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TRANSCRIPT
COPYRIGHT NOTICE Benjamin R Foster amp Karen Polinger Foster Civilizations of Ancient Iraq
is published by Princeton University Press and copyrighted copy 2009 by Princeton University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying recording or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher except for reading and browsing via the World Wide Web Users are not permitted to mount this file on any network servers
Follow links Class Use and other Permissions For more information send email to permissionspressprincetonedu
IntheBeginning
Mardukcreatedwildanimalsthelivingcreaturesoftheopencountry
HecreatedandputinplaceTigrisandEuphratesrivers
HepronouncedtheirnameswithfavorMarduk Creator of the World
Of Tigris and Euphrates
AncientIraqisthegiftoftworiversTheEuphratesrisesontheAnatolianplateauinTurkeyflowssouthwestintoSyriaandthenturns southeast across Iraq emptying into the Gulf Its broadshallowchannelmakesitanidealsourceforirrigationwaterandinmanystretchestheEuphratesiseasilynavigableAstherivermovesacrossthesouthernalluvialplainsandapproachestheGulfitmergeswiththeTigrisamidstanetworkofsmallerriverslakesandmarshesToaBabylonianpoettheEuphratesseemedamightycanaldivinelymade
ORivercreatorofallthingsWhenthegreatgodsdugyourbedTheysetwell-beingalongyourbanks
TheTigristhoughittoorisesontheAnatolianplateaupassesthrough more rugged terrain at one point disappearing into a
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inthebeginning
TURKEY
Halaf Shubat-Enlil
Tepe Gawra
Dur-Sharrukin Nineveh
Arpachiyah
MosulTell al-Rimah
Hassuna
Umm Dabaghiyah Hatra
Assur
Dura Europas
Mari
Nimrud Arbela
Nuzi
Samarra Tell Razuk
Eshnunna
Baghdad
Dur-Kurigalzu Agade Seleucia
Sippar
Jemdet Nasr KishBabylon
Hillah Borsippa
Nippur Kufah
Hira Isin Kesh
Adab
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Uruk Larsa
Ubaid
Eridu Ur
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Ctesiphon
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Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
S I N J A R
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SAUDI ARABIA
IRAN
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Lower Zab
Upper Zab
Khab
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Map(left) FromRometotheIndus(afterCollon995)
Map2(above) AncientIraq(afterLloyd978)
Susa
C H A R X
KUWAIT 0 150 km Gulf
chapter1
naturaltunnelASumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicoriginoftheTigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godandapersonified erupting volcano that ldquogashed the earthrsquos body bathedtheskyinbloodandtilltodayblackcindersareinthefieldsrdquo2BothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlandsbuttheTigrisoftendoessoinviolentdestructiveonslaughtsofwaterswelledbyitsthreemaintributariesmdashtheUpperandLowerZabandtheDiyalamdashpouringdownfromdeepgorgesintheZa-grosMountainsBycontrastthetwoprincipaltributariesoftheEuphratesmdashtheKhaburandBalikhwhichjoinitinnortheasternSyriamdashenclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as theJezirawhoseproductivityisaugmentedbysufficientannualrain-fallforcrops
TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucialwaysTheEuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunicationwithSyriacentralTurkeyandtheMediterraneantheTigrisanditstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternTurkeyandtheIranianplateauAboveallbothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeontheplains annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts andbringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields andherdsmentosustaintheirflocks
DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochstheearthrsquosgreattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeaturesofIraqAstheArabianandAfricanplatesmovedslowlynorth-wardtheyencounteredthemoreintransigentIranianandTurk-ishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththemresultingintheupliftof theZagroson Iraqrsquos easternborder and theAnatolianranges and plateau on its northern borderWhere the Arabianplate thrust under the Iranian plate subduction pressures alsoformedthetroughoftheGulfandthealluvialplainsofIraqrsquosriversystemsOngoingtectonicactivityaccountsfortheMiddleEastrsquosfrequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes
Over the eons Iraqrsquos major hydrological and environmentalchangeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecoolingandwarmingtrendswhichhavecausedthewatersoftheGulftofall and rise respectivelyAt theheightof the last IceAge theGulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphratesmeanderedAstheglaciersmeltedtheGulfreachedapproximately
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
IntheBeginning
Mardukcreatedwildanimalsthelivingcreaturesoftheopencountry
HecreatedandputinplaceTigrisandEuphratesrivers
HepronouncedtheirnameswithfavorMarduk Creator of the World
Of Tigris and Euphrates
AncientIraqisthegiftoftworiversTheEuphratesrisesontheAnatolianplateauinTurkeyflowssouthwestintoSyriaandthenturns southeast across Iraq emptying into the Gulf Its broadshallowchannelmakesitanidealsourceforirrigationwaterandinmanystretchestheEuphratesiseasilynavigableAstherivermovesacrossthesouthernalluvialplainsandapproachestheGulfitmergeswiththeTigrisamidstanetworkofsmallerriverslakesandmarshesToaBabylonianpoettheEuphratesseemedamightycanaldivinelymade
ORivercreatorofallthingsWhenthegreatgodsdugyourbedTheysetwell-beingalongyourbanks
TheTigristhoughittoorisesontheAnatolianplateaupassesthrough more rugged terrain at one point disappearing into a
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inthebeginning
TURKEY
Halaf Shubat-Enlil
Tepe Gawra
Dur-Sharrukin Nineveh
Arpachiyah
MosulTell al-Rimah
Hassuna
Umm Dabaghiyah Hatra
Assur
Dura Europas
Mari
Nimrud Arbela
Nuzi
Samarra Tell Razuk
Eshnunna
Baghdad
Dur-Kurigalzu Agade Seleucia
Sippar
Jemdet Nasr KishBabylon
Hillah Borsippa
Nippur Kufah
Hira Isin Kesh
Adab
UmmaShuruppak
Uruk Larsa
Ubaid
Eridu Ur
Basra
Lagash Girsu
Ctesiphon
Arrapha
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Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
S I N J A R
IRAQ
SAUDI ARABIA
IRAN
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Map(left) FromRometotheIndus(afterCollon995)
Map2(above) AncientIraq(afterLloyd978)
Susa
C H A R X
KUWAIT 0 150 km Gulf
chapter1
naturaltunnelASumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicoriginoftheTigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godandapersonified erupting volcano that ldquogashed the earthrsquos body bathedtheskyinbloodandtilltodayblackcindersareinthefieldsrdquo2BothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlandsbuttheTigrisoftendoessoinviolentdestructiveonslaughtsofwaterswelledbyitsthreemaintributariesmdashtheUpperandLowerZabandtheDiyalamdashpouringdownfromdeepgorgesintheZa-grosMountainsBycontrastthetwoprincipaltributariesoftheEuphratesmdashtheKhaburandBalikhwhichjoinitinnortheasternSyriamdashenclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as theJezirawhoseproductivityisaugmentedbysufficientannualrain-fallforcrops
TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucialwaysTheEuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunicationwithSyriacentralTurkeyandtheMediterraneantheTigrisanditstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternTurkeyandtheIranianplateauAboveallbothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeontheplains annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts andbringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields andherdsmentosustaintheirflocks
DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochstheearthrsquosgreattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeaturesofIraqAstheArabianandAfricanplatesmovedslowlynorth-wardtheyencounteredthemoreintransigentIranianandTurk-ishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththemresultingintheupliftof theZagroson Iraqrsquos easternborder and theAnatolianranges and plateau on its northern borderWhere the Arabianplate thrust under the Iranian plate subduction pressures alsoformedthetroughoftheGulfandthealluvialplainsofIraqrsquosriversystemsOngoingtectonicactivityaccountsfortheMiddleEastrsquosfrequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes
Over the eons Iraqrsquos major hydrological and environmentalchangeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecoolingandwarmingtrendswhichhavecausedthewatersoftheGulftofall and rise respectivelyAt theheightof the last IceAge theGulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphratesmeanderedAstheglaciersmeltedtheGulfreachedapproximately
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
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0 50
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Karun
inthebeginning
TURKEY
Halaf Shubat-Enlil
Tepe Gawra
Dur-Sharrukin Nineveh
Arpachiyah
MosulTell al-Rimah
Hassuna
Umm Dabaghiyah Hatra
Assur
Dura Europas
Mari
Nimrud Arbela
Nuzi
Samarra Tell Razuk
Eshnunna
Baghdad
Dur-Kurigalzu Agade Seleucia
Sippar
Jemdet Nasr KishBabylon
Hillah Borsippa
Nippur Kufah
Hira Isin Kesh
Adab
UmmaShuruppak
Uruk Larsa
Ubaid
Eridu Ur
Basra
Lagash Girsu
Ctesiphon
Arrapha
Ekallatum
Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
S I N J A R
IRAQ
SAUDI ARABIA
IRAN
SYRIA
S E A L A N D
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Lake Urmia
Karkeh
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Tigris
Lower Zab
Upper Zab
Khab
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Euphrates
Z A
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S
M
O
U
N
T A
I
NS
Map(left) FromRometotheIndus(afterCollon995)
Map2(above) AncientIraq(afterLloyd978)
Susa
C H A R X
KUWAIT 0 150 km Gulf
chapter1
naturaltunnelASumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicoriginoftheTigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godandapersonified erupting volcano that ldquogashed the earthrsquos body bathedtheskyinbloodandtilltodayblackcindersareinthefieldsrdquo2BothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlandsbuttheTigrisoftendoessoinviolentdestructiveonslaughtsofwaterswelledbyitsthreemaintributariesmdashtheUpperandLowerZabandtheDiyalamdashpouringdownfromdeepgorgesintheZa-grosMountainsBycontrastthetwoprincipaltributariesoftheEuphratesmdashtheKhaburandBalikhwhichjoinitinnortheasternSyriamdashenclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as theJezirawhoseproductivityisaugmentedbysufficientannualrain-fallforcrops
TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucialwaysTheEuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunicationwithSyriacentralTurkeyandtheMediterraneantheTigrisanditstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternTurkeyandtheIranianplateauAboveallbothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeontheplains annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts andbringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields andherdsmentosustaintheirflocks
DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochstheearthrsquosgreattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeaturesofIraqAstheArabianandAfricanplatesmovedslowlynorth-wardtheyencounteredthemoreintransigentIranianandTurk-ishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththemresultingintheupliftof theZagroson Iraqrsquos easternborder and theAnatolianranges and plateau on its northern borderWhere the Arabianplate thrust under the Iranian plate subduction pressures alsoformedthetroughoftheGulfandthealluvialplainsofIraqrsquosriversystemsOngoingtectonicactivityaccountsfortheMiddleEastrsquosfrequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes
Over the eons Iraqrsquos major hydrological and environmentalchangeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecoolingandwarmingtrendswhichhavecausedthewatersoftheGulftofall and rise respectivelyAt theheightof the last IceAge theGulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphratesmeanderedAstheglaciersmeltedtheGulfreachedapproximately
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
Karun
inthebeginning
TURKEY
Halaf Shubat-Enlil
Tepe Gawra
Dur-Sharrukin Nineveh
Arpachiyah
MosulTell al-Rimah
Hassuna
Umm Dabaghiyah Hatra
Assur
Dura Europas
Mari
Nimrud Arbela
Nuzi
Samarra Tell Razuk
Eshnunna
Baghdad
Dur-Kurigalzu Agade Seleucia
Sippar
Jemdet Nasr KishBabylon
Hillah Borsippa
Nippur Kufah
Hira Isin Kesh
Adab
UmmaShuruppak
Uruk Larsa
Ubaid
Eridu Ur
Basra
Lagash Girsu
Ctesiphon
Arrapha
Ekallatum
Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
S I N J A R
IRAQ
SAUDI ARABIA
IRAN
SYRIA
S E A L A N D
A
J E
Z I
R A
H A
M A
D
A S
S Y
R I
A
A K
K A
D
S U M E R
EL
AM
Lake Urmia
Karkeh
Shatt al-Arab
Gh
arra
fC
an
al
Diyala
Tigris
Lower Zab
Upper Zab
Khab
ur
Euphrates
Z A
G R
O
S
M
O
U
N
T A
I
NS
Map(left) FromRometotheIndus(afterCollon995)
Map2(above) AncientIraq(afterLloyd978)
Susa
C H A R X
KUWAIT 0 150 km Gulf
chapter1
naturaltunnelASumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicoriginoftheTigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godandapersonified erupting volcano that ldquogashed the earthrsquos body bathedtheskyinbloodandtilltodayblackcindersareinthefieldsrdquo2BothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlandsbuttheTigrisoftendoessoinviolentdestructiveonslaughtsofwaterswelledbyitsthreemaintributariesmdashtheUpperandLowerZabandtheDiyalamdashpouringdownfromdeepgorgesintheZa-grosMountainsBycontrastthetwoprincipaltributariesoftheEuphratesmdashtheKhaburandBalikhwhichjoinitinnortheasternSyriamdashenclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as theJezirawhoseproductivityisaugmentedbysufficientannualrain-fallforcrops
TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucialwaysTheEuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunicationwithSyriacentralTurkeyandtheMediterraneantheTigrisanditstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternTurkeyandtheIranianplateauAboveallbothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeontheplains annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts andbringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields andherdsmentosustaintheirflocks
DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochstheearthrsquosgreattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeaturesofIraqAstheArabianandAfricanplatesmovedslowlynorth-wardtheyencounteredthemoreintransigentIranianandTurk-ishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththemresultingintheupliftof theZagroson Iraqrsquos easternborder and theAnatolianranges and plateau on its northern borderWhere the Arabianplate thrust under the Iranian plate subduction pressures alsoformedthetroughoftheGulfandthealluvialplainsofIraqrsquosriversystemsOngoingtectonicactivityaccountsfortheMiddleEastrsquosfrequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes
Over the eons Iraqrsquos major hydrological and environmentalchangeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecoolingandwarmingtrendswhichhavecausedthewatersoftheGulftofall and rise respectivelyAt theheightof the last IceAge theGulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphratesmeanderedAstheglaciersmeltedtheGulfreachedapproximately
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
chapter1
naturaltunnelASumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicoriginoftheTigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godandapersonified erupting volcano that ldquogashed the earthrsquos body bathedtheskyinbloodandtilltodayblackcindersareinthefieldsrdquo2BothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlandsbuttheTigrisoftendoessoinviolentdestructiveonslaughtsofwaterswelledbyitsthreemaintributariesmdashtheUpperandLowerZabandtheDiyalamdashpouringdownfromdeepgorgesintheZa-grosMountainsBycontrastthetwoprincipaltributariesoftheEuphratesmdashtheKhaburandBalikhwhichjoinitinnortheasternSyriamdashenclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as theJezirawhoseproductivityisaugmentedbysufficientannualrain-fallforcrops
TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucialwaysTheEuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunicationwithSyriacentralTurkeyandtheMediterraneantheTigrisanditstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternTurkeyandtheIranianplateauAboveallbothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeontheplains annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts andbringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields andherdsmentosustaintheirflocks
DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochstheearthrsquosgreattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeaturesofIraqAstheArabianandAfricanplatesmovedslowlynorth-wardtheyencounteredthemoreintransigentIranianandTurk-ishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththemresultingintheupliftof theZagroson Iraqrsquos easternborder and theAnatolianranges and plateau on its northern borderWhere the Arabianplate thrust under the Iranian plate subduction pressures alsoformedthetroughoftheGulfandthealluvialplainsofIraqrsquosriversystemsOngoingtectonicactivityaccountsfortheMiddleEastrsquosfrequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes
Over the eons Iraqrsquos major hydrological and environmentalchangeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecoolingandwarmingtrendswhichhavecausedthewatersoftheGulftofall and rise respectivelyAt theheightof the last IceAge theGulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphratesmeanderedAstheglaciersmeltedtheGulfreachedapproximately
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
5inthebeginning
itscurrentlevelwithtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillenniacausingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastlineStudiesofpollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedcon-siderable lighton the regionrsquos climate andvegetation from thelastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimesMillenniaofdrycoldseemtohavegivenwaytoawarmermoisterperiodabouttenthousandyearsagowhichinturnendedinreneweddesiccationproducingthedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofIraqrsquospres-entlandscapeGrazingagricultureandthedeforestationoftheZagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregionrsquosecosystemsaswell
TodayasinhistoricalantiquityforbiddingdesertsstretchtothewestoftheplainsofIraqforhundredsofkilometersTotheeast and north the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains withpeaksldquosharp-tippedasaspearpointrdquoasanAssyrianwriterputit5
TothesouthistheGulfSmallwonderthenthatthepeopleofancient Iraq thought that the alluvialplainswere the centeroftheinhabitedworldringedbydesertsmountainsandseasForthemallthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrangethesourceofexoticmaterialsandstrangebeaststheabodeofbrutishfolkThefarthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the ldquoUpper andLowerSeasrdquotheMediterraneanandtheGulf6
NooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignifyKengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfofthealluvialplainswhilethenorthernhalfwascalledWarilaterAkkadAfterabout700bceSumerandAkkadtogethercon-stitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabyloniaAthousandyearslaterthesouthernmarsheswerecalledtheSealandlaterChaldeaTheregionnorthofBaghdadalongtheTigriswasknownasAs-syriaThewordSubirwas sometimesused to refer tonorthernMesopotamiaasawhole7
ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMus-limconquestof67ThoughitappearstobeanArabicworditsmeaningandetymologyareobscureThevariousproposalsbyme-dievalArabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthemupOneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeansldquoarablelandalongamajorriverrdquovaguelycorrespondingtoEng-lishldquoalluviumrdquobutthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfromtherealityofIraqitself8
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
6 chapter1
TheancientGreektermMesopotamianowgenerallyunder-stoodtomeanldquoLandBetweenRiversrdquohasalsobeenusedtoreferto Iraq especially by European scholars and twentieth-centurycolonialadministratorsMesopotamiaoriginallydenotedthelandenclosedbythebigbendoftheMiddleEuphratesRivereastofmodernAleppoinSyriabutitsooncametomeantheexpanseofplainsanduplandsbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates fromtheGulftotheAnatolianplateau9 ManywriterstodayusethetermMesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimcon-questandIraqthereafterAlthoughthismaybeaconvenienthis-toricaldistinctionothersprefernot to separate thepre-IslamicandIslamicpastofIraqInthisbookweuseMesopotamiaandIraqinterchangeably
Tovisitors frompartsof the earthwithmore temperate cli-mates and more varied scenery the hot featureless plains ofsouthernIraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopmentofcivilizationNoraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflectonsuchasmightevokeagloriouspastInfacttheonlyhintsonthelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabita-tionaremoundscoveredwithpotsherdsbrokenbricksandotherdebrissometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwell-ingsallthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtownshometoavibrantandlong-livedliteratecultureThisearlyVictoriantravel-errsquosexperiencestillringstrue
HehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovelywhereinhismindrsquoseyehecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatreHeisnowata loss togiveany formto the rudeheapsuponwhichheisgazingThescenearoundisworthyoftheruin he is contemplating desolation meets desolation afeelingofawesucceedstowonderforthere isnothingtorelieve the mind to lead to hope or to tell of what hasgoneby0
TheancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentviewlargelybecausetheTigrisandEuphrateslikeotherrestlesswaterwaysarepronetocarvingoutnewcoursessometimesshiftingtheirriver-bedsbymanykilometersTodayinsouthernIraqtheEuphrates
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
7inthebeginning
flowsfar totheeastof itscourse inhistoricalantiquity sothatwhatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities townsandvillagesbecametheldquorudeheapsrdquoofremotedesertsAsaresultmanyoftheimportantancientcitiesinsouthernIraqwereleftunmolestedanduninhabitedforthousandsofyearsUnhamperedbymoderndevelopment archaeologistshavebeen able to investigate thesesitesindepthrecoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistoryandcultureofancientIraqInmorerecenttimestheseisolatedfieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootingandde-structionMuchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlostforever In thenorthwhere the riverchannelsaremore stableancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernonesmak-ingthemmoredifficulttoexcavatebutlessvulnerabletolootersWereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue
Stillonemaywellaskwhywascivilizationbornontheseal-luvialplains so far inadvanceofallotherplaces intheworldThere are at once many answers and no answer to this simplequestionIntensivearchaeologicalresearchinIraqandinneigh-boringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponsesandwemaydrawtheseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseemsreasonableandconvincinginitsoutlineevenifspecificsremainfrustratinglyelusiveAtthesametimethereisnoanswerforweoftendescribe events andchangeswithout reallyknowinghowor why they came about and refer to people about whom weknow very little New discoveries and reinterpretations of oldonesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestorybutulti-matelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayatpresent
The First Villages
OfthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesandhowtheylivedonelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheirtechnologyWemayspeakoftheOldStoneAge(Paleolithic)andNew Stone Age (Neolithic) implying that people mostly usedstonetoolsortheBronzeAgewhenpeoplemostlyusedbronzeweaponsOrwemayfocusonreligiousbeliefreferringtopaganChristianorpre-IslamicsocietiesInolderbooksonewroteof
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
8 chapter1
racesOrientalandOccidentalpeoplestheldquogreatwhiteracerdquotheIndo-Europeans the Semites Since the 960s anthropologistsandarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringtomodesofsubsistencethatisbywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthefoodtheyneededtosurvive
Foralmostitsentirehistorythehumanracesubsistedbyhunt-ing game and gathering naturally occurring plants This modewassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayof lifethatiten-sured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years Tojudge frompresent-dayhunting cultureshuntersneed exercisetheirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesufficientmeatfortheircommunityTheykillandcollectonlywhattheyneedtoliveanddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorenter-tainmentHunter-gathererpopulationsmoreovertendtoremainfairlystableTheyusuallyhavesmallfamiliestheirchildrenespe-ciallygirlsmaturelateandsomegroupsevenabandoninfantstocontrolpopulation2
About ten thousand years ago peoples in the Middle Eastevolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricul-tureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimalsSomehistori-ansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolutiontherebyimplyingsweepingchange ButthechangewasabruptonlyincomparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwiththenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillenniaWeseethetran-sitionvividly inIraqandalsoataboutthesametime inIranTurkeySyriaIsraelandPalestine Howandwhydiditoccurandwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace
ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshownthatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertainwildgrainssuchasbarleyandwildanimalssuchassheepandgoatsoccurrednaturallyandplentifullyGraduallypeoplecameto realize that these resourcescouldbemanagedbycontrollingtheirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraitsThisselectionprocesstermedthedomesticationofplantsandanimalscausedpermanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthespecies involvedBarley forexamplewas selected forpreferredstrainssuchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
9inthebeginning
animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilkorforfattinessoryieldofmeatWithinthevillageconfinesplotsweresownandanimalspenned though in some seasons the animalsmightbeherdedtobettermoredistantpasturesAlthoughwemaynowbeabletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingandgatheringtopastoralandvillagelifewestillcannotexplainwhythisoccurredwhenitdid5
Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsub-stantial changes in social outlook behavior and organizationThehunterattackedortrappedwhereasthefarmerandherds-man nurtured The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressiveanddramaticthatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandpro-tectiveFormuchof theyearagriculturalworkwassystematicandunrelentingpreparingthesoilsowingwateringweedingdrivingoffpestsharvestingthreshingandstoringThispatternoflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththeseasonsforfamilyandcommunityofsavingagainstfuturewantandofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandeventsAgriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamiliesbecauseevensmallchildrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherdingAndwithear-lierphysicalmaturitycamesteadyevenexponentialpopulationgrowth6
Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneedsnewtechnolo-giesdeveloped forproducing such itemsasground-stone toolswoodenimplementsbasketsandtextilesNewmaterialsalsoap-pearedamongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeasternandcentralTurkeyItisnotclearhowobsidianprizedforsharpbladesreachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofIraqwhetherbroughtbytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditionsbutitspresenceatteststowell-establishedlong-distancenetworks7
The most important innovation was pottery Prior to about6500bcecontainershadbeenmadeofskinsbitumen-coatedbasketsgypsumorlimeplasterandstoneTheearliestceramicvesselswerelightlyfiredbutthedevelopmentofmoreefficientkilns resulted in the production of nonporous durable waresadaptabletoawiderangeofuses8 Theseincludedthestoragetransport preparation and cooking of a variety of solids and
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
0 chapter1
liquidsfromgrainandcheesetobeerThediscoveryoffermenta-tioncreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehaviordrinkingthusacquired socialandritual functionsasSumeriandrinkingsongscelebrate
WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeerWhenIfeelgrandwhenIfeelgrandDrinkingbeerinamerrymoodImbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstateWithajoyfulheartandahappyinside9
Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerialtheshapesanddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidencewe have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancientpeoplesInIraqaselsewheremajorpotterytypesarefrequentlynamedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscoveredorwhichseemtohavebeencentersofproductionTheHassunawareofthemid-seventhmillenniumfromnorthernIraqtendstobedec-oratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointedtoolTheSamarraandHalafwaresthatfollowedfromnorthernandcentralIraqaremorefinelymadewithpaintedpatternsonabuffgroundTheinteriorsofSamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestyl-izedhornedanimalscirclingrounddrawn indarkbrownwithverveandassuranceHalafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumisthefirstpolychromewareknowncharacterizedbysophisticatedgeometricdesignsinredblackandwhitepossiblyinspiredbytextilesVesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikelymadebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillageswhereassim-plerpotswereprobablymadelocally20
SoitwasinthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsagointhefoothillsofIraqthatsmallvillagesspranguptheirmud-brickhousesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenareapensforani-malsandstoragebinsforfoodsthesettlementssurroundedbyanagriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhoursrsquowalk2SoforcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplacesbeyondIraqsuchasCcedilatalHuumlyuumlkincentralTurkeygood-sizedtownsappearedwithcomparativelylargepopulationsandelabo-rately embellished structures apparently serving some religious
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
inthebeginning
FigureHalafwarebowl fromArpachiyahdiametercm IraqMu-seumBaghdad(Strommenger962plII)For most periods of ancient Iraq pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site During the course of an archaeological excavation hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques artistic developments and interconnections When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003 the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disshyorder or stolen
purpose22 But this was exceptional Most villages comprised afewdozenhouses all of the same size andplan suggesting anegalitariansocietywithcommunalaswellas individual storagefacilitiesPerhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanagedcommunally
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
2 chapter1
From the Foothills to the Plains
Asecond important transition several thousandyears after thedevelopment of agriculture was the movement of farmers andstockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofIraqNooneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurredfortheearliestlowlandsettlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthusarchaeologicallyinaccessibleWhymovetotheplainsOnethe-ory ispopulationpressurebutnoevidencehasbeenproducedfromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoolarge to be sustained there The important point is that oncehumanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskillstheycouldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticatedplantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturallyoccur In bringing the new species of plants and animals withthemhumanscausedpermanentchanges intheecologyoftheplains2
InIraqthelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasilymetThedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthecultivationofcerealcropsInprincipleirrigationneedonlybeamatterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafieldInpracticeir-rigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionandmaintenanceofanetworkofditchesaswellasdecisionsaboutwhowastoreceivehowmuchwaterwhereandwhenThewatersituationinsouthernIraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheriversfloodintheearlyspringatsowingtimeandreachtheirlowpointinthehotseasonatgrowingtimewhenwaterismostneededDespitethesechallengespeoplesettledfirstinsmallvil-lagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplainsespeciallyinthesouththeninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercoursesallowingus to trace thosenowvanishedor shifted thanks topatternsofhabitationFurthermorewecanseeintherelativesizesofthevil-lagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem2
ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthusa success thefirst stage ina storyofhumanactivity there thatcontinuestothepresentdayWeneednotimagineofcoursethattheplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoilHunter-gatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgamesuchasgazelle
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
inthebeginning
andthemarshcreaturessuchasturtlesbirdsandfishthatthishospitableSumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps
LetyouracquaintancescomeLetthoseprecioustoyoucomeLetyourfatherandgrandfathercomeLetyourwifeandchildrencomeLetthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycomeDonotleaveanyonearoundyououtnotasingleone25
ButwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreedingthelandwaschangedforeverThesetwomodescoexistedwellandmightbecarriedonbymembersofthesamefamilyFlocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspring-timeshootsofthegraincropsincreasingthealreadyhighyieldsof the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker secondgrowthandby fertilizing the soil26 In summerwhenthegrasswitheredintheheattheanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpas-turesor fedonstoredgrainand the leftovers frommillingandbrewingTojudgefromlaterperiodsforwhichwrittensourcesare available themainproductsof the timewerewoolwheatandbarleyThedietwas supplementedby the fruitof thedatepalmplentifulriverfishsheepandgoatsandwildgame
Fromabout5900to00bcethislowlandpeasantculturetermedbyarchaeologiststheUbaiddiffusedthroughoutIraqandfarbeyondintotheAnatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorth-ernSyria27DifferencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhownorthernandsouthernIraqdevelopedInthenorthwhereagri-culturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwellstherewaslessin-tensivefieldwork than in the irrigated south and thepotentialexistedforagreaterareaundercultivationButifthesouthhadsmallerplotsthoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivityperhectareAndbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthesouthextensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivatedat all evenduring laterperiodsSouthern settlements followedthenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportationnorthernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscapewher-everwellscouldbedug28
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened
chapter1
Material culture southandnorthbefittedapeasantwayoflifesimpletoolspracticalvesselsIngeneralUbaidceramicsaremodestlydecoratedofteninthelaterphaseswithdarkpaintedpatternsrapidlyappliedshowingnoneoftheglossypolychromyof Halaf ware (figure ) We see the spread of Ubaid culturethroughfindingitspottery includingsomelocallymadeimita-tionsfromtheMediterraneantoOman29
What these peoples called themselves what languages theyspokewhatsocialinstitutionsspirituallifeandtraditionstheyhadweknownotTheplatformsniched faccedilades and interiorfittingsofsomeUbaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflatertempleswhichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuityBecausebothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroomflankedbyrowsofrooms)andbecausetheplasticartsthathavecomedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthefemalebodywesurmisethatUbaidreligiousbeliefandpracticefocusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflifeespe-ciallyfertilityprocreationandthesafetyofthehomehearth0
FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserveritslongevityof600yearsormoreindicatingthataviablewayof life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plainsofIraqandbeyonditswideextentcomparedtolaterculturesitsoveralluniformitythroughoutIraqnotwithstandingregionalphases and variations and its striking absence of weapons andfortifications implyingpeacefulcoexistencePeoplemighthavecontinuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingex-traordinaryhappened