iron barrel padlocks for caskets .......................... 2870

1448 Iron barrel padlock bolts from Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate; copper alloy- plated iron barrel padlocks for caskets from Coppergate; copper alloy padlock from Bedern ........... 2871

1449 Iron keys with hollow stems for mounted locks from Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate; iron keys with solid stems projecting beyond the bit which does not have a central channel from the Foundry and Bedern ....................................................................................................................... 2872

1450 An early 15th century representation of St Peter with the key of heaven from the Bolton Hours ....... 2873

1451 Keys for mounted locks from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ................................... 2873

1452 Iron keys with solid stems for mounted locks from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern, the Chapel and 4654 Fishergate ....................................................................................................................................... 2874

1453 Iron barrel padlock keys with their bits at an angle to the stem from Coppergate, the watching brief and Bedern; copper alloy barrel padlock key with its bit at an angle to the stem from Coppergate........................................................................................................................................................ 2875

1454 Iron barrel padlock keys from 1622 Coppergate with their bits at an angle to the stem .................... 2876

1455 Barrel padlock keys of very similar form: 12656 in iron and 12878 in copper alloy ............................. 2877

1456 Iron barrel padlock keys with their bits in line with the stem from Coppergate, Piccadilly and Fishergate; keys with bits composed of short projections from Coppergate .............................................................. 2878

1457 Iron barrel padlock keys from 1622 Coppergate with their bits in line with the stem ....................... 2879

1458 Iron box padlock keys from 1622 Coppergate .......................................................................................... 2879

1459 Iron latch keys from Bedern .......................................................................................................................... 2879

1460 Copper alloy casket keys from Bedern ........................................................................................................ 2879

1461 Weave diagram of the 2/1 twills with single dark blue thread running through the warp from 4654 Fishergate, 152934 ............................................................................................................................... 2880

1462 Weave diagram of the tabby with extended tabby coloured bands from the Foundry, 13427 ............ 2882

1463 Wool textile in tabby weave with a band of closely woven stripes in extended tabby weave from the Foundry ............................................................................................................................................. 2882

1464 Weave diagram of silk and silver tabby from Bedern Chapel, 14654 ...................................................... 2884

1465 Annular buckles in iron and copper alloy from Coppergate and Bedern; shoe buckles in lead alloy from the Foundry and Fishergate; shoe buckles in iron from 2 Aldwark and Fishergate .......... 2887

1466 Iron buckles with oval frames from 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate; copper alloy buckles with oval frames from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern ........................................ 2888

1467 Iron buckles with integral buckle plates from Coppergate and Bedern; copper alloy buckles with integral buckle plates from Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern; copper alloy buckles with forked spacers from the Foundry, Bedern and 2 Aldwark ............................................................... 2890

1468 D-shaped buckles of iron from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; D-shaped buckles of copper alloy from the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................... 2892

1469 Rectangular, square and trapezoidal buckles of iron and copper alloy from Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate; iron buckle frames with rotating arms from Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate; buckles with rotating tubes from the Foundry and Bedern............................. 2893

1470 Fragment of a trapezoidal buckle, originally gilded, decorated with rocker-arm tracery ................... 2894

1471 Iron buckle frames with a central internal bar from Coppergate and the Foundry; copper alloy double-looped buckles from Bedern and Fishergate ........................................................................ 2895

1472 Iron buckle-pins from Coppergate and Fishergate; iron belt fitting from Coppergate; copper alloy buckle-pins from Bedern and Fishergate .............................................................................. 2896

1473 Buckle-plates without buckles from Coppergate, the watching brief, the Foundry and Bedern; possible copper alloy buckle-plates from Fishergate ................................................................................. 2897

1474 Copper alloy clasps from the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate .................................................... 2898

1475 Iron belt clasps from Coppergate; copper alloy hinged belt fittings from 2 Aldwark; copper alloy strap-ends from the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate ...................................................................... 2899

1476 Iron strap-end from Bedern; copper alloy three-piece strap-ends from the Foundry, Bedern and 2 Aldwark .................................................................................................................................................. 2901

1477 Strap-guides of iron and copper alloy from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern .......................................... 2903

1478 Copper alloy chapes from 1622 Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ................. 2904

1479 Incomplete copper alloy purse hanger from Bedern; copper alloy circular domed mounts from the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate; triple-lobed mount from the Foundry; petalled mounts from the Foundry, Bedern, the Chapel and Fishergate .............................................................................. 2906

1480 Copper alloy square, rectangular and lozenge-shaped mounts from Coppergate, Bedern, the Chapel and Fishergate; bar mounts from the Foundry and Bedern; S-shaped mount from Bedern; fleur-de-lys mount from the Foundry; scallop-shaped mount from Bedern; openwork mount from the Foundry; saltire mount from Bedern ............................................................................... 2908

1481 Gilded fleur-de-lys mount 13377 from the Foundry .................................................................................. 2909

1482 Leather straps joined by copper alloy mounts from the Foundry and Bedern; domed copper alloy studs on a leather strap from 1622 Coppergate .................................................................. 2910

1483 Leather strap with copper alloy mounts from Bedern .............................................................................. 2910

1484 Detail of spoked wheel-shaped copper alloy mount on leather strap .....................................................2911

1485 A dog wearing a collar hung with bells, from the St William window, York Minster ...........................2911

1486 Annular brooches of copper alloy, pewter, silver and gold from 1622 Coppergate and Bedern; cast lead bird-shaped brooch from Bedern .................................................................................................. 2912

1487 Detail of enamel setting in copper alloy brooch 12897 from 1622 Coppergate .................................... 2913

1488 Pewter brooch 12952 from 1622 Coppergate ............................................................................................. 2914

1489 Brooch pins of gold, gilded copper alloy and silver from Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate; iron dress pins from Coppergate; possible copper alloy dress pin from Coppergate; glass pin heads from Bedern .......................................................................................................................... 2914

1490 Copper alloy pins: with wire-wound heads from Coppergate, the Foundry and Fishergate; with globular or sub-globular heads from Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern; with faceted head from Fishergate; with lens-shaped head from Coppergate ....................................................................... 2917

1491 Tin-plated iron button from the Foundry; copper alloy buttons from Bedern; possible copper alloy cast button from Bedern; copper alloy lace tags from the Foundry and Fishergate; pos-sible copper alloy lace tags from Coppergate; possible lace or ribbon threader from Fishergate; double hooked fastener from Fishergate; wire loop fasteners from the Foundry and Fishergate; twisted wire loop from the Foundry; possible hair accessories from Bedern ......................................... 2919

1492 Finger-rings of gold and precious stones from Coppergate and Bedern; of copper alloy from Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern; of pewter from Coppergate; of jet from Coppergate and Fishergate; tin-plated iron bracelet and iron cross-shaped pendant from Coppergate ................. 2922

1493 Detail of pearl and garnets set in gold finger-ring 12937 from 1622 Coppergate ................................ 2923

1494 Details of both shoulders of gold finger-ring 12937 from 1622 Coppergate ........................................ 2924

1495 Detail of the inside of gold ring 14508 from Bedern showing the join between the two parts ........... 2925

1496 Detail of the sapphire setting of gold ring 14508 from Bedern ................................................................ 2926

1497 Detail of finger-ring 12917 with blue glass setting from 1622 Coppergate ........................................... 2927

1498 Gemstones: cornelian 14757, amethyst 14758 and onyx 14759 from 4654 Fishergate; rock crystal13477 from Bedern ........................................................................................................................................... 2929

1499 Copper alloy medical plate fragments in situ near the right knee of an adult male skeleton from the Fishergate cemetery ......................................................................................................................... 2931

1500 Copper alloy medical plate with leather remains from 4654 Fishergate; iron fleam from 1622 Coppergate............................................................................................................................................. 2932

1501 Copper alloy toilet implements from Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate; iron tweezers from Coppergate; copper alloy tweezers from Coppergate and Fishergate; copper alloy cosmetic spoon from Fishergate ..................................................................................................................................... 2933

1502 Tin-plated iron stylus from Bedern; lead alloy points from 1622 Coppergate, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate; possible writing slate sf1992 from Bedern .................................................................... 2935

1503 Fragment of copper alloy page holder from Bedern; copper alloy book clasps from Bedern, the Chapel and Fishergate; copper alloy hinges from the Foundry possibly for book clasps ............. 2937

1504 Reconstruction of a complete page holder, based on an example from Winchester ............................. 2937

1505 Detail of a book clasp from a statue originally in the chapter house of St Marys Abbey, York .......... 2938

1506 Non-ferrous book mounts from Coppergate, Bedern, the Chapel and Fishergate ............................... 2939

1507 Seal matrices: of stone from Bedern; of copper alloy from Bedern and 4654 Fishergate.................... 2941

1508 Detail from the St William window, York Minster, showing seals in use ............................................... 2942

1509 Pewter chalice and paten 15287 from 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................ 2943

1510 Pewter chalice 15287 from 4654 Fishergate ............................................................................................... 2944

1511 Pewter paten 15287 from 4654 Fishergate.................................................................................................. 2944

1512 Tin flask-shaped ampullae from 1622 Coppergate; pilgrim badge fragment from 22 Piccadilly; possible pilgrim badges from 1622 Coppergate ........................................................................................ 2945

1513 Tin flask-shaped ampulla set in an openwork frame from 1622 Coppergate ...................................... 2946

1514 Tin flask-shaped ampulla set in a trapezoidal plate from 1622 Coppergate ........................................ 2946

1515 Gilded clapper from an open bell from Bedern; copper alloy rumbler bells from Bedern; pewter rumbler bell from 1622 Coppergate ........................................................................................................................... 2947

1516 Rosary beads of jet, a jet-like material, shale and amber from Bedern and Fishergate ........................ 2948

1517 Iron Jews harp 14117 from Bedern............................................................................................................... 2949

1518 Dice of jet from Coppergate and of chalk from Fishergate; gaming counters of stone and tile from Coppergate, the Foundry and Bedern; decorated jet disc from Bedern; counter or pot lid of tile from Coppergate .............................................................................................................................................. 2950

1519 Folding balances and fragment of a balance from the Foundry; scale pans from Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate; probable balance chain from Coppergate ........................................................... 2952

1520 Weights of lead alloy and copper alloy from Fishergate, 2 Aldwark, Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and the Chapel .................................................................................................................................... 2954

1521 Lead hanging weight from 1622 Coppergate; possible lead weights from Bedern............................. 2955

1522 Prick spurs from 1622 Coppergate ............................................................................................................. 2957

1523 Parts of iron and copper alloy rowel spurs from Bedern and Coppergate; other spur fittings from Coppergate and Fishergate ................................................................................................................... 2958

1524 Complete snaffle bits from Coppergate and 2 Aldwark; parts of bits from Coppergate, 22 Piccadilly, Bedern and 2 Aldwark ............................................................................................................ 2959

1525 Reconstruction of a 10th11th century horse bridle with a bit of a form known from Winchester showing attachment link as 13049 and pendant as 12752 .......................................................................................... 2960

1526 Parts of iron curb bits from Coppergate, the watching brief and the Foundry; probable bit component from Coppergate ......................................................................................................................... 2961

1527 Reconstruction of a later medieval bridle, incorporating 13001 from the watching brief site............. 2962

1528 Copper alloy harness pendants: 14497 with white enamelled lion passant guardant from Bedern; 15245 from Fishergate decorated with a six-pointed star within an incised circle .................. 2963

1529 Iron harness pendant from Coppergate; copper alloy harness pendants and possible harness pendants from Bedern and Fishergate; mount for harness pendants from Bedern; lead alloy harness pendant from the Foundry ............................................................................................ 2964

1530 Iron horseshoes: with wavy outer side from Coppergate, with smooth outer side from Coppergate and the Foundry; iron curry combs from Coppergate ......................................................... 2966

1531 Woman shooting a rabbit with a stunning arrowhead, from the Taymouth Hours ................................ 2967

1532 Tip of an iron sword blade from Coppergate; iron arrowhead with a tanged leaf-shaped blade from Bedern; iron socketed arrowheads from Fishergate, Coppergate and Bedern; bullet-shaped arrowheads or tips used on longbow shafts from Bedern and Fishergate; stunning arrowhead from Coppergate; cross-bow bolt from the Foundry .................................................................................. 2968

1533 Iron chain mail and copper alloy knuckle plates from 1622 Coppergate ............................................. 2970

1534 Detail from the St William window, York Minster, showing two sons of William, Lord Ros, wearing gauntlets ............................................................................................................................................ 2970

1535 Unidentified iron object from Fishergate; unidentified copper alloy objects from Coppergate, the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate ............................................................................................................. 2972

1536 Unidentified lead alloy objects from Bedern and 4654 Fishergate ........................................................ 2973

1537 Coppergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods ............................................................................................................................................................... 2977

1538 Coppergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods expressed as percentages of the period totals ............................................................................... 2978

1539 Coppergate: percentage of iron objects in the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods in Groups B with D (tools, implements and knives) and E with F (structural ironwork, fittings, locks and keys) ................................................................................................................................................. 2979

1540 Fishergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglian and medieval periods ......................... 2980

1541 Fishergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglian and medieval periods expressed as percentages of the period totals ................................................................................................................ 2981

1542 Fishergate: percentages of iron objects in the Anglian and medieval periods in Groups B with D (tools, implements and knives) and E with F (structural ironwork, fittings, locks and keys) ......... 2981

1543 Bedern: numbers of iron objects by group for the medieval and late medieval/post-medieval periods ............................................................................................................................................................... 2982

1544 Bedern: numbers of iron objects by group for the medieval and late medieval/post-medieval periods expressed as percentages of the Finds Period totals .................................................................... 2982

1545 Bedern: percentage of iron objects in the medieval and late medieval/post-medieval periods in Groups B with D (tools, implements and knives) and E with F (structural ironwork, fittings, locks and keys) ................................................................................................................................................. 2983

1546 Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate: ironwork assemblages in descending order of scores for tools, implements and knives (Groups B and D) as a percentage of the total numbers of objects in Groups B, D, E and F ..................................................................................................................... 2984

1547 Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate: percentage of knives (Group D) in Groups B and D combined ........................................................................................................................................................... 2985

1548 Coppergate: numbers of medieval iron objects in each group by tenement .......................................... 2992

1549 Coppergate: object group percentages for each tenement assemblage ................................................... 2993

1550 Coppergate: iron object group breakdown by tenement (percentages) .................................................. 2993

1551 Bedern: medieval iron objects, numbers in each object group by area ................................................... 2995

1552 Bedern: object group percentages for each area ......................................................................................... 2995

1553 Bedern: medieval iron objects, percentage of objects by group in each area ......................................... 2996

1554 Finds from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts: punches and shears from 22 Piccadilly, knives from the Coppergate watching brief and 22 Piccadilly .............................................................................. 3005

1555 Knife 15307 showing Type 1c manufacture ................................................................................................. 3008

1556 Finds from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts: pierced plate from 1622 Coppergate, U-eyed hinge with bifurcated strap from 22 Piccadilly, stapled hasp from 22 Piccadilly .................................. 3010

1557 Anglo-Scandinavian U-eyed hinges with bifurcated straps from 22 Piccadilly .....................................3011

1558 Finds from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts: pins from Coppergate and 22 Piccadilly, buckle frame from 22 Piccadilly, leaf-shaped arrowhead blade from Coppergate ..............................................3011

List of Tables

265 Summary of archaeological development at 1622 Coppergate ................................................................ 2675

266 Summary of archaeological development at 22 Piccadilly ......................................................................... 2684

267 Summary of phasing at sites within the College of the Vicars Choral at Bedern .................................... 2687

268 Summary of phasing at Bedern Foundry ...................................................................................................... 2688

269 Summary of phasing at 2 Aldwark ................................................................................................................ 2688

270 Summary of archaeological development at 4654 Fishergate .............................................................. 26901

271 XRF analysis of copper alloy waste from the Foundry ............................................................................... 2709

272 EDX analysis of three copper alloy samples from the Foundry ................................................................. 2709

273 Distribution of non-ferrous waste from the Foundry and Bedern ............................................................ 2715

274 Distribution of non-ferrous scrap from the Foundry and Bedern ............................................................. 2716

275 Non-ferrous waste and scrap by period at the Foundry ............................................................................. 2716

276 Non-ferrous waste and scrap at Bedern by period ...................................................................................... 2716

277 Copper alloy working debris from Fishergate (Period 6) ........................................................................... 2717

278 Copper alloy working debris from Fishergate (Period 7) ........................................................................... 2717

279 Lead alloy manufacturing debris from Fishergate (Period 6) .................................................................... 2718

280 Lead alloy manufacturing debris from Fishergate (Period 7) .................................................................... 2718

281 Textile equipment from Bedern, the Foundry, Fishergate and 22 Piccadilly ........................................ 27345

282 Iron knives examined metallographically from medieval contexts in York ............................................. 2763

283 Knife 11862, hardness values ........................................................................................................................... 2769

284 Analyses of metal matrix composition of Group 1 and Group 2 knives from 1622 Coppergate ........ 2770

285 Hardness values and minor element levels for knife 11803 ........................................................................ 2772





290 Group 3: composition of metal matrices of medieval knives from York .................................................. 2779

291 Composition of inclusions in Group 3 medieval knives from York ...................................................... 27802

292 Microhardness values for knife 11811 ............................................................................................................ 2783







299 Hones by stone type ......................................................................................................................................... 2794

300 Undiagnostic glass fragments by context date ............................................................................................. 2827

301 Lead came fragments by phase at 4654 Fishergate .................................................................................... 2834

302 Textiles and yarn from Bedern, the Foundry and 1622 Coppergate ........................................................ 2881

303 Wire-wound pins by site and date .................................................................................................................. 2916

304 Globular-headed and other pins with non-wire-wound heads by site and date .................................... 2916

305 Pin head types expressed as percentages of all pins with heads ............................................................... 2918

306 Lace tags from the Foundry, Bedern and Fishergate by type and period ................................................. 2920

307 Classification of lead points by site ................................................................................................................ 2934

308 Lead pan weights .............................................................................................................................................. 2953

309 Numbers of objects made from materials other than iron within functional groups by site................. 2985

310 Functional groups as percentages of object totals on each site .................................................................. 2985

311 Non-ferrous tools from the main sites............................................................................................................ 2986

312 Hones at Coppergate by period ...................................................................................................................... 2987

313 Finds of domestic equipment for the main sites .......................................................................................... 2987

314 Objects associated with lighting from the main sites .................................................................................. 2987

315 Non-ferrous buckles and other dress accessories from the main sites ...................................................... 2988

316 Non-ferrous finger-rings and brooches from the main sites ....................................................................... 2988

317 Medical implements from the main sites ...................................................................................................... 2988

318 Items from the main sites associated with literacy ...................................................................................... 2989

319 Prickers, pens and styli from the College of Vicars Choral at Bedern by period and area .................... 2989

320 Lead points from the College of Vicars Choral at Bedern by period and area ........................................ 2989

321 Devotional and funerary objects from the main sites .................................................................................. 2989

322 Musical instruments from the main sites ...................................................................................................... 2990

323 Gaming finds from the main sites .................................................................................................................. 2990

324 Counters and dice of all materials from Coppergate by period and tenement ....................................... 2991

325 Balances and pan weights from the main sites ............................................................................................. 2991

326 1622 Coppergate: percentages of knives and hones within each tenement ........................................... 2994

327 Distribution of querns at Coppergate by period and tenement ................................................................. 2994

328 Spatial and chronological distribution of cast and sheet metal vessel fragments at Bedern ................. 2996

329 Hardness values and minor element levels for Anglo-Scandinavian knife 2891 .................................... 3006

330 Hardness values and minor element levels for Anglo-Scandinavian knife 15307 .................................. 3008

331 Hardness values and minor element levels for Anglo-Scandinavian knife 15308 .................................. 3009

332 1622 Coppergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods ............................................................................................................................................................... 3161

333 1622 Coppergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods expressed as percentages of the period totals .............................................................. 3161

334 1622 Coppergate: numbers and percentage of iron objects in the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval periods in Groups B with D and E with F .................................................................................. 3162

335 4654 Fishergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglian and medieval periods ................ 3162

336 4654 Fishergate: numbers of iron objects by group for the Anglian and medieval periods expressed as percentages of the period totals .............................................................................................. 3162

337 4654 Fishergate: percentages of iron objects in the Anglian and medieval periods in Groups B with D and E with F ..................................................................................................................................... 3163

338 Bedern: numbers of iron objects by group for the medieval and late medieval/post-medieval periods ............................................................................................................................................................... 3163

339 Bedern: numbers of iron objects by group for the medieval and late medieval/post-medieval periods expressed as percentages of the Finds Period totals .................................................................... 3163

340 Bedern: numbers and percentage of iron objects in the medieval and late medieval/post- medieval periods in Groups B with D and E with F .................................................................................. 3163

341 Coppergate, Bedern and Fishergate: a) ironwork assemblages in descending order of scores for tools, implements and knives (Groups B and D) as a percentage of the total numbers of objects in Groups B, D, E and F; b) percentage of knives (D) in Groups B and D ............................................... 3164

342 1622 Coppergate: numbers of medieval iron objects in each group by tenement ................................. 3164

343 1622 Coppergate: object group percentages for each tenement assemblage .......................................... 3165

344 1622 Coppergate: iron object group breakdown by tenement (percentages) ......................................... 3165

345 Bedern: medieval iron objects, numbers in each object group by area ..................................................... 3165

346 Bedern: object group percentages for each area ........................................................................................... 3166

347 Bedern: medieval iron objects, percentage of objects by group in each area ........................................... 3166

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Volume 17 Fascicule 15

Craft, Industry and Everyday Life: Medieval Finds from YorkBy Patrick Ottaway and Nicola Rogers

With contributions by G.D. Gaunt, T. Horsley, M.E. Hutchinson, J. Jones, J.G. McDonnell, C. Mortimer, E. Paterson, S. Rees, D. Starley, R. Tyson, P. Walton Rogers, K. Wiemer

Key words: craft, dress accessories, horse equipment, household equipment, industry, medieval, metallography, metalworking, textile production, tools, vessel glass, York

IntroductionThis comprehensive report represents a landmark

in the publication of medieval finds from excavations in York. It encompasses very large assemblages of me-dieval artefacts of a wide variety of materials, includ-ing iron, non-ferrous metal, stone, jet, amber, fired clay, glass and textile. These were recovered from four major sites in York, excavated during the 1970s and 1980s, at 1622 Coppergate, 4654 Fishergate, Bedern Foundry (hereafter known as the Foundry) and the College of the Vicars Choral of York Minster at Bedern (hereafter Bedern), and also from smaller sites in the vicinity of 1622 Coppergate (Coppergate watch-ing brief and 22 Piccadilly) and Bedern (2 Aldwark and Bedern Chapel). In total, approximately 6,000 stratified medieval objects are discussed; the bulk of these finds are of metal, either iron (c.3,000 objects, not including c.2,500 nails), or non-ferrous metals (c.2,000). Some categories of medieval finds from these sites are not included here, as they either have been or are to be published elsewhere in the Craft, Industry and Everyday Life in Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York series of finds fascicules; these relate to finds of bone, antler, ivory and horn (AY 17/12), wood and woodworking (AY 17/13) and leather and leatherworking (AY 17/16 in prep.). Collectively, these fascicules provide expert, up-to-date analysis and comment on a broad range of medieval objects, adding considerably to the number of medieval finds from the city which have been published, the only previous report relating specifically to finds of this period having appeared in 1982 (AY 17/4).

Both 1622 Coppergate and 4654 Fishergate have produced substantial assemblages of pre-Conquest material, some of which have already been published. Groups of Anglo-Scandinavian material from Cop-pergate already published comprise the textiles (AY 17/5), the pottery (AY 16/5) and the iron and ironworking evidence (AY 17/6), although a small number of additional Anglo-Scandinavian iron objects have come to light since publication of the last-named fascicule and are included in a special section below (pp.300512). Another fascicule in the Craft and Industry series includes Anglo-Scandinavian finds of other materials (AY 17/14). Reports relating to non-ferrous metalworking (AY 17/7) and textile-working (AY 17/11) from all post-Roman periods have also appeared. Anglian and late 10th12th century finds from Fishergate have been published in AY 17/9.

Although the main theme of this volume is the medieval period, it should be noted that the periods of occupation at the various sites from which the finds derive are not quite the same. At 1622 Copper- gate, occupation was continuous from the late 9th

century through to the post-medieval period, but the vast majority of the finds in this volume come from contexts of c.11001500. The site at 22 Piccadilly and the Coppergate watching brief also produced medi-eval artefacts from contexts with a similar date range. The finds in this volume from the three other major sites, the Foundry, Bedern and 4654 Fishergate,

2674

come from medieval contexts of which the earliest date is usually at least c.100150 years later than the earliest medieval contexts examined at Coppergate. The college at Bedern was established in 1252 and the excavation did not examine much in the way of pre-college levels. The sequence at Bedern continued into the post-medieval period, although the archaeol-ogy of the site after the decline of the college in the later 16th century was not examined in detail. As in the case of Bedern, the pre-13th century archaeology of the adjacent Foundry site was not examined, but a sequence of deposits and structures of later medi-eval and post-medieval date was carefully recorded. At 4654 Fishergate, where settlement of both the Anglian period and the 11th12th century was also recorded, the finds in this volume come largely from the excavation of the Gilbertine Priory of St Andrew which was founded in 1195 and dedicated in 1202; it was dissolved in c.1538, when it underwent extensive stripping and demolition.

The first part of this report presents evidence relating to craft and industrial activities on all the sites. Non-ferrous metalworking at the Foundry has been discussed in some detail in the excavation report (AY 10/3, 186200), but further evidence of some of the products and waste from the Foundry and its environs came to light during the preparation of this report, and is included here. Some of the metal tools recovered point to leather, wood and textile working, and the evidence for agricultural and fishing activity is also presented. The second section brings together all the items relating to the everyday life of the in-habitants of the sites. This includes objects used in eating and cooking, fittings attached to buildings and furniture, items relating to security arrangements, personal and dress accessories, items relating to reading and writing, objects with ritual or recreational use, and items of horse equipment. Finally there is a discussion of the significance of the chronological and spatial distributions of the objects, and the dif-fering natures of the site assemblages, allowing a comparison to be made between the ecclesiastical sites of Bedern and St Andrews Priory, Fishergate, and the secular sites at 1622 Coppergate, 22 Pic-cadilly and 2 Aldwark. A comprehensive catalogue completes the report.

Authorship of this report has been divided on the basis of materials. Patrick Ottaway has catalogued and reported on the ironwork. In addition, some

preliminary cataloguing work on the Foundry and Bedern ironwork was undertaken by Dr Ian Goodall. Metallographic examination of iron knives was undertaken by Dr David Starley (formerly Ancient Monuments Laboratory, English Heritage, now Royal Armouries, Leeds) with additional items examined by Dr J.G. McDonnell (Bradford University) and Dr Karen Wiemer (Cambridge University). Mineralised organic remains on iron objects were examined by Jacqui Watson (Ancient Monuments Laboratory, English Heritage), whose report is lodged in the YAT archive. Nicola Rogers is responsible for the cataloguing and discussion of the bulk of the re-maining material, with the exception of the vessel glass, reported on by Dr Rachel Tyson, textiles and textile tools by Penelope Walton Rogers, analysis of non-ferrous metalworking at the Bedern sites by Dr Catherine Mortimer, lithological identifications by Dr G.D. Gaunt, and gemstone identifications by Marjorie Hutchinson and Susan Rees. Alison Goodall made a study of the copper alloy and lead alloy objects from the Bedern sites, and provided a basis for the cata-logue entries for this material, as well as some useful points for discussion. The concluding discussion has been written jointly by the two main authors.

The material discussed in this report, together with copies of all appropriate records, will be de-posited at the Yorkshire Museum, York, under the Museum and YAT accession codes 197681.7 (1622 Coppergate), 1982.22 (Coppergate watching brief), 1987.21 (22 Piccadilly), 197880.14.III (2 Aldwark), 19739.13.X (Bedern south-west), 197880.14.II/IV (Bedern north-east), 19736.13.I/II (Bedern Foundry), 19745.13.III/IV (Bedern south-west, long trench), 1980.20.I/II (Bedern Chapel) and 19856.9 (4654 Fishergate).

Archaeological Introductions to the Sites

Excavations at 1622 Coppergate (Fig.1301)

By R.A. Hall

The data recovered have been attributed to six broad periods (Table 265); the evidence presented here relates to the mid 11th14th/15th centuries. During this time the site was sub-divided into four tenement plots which, in general, were more densely occupied as time passed.

2675

Site history and a summary

The site of 1622 Coppergate lies on the spur of land between the Rivers Ouse and Foss. It is bounded to the west by Coppergate, a street leading towards the only bridge across the Ouse in the medieval period, and to the east by the banks of the Foss.

The earliest occupation on the site, designated Period 1 (Table 265), was in the Roman era. There is some evidence that there were temples in the imme-diate vicinity, and there may also have been a variety of commercial and residential establishments con-structed of both timber and stone. The site also con-tained a small late Roman cemetery. At the present

stage of research there seems no reason to suppose that Romano-British activity continued in this area much beyond c. AD 400, and from then until the mid 9th century the site seems to have been unoccupied (Period 2). This period was marked stratigraphically by the accumulation of up to 1m of grey silty clay loam soils; there was no evidence for structures. All of the pottery in these layers was Roman, with the exception of a small quantity of Anglo-Scandinavian sherds which are believed to be intrusive.

A later 8th century helmet, found only 9m beyond the excavations perimeter during construction work in 1982, lay within a wood-lined shaft. This was,

Table 265 Summary of archaeological development at 1622 Coppergate

Period Date Characteristics

1 late 1stlate 4th century or later Roman timber and stone buildings; late Roman cemetery. Limited survival of organic materials

2 5thmid 9th century Apparent desertion. Homogeneous loamy deposits which did not preserve organic materials

3 mid 9thlate 9th/early 10th century Rubbish disposal, suggesting occupation close by. Post/stake and wattle alignments, possibly boundaries. Organic materials preserved only in pit cuts

4A late 9th/early 10th centuryc.930/5 Realignment of boundaries, suggesting that Coppergate was laid out by this period. Possible buildings at Coppergate frontage. Organic materials preserved mainly in pit cuts

4B c.930/5c.975 Four tenements distinguishable, with post and wattle buildings at Coppergate frontage. Evidence for ironworking and other trades on a commercial scale. Organic-rich deposits nearer to Coppergate; organic content thinning to zero towards River Foss

5A c.975 Near Coppergate frontage only. Layers between structures of Periods 4B and 5B; probably mixture of occupation deposits, dump deposits and soil from 5B semi-basements

5B c.975early/mid 11th century Perpetuation of boundaries. Introduction of sunken-featured structures in double row at street frontage. Organic-rich deposits as in Period 4B

5Cf midlater 11th century Organic-rich deposits at street frontage, associated with buildings which survive only in Tenement D

5Cr midlater 11th century Post-built structure closest to River Foss sealed by earliest in a succes-sion of dump deposits. Little organic material surviving

6 later 11th16th century No remains surviving at street frontage, but area to rear increasingly built up above later dump deposits. New methods of building and rubbish disposal, leading to reduction in organic content of deposits

2676

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2677

perhaps, a midlate Anglian well, and may possibly relate to a contemporary settlement nucleus, either on the ridge now represented by Nessgate/Castlegate, and/or around what may be an early ecclesiastical foundation at St Marys, Castlegate (Fig.1301, 4). The final backfilling of the shaft is dated to the Anglo-Scandinavian period on the basis of a characteristic suite of accompanying palaeobiological remains (pp.87081, AY 17/8).

Above the clean grey loams which mark the four and a half centuries interpreted as Anglian desertion of the site, a band of dirtier grey silty clay loams was recognised, and into these was cut a series of features. One of the earliest of these features was a sequence of hearth/oven/kiln bases represented by a horizontal setting of re-used Roman tiles, perhaps used in glassworking. An archaeomagnetic determination of 860 20 was obtained from these features. This is the single most precise indication of the date when this period of renewed use of the site began, although it is not possible to relate it to either a definitely pre-Viking (i.e. pre-866) or post-Viking date with conviction. It does seem, however, that the assemblage of Anglian pottery from the site is best seen as in a direct typological and thus chronological succession with that from the Anglian occupation site at 4654 Fishergate (AY 7/1; AY 16/6, 6501) where occupation is thought to cease in the mid 9th century.

Apart from one porcupine sceat of c.72040, found in an 11th century layer at the river end of the site, all of the nine other identifiable Anglian coins from the site are of 9th century date (AY 18/1, 513). All were found in contexts stratigraphically later than that with the archaeomagnetic determination of 860 20. Such coins occur in hoards found in York which may be interpreted as a response to the Viking attack of 866. This evidence suggests that activity and set-tlement in this area recommenced in the middle of the 9th century. There is no stratigraphic or artefac-tual evidence to indicate that there was protracted Anglian activity before that time.

Other features in this period included pits con-taining domestic debris and some containing human skeletal remains. The latest features of this period were a series of post-holes, some apparently forming alignments at an angle to the later tenement lines, and an accompanying cobble spread at the south-west of the area. It is conceivable that these features

represent the remains of a building, although this is not certain. This entire horizon, Period 3, is dated c. AD 850900 on the basis of a combination of archaeo-magnetic and numismatic evidence; in later periods, dendrochronological data provide a greater level of chronological precision.

Sealing the post-holes, cobble spread and other features of Period 3 were deposits into which were inserted wattle alignments which anticipated the alignment of the subsequent tenements and struc-tures, but which do not themselves form obviously coherent structures. These alignments and their as-sociated layers and features are assigned to Period 4A and dated c. AD 900930/5. These layers were very similar to those of Period 3 and, like those, were not particularly conducive to the survival of organic artefacts.

The next phase on the site, Period 4B, is marked by the division of the area into four tenements, des-ignated AD, and if the street Coppergate was not in being before it must have been laid out at this time. The tenements were defined by wattle fences, whose lines fluctuated only very slightly over the succeed-ing millennium; towards the River Foss end of the site, however, there was no trace of any continuation of the fences discovered nearer to Coppergate. Each tenement contained buildings of post and wattle con-struction, positioned with their gable-ends facing the street. All had been truncated towards their front by the subsequent widening of Coppergate; the greatest surviving length was 68m, and they averaged 44m in width. The buildings on Tenements A and B had been substantially disturbed by the digging of semi-basements for the Period 5B buildings, but those on Tenements C and D were very largely intact. The buildings had to be repaired or replaced frequently, for they were vulnerable to fire as well as to natural decay, but successive refurbishments varied little in their dimensions and position. Hearths were found on the long axes of the buildings in Tenements B, C and D; any trace in A was destroyed by later intru-sion, and even in B only vestiges remained.

Only one rank of buildings stood in each tenement and their lengthy backyards were not built up but used for rubbish disposal and other ancillary func-tions. A sequence of superimposed floor levels built up by gradual accumulation within each building. Their accompanying artefacts allow the activities

2678

within each tenement to be followed with varying degrees of assurance. Metalworking seems to have been the predominant activity, with the manufacture of items in iron, copper alloy, lead alloy, silver and gold. A notable feature was the quantity of cruci-bles recovered with their important corroborative evidence for the range and variety of metalworking techniques (AY 17/6; AY 17/7). Occupation was evi-dently intensive, generating organic-rich occupation deposits which accumulated rapidly, in particular in and around the buildings, and which accounted for a continual rise in ground level. Deposits which were rich in organic remains extended to approximately half-way down the excavated area in the direction of the River Foss.

In the later 10th century the remains of the latest phase of post and wattle structures at the street frontage were covered to a depth of up to 1m. This horizon, which was not traced in the yard areas behind the buildings, is interpreted as resulting in part from the upcast in digging out the sunken struc-tures of Period 5B, and partly as a deliberate dump of make-up or levelling material. It thus accumulated very quickly, probably within a period of weeks or months, and contained a mixture of material of c.975 and before.

The dating of Period 5A is dependent on the dendrochronological analysis of timbers from the immediately succeeding plank-built semi-basement structures of Period 5B. These were erected at the Coppergate end of each tenement, sometimes in two closely spaced ranks; as in Period 4B, organic-rich deposits were concentrated in the vicinity of these buildings, and the organic content of the deposits decreased riverwards. As in the buildings of Period 4B, successive layers of silty loam characterised the superimposed floors. Manufacturing continued at this period, although new trades were practised.

On Tenement D sufficient overlying stratification remained undisturbed to show that the latest of the Period 5B sunken buildings was eventually replaced by structures built at ground level. The chronology of these subsequent buildings is imprecise: they can be assigned only approximately to the mid 11th century. They and their associated stratification are designated as belonging to Period 5Cf. A series of approximately contemporary mid 11th century

levels was also identified at the rear of the site, associated with and sealing a post-built structure, the latest timber of which has been dated through dendro- chronology to 101454. These levels, which did not preserve their organic component, are des-ignated Period 5Cr. They were themselves covered by a series of dumps of silty clay loam interleaved with evidence for sporadic activity, and dated to the Norman period.

Within the Anglo-Scandinavian stratification there is clear evidence from coins and pottery for the displacement of objects from the context where they were originally deposited and their redeposi-tion in later layers. The principal mechanism of this movement was the cutting of pits, wells and the like, and, more particularly, the digging out of the sunken element in the Period 5B buildings, which penetrated earlier levels and redistributed the soil removed from them. In the case of the precisely dated coins it can be seen that, in the Anglo-Scandinavian levels, coins sometimes occur in contexts dated 75100 years later than their

craft, industry and everyday life: finds from medieval york

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