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Contents

Credits xiii

Introduction to the American Edition xv

Introduction 1

1 Th e Cultural Context of the Italian-American Community in New York at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century 17

2 Enrico Caruso: Th e First Neapolitan Star 39

3 Th e Music of the Immigrant Takes on Mass Appeal 77

4 Birds of Passage: Th e Immigrants Return Home 109

5 Music Is Woman 133

6 Th e Record Labels, the Producers, and the Orchestra Directors 161

Conclusion 173

History 185

Notes 189

Bibliography 233

Topical Index 247

Name Index 259



ITALIAN BIRDS OF PASSAGE Copyright © Simona Frasca, 2014.

All rights reserved.

Cover image by Carlo Ziviello.

First published in 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States— a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.

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ISBN: 978–1–137–32241–8

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Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.

First edition: September 2014

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Introduction

The pages that follow present a reconstruction of the historical and musical path of immigrants from southern Italy, especially Naples

and the area around the city, upon coming to North America at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this story the harbor of New York symbolizes the first substantial step toward an exceptional case of eth-nocultural syncretism. This story consists of silences and the historio-graphic voids, and its protagonists are men and women who represented the strength of an artistic movement that was rich, complex, and often painful. Like migratory birds, the birds of passage of the title, the indi-vidual protagonists of this movement crossed and recrossed the Atlantic Ocean much like a pendulum that oscillates to and from marking an imaginary line.

My tale illustrates some contours of Neapolitan song, one of the great-est elements of Italian song; thanks to emigration, Neapolitan song began to develop in the broader context of the history of the Italian American community. To tell this story, I investigate the relationships and exchanges between Neapolitan song and commercial American music at the time when due to the largest modern Italian immigration the two repertoires come into direct contact. That was also the crucial time when popular music became music for the mass market.

This is not a book on the cultural history of Italians in the United States even though aspects of that culture are also important for this study and are analyzed here. References in these pages to cinema, to theater, and to other forms of artistic expression of the Italians who emigrated support the principal thesis set forth here. For this reason I refer at times to a few texts related to the other disciplines of drama and culture to provide addi-tional food for thought.

The modern Neapolitan song we refer to is an art repertoire that is dense and composite; in part, it reinvents the popular tradition of Campania, the region where Naples is located. Neapolitan song reached its most mature form in the second half of the nineteenth century. The achievement of grafting the popular onto the Western classical art rep-ertoire, which is at the heart of this tradition, has long been a subject of



2 ITALIAN BIRDS OF PASSAGE

discussion. Roberto De Simone provides a glimpse of this when he ana-lyzes the “Tammurriata di Pimonte,” a grafting onto a popular form—the tammurriata— of textual cross-references derived in part from the nineteenth-century classical repertoire and in part from the popular context, in a sense thus cultivating a continuous tension that never reaches a formal solution . 1

The modern Neapolitan repertoire from the end of the nineteenth cen-tury occupies a specific place in the history of Italian song. It presents itself as a musical microcosm in a century and in a space we can relate to, a city with its own cultural boundaries, due to its pronounced char-acteristics of cultural autonomy and autarchy. The recurrent themes of this song tradition generally revolve around the eternal pain of the loss of love, a feeling identified with the beloved woman but often also with the city itself. The ways in which this mood is represented connect the Neapolitan repertoire to that intimate and crepuscular Romanticism in which the recovery of popularizing subjects, often with poignant conno-tations, converges with the idea of loss, of nostalgia, and the rediscovery of humanity. This complex of sublime emotions remained the guiding principle of most of the second European Romanticism.

From the end of the nineteenth century to the first decades of the twentieth century, Neapolitan song found itself holding a peculiar position in the history of modern music and culture. When consid-ering the segments into which people’s days are divided, one is dedi-cated to relaxation and free time—that is, hours and money to spend on diversions, usually during the nighttime—while the other, the day-time, is consecrated to work. Electricity and the reproduction of sound lead to important transformations in how people spent their nighttime social life and leisure. The invention of phonorecording allowed music to be accessible to many through the spread of the cylinder and the f lat disc. In this way Neapolitan song rightfully entered the era of musical technology. It came fully alive in the transition phase and became a cultural hybrid: formerly a product of the late nineteenth century with specific local and ethnic associations, it went on to become a commod-ity of mass culture projected into the territories of the nascent trans-national culture.

In this passage from one sociocultural sphere to another, few observ-ers were capable of grasping the radical transformation of the Neapolitan repertoire. Rich in historical, social, economic, and purely aesthetic implications, this music has rarely found a voice capable of doing it jus-tice in analytical terms and bearing a critical approach. Much has been written over the decades about Neapolitan song, but often those writ-ings are animated by a marked hagiographic and anecdotal tendency and



INTRODUCTION 3

lack the perspective to explain the repertoire’s modernist tension. Most of the literature on the subject consists of lists of titles, dates, and names organized by chronology. Few studies attempt to place Neapolitan song in the broader sociocultural panorama of the national tradition and in the cross-sectional perspective that includes phenomena such as emigra-tion and the consequent opening toward new cultural influences such as national or international European influences.

This study focuses on the Italian literature produced in the second half of the twentieth century, for example, the fundamental three-volume text by Ettore De Mura; 2 this was the first book attempting a historical arrangement and can be considered a true and proper encyclopedia. 3 De Mura was an author and theater director, journalist, and essayist, but above all he knew how to create the first study tool for generations of passionate students of Neapolitan song. His encyclopedia (1969) followed his anthology Poeti napoletani dal ‘600 ad oggi (1966) 4 and reunited in a single work the best sources produced up to that time, from the writings of Benedetto Croce and Salvatore Di Giacomo to more recent ones by Vittorio Paliotti and Max Vajro. De Mura’s encyclopedia also includes the memoirs of the artists Anna Fougez and Beniamino Gigli as well as the songbooks and booklets of popular festivals, such as the Piedigrotta. In addition, there are monographs about publishers such as Curci and fic-tionalized correspondence from the world of the caf è chantant of Rodolfo De Angelis and Sebastiano Di Massa. Much of the lore gathered in De Mura’s encyclopedia resulted from a reworking of the author’s firsthand experience. This explains the numerous inconsistencies in the book and the difficulties encountered in reconstructing the biographies of some of the artists mentioned in its pages.

Some years prior to the publication of De Mura’s work, the book Un secolo d’oro by Giovanni Sarno was published; 5 it is one of the most com-plete collections of Neapolitan poetry intended for song. A long time after this the work La canzone napoletana by Pietro Gargano and Gianni Cesarini appeared, 6 which had the merit of putting the subject back into play by expanding and updating the field of observation. This was followed by the essential essay by Roberto De Simone Appunti per una disordinata storia della canzone Napoletana , 7 which considered the sub-ject from a specific research perspective and from more complex terms. More recent texts of a historical nature include La canzone Napoletana by Salvatore Palomba and Storia della canzone napoletana dalle origini all’epoca d’oro by Carmelo Pittari. 8

Among the most important texts are the first two contributions by women, Marialuisa Stazio’s book, which has a sociological bent, 9 and the first monograph on the Neapolitan recording industry by Anita Pesce,




which includes a detailed survey on Phonotype’s discography catalogue. 10 Also noteworthy is the miscellaneous volume on the sceneggiata edited by Pasquale Scial ò . 11 The publisher Magmata, which was founded in 2002, launched the publication of biographical profiles of a few impor-tant exponents of ancient and modern Neapolitan song. In this regard, I also cite Ciro Daniele’s monograph on the poet Vincenzo Russo 12 and one by Mimmo Liguoro on Giovanni Capurro, 13 the author of “’O sole mio.” Magmata also published Nuova enciclopedia illustrata della can-zone napoletana by Pietro Gargano, an updated work based on De Mura’s Encyclopedia. A few texts on song in standard Italian that were published in the past decade recognized the role of Neapolitan song as belonging to the genre that among a few others gave birth to Italian tradition as primo-geniture. Among these texts are Storia della canzone italiana by Gianni Borgna, Storia della canzone italiana by Felice Liperi, and La musica itali-ana by Paolo Prato. 14 Finally, in 2009, through collaboration between the University of Naples Federico II and the Fondazione Roberto Murolo, the Centro Studi Canzone Napoletana came into existence; it promotes research and curates the edition of the Quaderni (journals) of the Centro Studi.

In the meantime, a new generation of scholars authored important contributions; particularly important are historical and biographical research works, such as those authored by Antonio Sciotti, and above all the monograph on Gilda Mignonette, who was among the female protag-onists of this story. 15 In addition, there is an anthropological investigation of the underground economy and contemporary Neapolitan neomelodica by Jason Pine. 16

All these works reflect a diversified bibliographical scenario and a cul-tural context characterized by broad fluctuations and variants, even in the spellings of the names of the protagonists of Neapolitan song.

This book takes a narrower field of investigation as its subject, namely, the Neapolitan song formalized in the nineteenth and twentieth centu-ries. This type of song is a musical product of the first industrial age and a prototype of Italian consumer music. It was geared toward entertaining the audience at public feasts and at private celebrations and moved listen-ers so greatly that they would purchase the sheet music or the records, thus ushering in the practice of private listening. Having reached its most mature phase in the early years of the twentieth century, Neapolitan song was a cultural experience much like the poetic experiments of Salvatore Di Giacomo, Libero Bovio, and Ferdinando Russo. It perfectly repre-sented the clear boundary between rural Italy, still absorbed by the centu-ryies-old question of the national language, and a country strongly drawn toward modern urbanization as exemplified in the major European and



INTRODUCTION 5

American cities. Neapolitan song was a music destined to become part of a national musical repertoire and capable of erasing the notable local differences precisely at the moment when, due to the persistent use of dia-lect, it most clearly declared its belonging to a specific geographical area. That is to say, its ability to absorb many influences from abroad made it one of the most dynamic forms among others from Italy .

In the preface to Marialuisa Stazio’s book, Alberto Abruzzese com-ments on the Storia della canzone napoletana, published in 1961 by Sebastiano Di Massa. He highlights that the constituent elements of the process of industrialization and homogenization of the music genre in question are not discussed in Di Massa’s investigation; nor is discussed its link to free time and the development of the city, of factories, of pub-lic transportation, of consumption, of tourism, of feasts, and of fashion. That is, a synthesis based on a socioeconomic perspective and examining Neapolitan song in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as an extraor-dinary phenomenon of collective music consumption was absent. 17 Indeed, this present book intends to follow the path opened up by Stazio’s study and with the support of Abruzzese’s observations seeks to distance itself from that “historicism, idealism, literary sketch, urban worldliness, local folklore” that Abruzzese speaks of. 18

My research will place the repertoire of Neapolitan song of the twenti-eth century in the context of an increasingly popular culture by inviting readers to recall that, on the one hand, Neapolitan song fully belongs to the modern urban repertoire and on the other it represents the past, what must be surpassed. The pressure of events that would lead to the experi-ence of the twenty-year period of Fascism only accelerated the process of erosion of regional traditions and dialects. 19 In this connection, the Neapolitan song of the 1920s and 1930s was attacked and ultimately rel-egated to a marginal role. Fascism pursued above all the achievement of a standard unitary language through concise strategic control that would lead to the expunging of all vernacular forms from Italian. In this way the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini brought to completion the process of national cultural unification begun with the country’s first phases of political unity in 1861. In the new framework designed by Mussolini, ancient European cultural realities like the one that evolved many years before the national Italian unification in Naples—the former capital of the flourishing kingdom of the two Sicilies that was defeated by Savoy and by the nineteenth-century ideals of fatherland and liberty—were left crushed under the weight of politics that did not contemplate local reali-ties. The censorship exercised by the Fascist regime repressed the cultural ferment and the song traditions of the local minority, such as Neapolitan theater and cinema, because it considered them forces opposed to the idea




of a national culture. 20 This was made abundantly clear since the years of the First World War. The age of nationalism that led to that conflict could not tolerate notable differences within a country that only in 1861 had taken the path to unification. Italy was still absorbed by problems resulting from unification and linked the Neapolitan song to high levels of illiteracy and usage of dialect and song; the cultural industry associ-ated with the song seemed like a waste from the past, a Bourbon legacy, the expression of a political and cultural reality that was swept away by the new course of history. That new course was shaped by the patriot heroes Mazzini and Garibaldi, who dedicated their lives to the ideal of national unity and formed new political alliances.

As we have come to know, the repertoires of jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock ’n’ roll all started from the experiences of rural blues, of folk songs steeped in the music of European and Latin American immigrants; thus it is only right to investigate the origins of the Italian song tradition, assigning the Neapolitan song a prominent place if for nothing else but its seniority.

I could borrow what Sandro Portelli writes regarding Woody Guthrie in highlighting the syncretic aspect that proves fundamental in the analysis of folk music repertoires that holds for Italy and the Neapolitan repertoire as well. 21

Modern Neapolitan song grew out of a tradition that has carried on since the end of the nineteenth century until today and has succeeded in influencing tango, blues, rock, protest songs, popular melodrama, and cinema, and it has given a personal character to all of them by modulat-ing a euphonic language with a pronounced transnational and dynamic approach. In 1947, Brian Rust, who was among the greatest scholars of jazz, took into account the importance of this legacy and its unique twofold local and global dimension when he deregionalized the genre by placing it in relation to the New Orleans jazz scene. He singled out the forms, themes, and spirituality that put the Neapolitan people and African Americans on the same level. With regard to some recordings of Neapolitan songs made in that American city, Rust had gathered something more than a simple analogy between the music of old Naples and the relatively modern music of New Orleans. Furthermore, he affirmed that no one who harbored an interest in jazz could allow himself to ignore any folk music whatsoever, certainly not one as distinctly ethnic as Neapolitan music. 22

Indeed, the theme of interrelation and fusion is what I want to draw attention to here above all in order to reflect on how much this musical exchange and transmission could have had an impact in Naples through the channels fed by emigration. After all, emigration is a phenomenon of



INTRODUCTION 7

great anthropological and cultural interest, especially here with respect to Neapolitan song.

In this book I will focus on two cities in particular, Naples and New York, because of their importance in the musical panorama of the period in question. From the end of the nineteenth century to the early decades of the next century, Naples was one of the greatest cen-ters of national music publishing. At the same time New York became a symbol of modernity in music, foreshadowing its role as place of the creative and productive avant-garde, a place it held for all of the twen-tieth century. Naples and New York were also the two greatest ports of departure and arrival, respectively, during the years of the most mas-sive Italian exodus from 1880 to 1924. The latter is the year when entry quotas were established to regulate the f low of new arrivals. The exo-dus of the Italians—something American observers preferred to call diaspora, highlighting its aspect of dispersal—takes on unique conno-tations in the overall history of national emigration. In fact, the Italian emigrants of the early twentieth century were not exceptional travel-ers or wealthy bourgeois on extreme quests; nor were they solitary and heroic proletarians venturing into the new world in search of fortune with the daring attitude of a modern Ulysses. The emigrants of the early twentieth century were rather different from the stateless exiles who emigrated in the two previous centuries when emigration began on a noteworthy scale. The historian Augusta Molinari writes that in the main maritime seaports of Genoa, Naples, and Palermo, the waves of emigrants modified the relationship between the city and the port and its activities. The crowd—she explains—that milled around on the piers had particular characteristics because those who embarked were not travelers but emigrants, socially different from those who usually frequent ports. The people who remained in the city felt fear and mis-trust against those who were poor and desperate. It is for this reason that there came to be an invisible wall between the city dwellers and the emigrants. 23

The emigrants of these decades were, thus, desperate, without means, but confident and impelled to carry out their choice; they made up the millions who shared the same destiny.

Emigration is always a dramatic change, but in the context of music history it also was a positive factor. By emigrating, the musicians and sing-ers trained in the Neapolitan area came into contact with a wider musi-cal scene. Their musical integration into the new world was an inevitable process and triggered a magnificent interchange of experiences and tech-nologies and exceptional feedback. Regarding the encounter between the




emigrants and Americans, some integration strategies were quickly devel-oped on the basis of actors’ gestures and language, strategies that were brought to life in the theater by formidable personalities such as Farfariello and De Laurentiis. These strategies often made possible exceptional points of contact and sometimes even a true and proper suture of differences between ethnicities, music becoming the channel of communication .

Among the principal terrains of encounter between Italian-Neapolitan and American musical culture, the most noteworthy were the hybrid forms of musical notation that combined written and oral traditions and went by the names of stock arrangement, lead sheet, and head arrange-ment. These materials were musical successes that were passed around in diverse musical circuits through distribution channels in the great cit-ies of the United States. The original scores and sheet music came to be acquired by ethnic publishing houses, and after changing the language of the text they made it a success, marketable to the ethnic community to which it was addressed. The sheet music, stripped of its original lan-guage, became the principal means of integration of the emigrants who Americanized themselves. This aspect became evermore necessary for them with the outbreak of the First World War when in response to the looming war, loyal emigrants from every part of the world united in one nation.

While immigrants from southern Italy moved to the American con-tinent, a kind of return emigration of American music began to spread in Italy, and Naples in particular proved to be a receptive territory. Even though this subject clearly deserves a book all to itself, a part of the research here is dedicated to the repatriation of the emigrants. Although there is a lack of texts illustrating the repatriation in the context of Neapolitan song, the description of the back and forth movement of the Italian emi-grants would be incomplete if it did not take into account the reverse swing that returned emigrants to Italy with important cultural implica-tions arising from it. In many musical scores—in the majority of cases, they are the property of private collections—the influence of American music in Naples beginning in 1910 becomes evident, as is highlighted in the essay by Marcello Sorce Keller. 24

Neapolitan music producers and publishers described the arrival of American music as a true invasion that relentlessly swept away the Neapolitan tradition. One of the reasons for this dissemination was the massive arrival in Europe of American bands. At the beginning of the twentieth century, these bands were engaged on tours evermore frequently, thanks to faster means of transportation. Adriano Mazzoletti noted that Italy was completely cut off from the first tours of American musicians and orchestras that performed in many European nations from 1905 on.



INTRODUCTION 9

As a result, Italy lagged about ten years behind continental Europe where American music was concerned. Thus, in New Orleans, musicians who were born in Italy or were the children of Italian emigrants supplied their irreplaceable contribution to the birth of a new music; this music crossed the Atlantic but stopped on the other side of the Alps. 25

The explosion of American dance music through all of Europe can be seen in the international success of the dancer couple Vernon and Irene Castle and of James Reese Europe’s band. Even though Italy was not among the preferred destinations of these groups—instead, they performed in British and French theaters because it was easier to travel there—Italians were nevertheless smitten with the new fashions: foxtrot, one-step and two-step, shimmy, ragtime, blues, and tango, which was the true pioneer of the conquest of American music in continental Europe . All of this took place in an era when the record industry and evening entertainment industry were just in their infancy. It remains undeniable that even for the gathering of information regarding this repertoire there is still a certain dearth of historic sources. Furthermore, the surviving repertoire suffers from the fact that for a long time it was deemed ephemeral material and was barely conserved for posterity. After all, consumer music is often considered of scant artistic value according to the standards of art music and is said to be derivative from opera and salon music. For this reason the market did not necessarily require quality control or a guarantee that works would last over time. We are located halfway between the different repertoires that this music draws from in the process of formation.

The southern regions and some rural zones of the north of Italy were involved in the exodus to the United States. The percentage, however, was higher among the populace of southern Italy. From Abruzzo to Sicily, towns and villages contributed many to the stream of emigrants.

Neapolitan song also was affected by emigration, and for Italian music publishers in the United States the phenomenon turned out to be favor-able because it led to a further expansion of their slice of the pie of the cultural market. Not only the publishers but all of the professionals that surrounded the production of songs benefited from this move to America in ways that were unthinkable in the Italy of those years. For many art-ists, going to play in America represented a long-awaited breakthrough. In the 1910s and 1920s entire bands moved from Italy to America thanks to the success of musicians such as the Neapolitan Giuseppe Creatore who left Naples and became a leading personality of band music in the United States. American observers of this wave of migration described the phenomenon as a true musical deluge. It is then curious that the same apocalyptic term was adopted by Neapolitan publishers when American music arrived in their city.




Across the Atlantic, in the United States the recording market was already growing rapidly as indicated by information according to which “Tiger Rag” recorded by the Italian American band Original Dixieland Jass Band sold a million copies in 1917. Artists with some ability and wanting to play in America could reach out to an impressive number of listeners because a record was a democratic object transcending class boundaries: gramophones did everything themselves; they did not require concert halls or a particular protocol to be used. Moreover, the marvels of the technology caused much less fear in the United States than in Italy.

It is easy to suppose that the intense activity of publishing houses that sprung up in New York and that of transplanted musicians helped to pro-mote the first substantial contacts between the Neapolitan light reper-toire and the American tradition. According to John Gentile, a pianist who had moved from Naples to New York in 1929—and accompanied many female emigrant singers, such as Gilda Mignonette, Ria Rosa, and Rosina De Stefano—in Naples one of the channels through which for a certain period of time many musicians became aware of American com-mercial music production was created by emigrant relatives who sent sheet music of American origin to their loved ones back in Italy. 26 But the means of production and consumption of this hybrid Italian-Neapolitan-American music remains one of the great mysteries of modern history. The Italian emigrants were an uncomfortable legacy: quickly forgotten by their country of origin but not yet integrated into the history of the country that welcomed them, they were subjected to a double relegation to oblivion. Following Enrico Caruso’s glorious arrival in America, a mixture of skepticism and condescension prevailed with respect to the careers of the singers, composers, and various performers linked to the world of emigration. This social and cultural hiatus concluded at the end of the 1930s with the artistic success of Louis Prima who started out from the syncopated music of his city, New Orleans, and was among the first Italians born in America to spread his music in that place and become successful.

Prima and his contemporaries were artists whose identity by then was totally hyphenated, 27 that is Italian-American. As a result, their feeling of belonging vis- à -vis their country of origin was transformed through a multiple and wholly unprecedented overlapping of conventions and musi-cal, verbal, physical, and social languages. It needs no further clarifying that the different spellings adopted for the word Italian-American rep-resent the gradual integration of the Italian emigrant into the American context. In the pages that follow I have preferred the more conventional form Italian-American. There is no lack of cases where the variants with or without the hyphen could coexist in the same time period since



INTRODUCTION 11

integration progresses more quickly in certain contexts than in others. From a historic point of view, furthermore, it is important to point out that music provides a privileged perspective for analyzing this process of ethnic integration.

A further important clarification must be made with respect to the use of two recurrent terms here that also explains the reason why here one speaks of Neapolitan performers and musicians and not southern Italians in the broadest sense. The nonchalance with which we commonly adopt the adjectives “Neapolitan” and “Italian” as almost interchangeable is based on the fact that “Italian” as such is an idea, an ethnic and cultural abstraction applied to emigrants from Italy in the early twentieth cen-tury. In fact, Italian identity was linked to the region and usually the city of origin both by outsiders and among themselves. Thus, there existed communities of Sicilians, rather than Neapolitans or Abruzzese, who discovered that they were Italians and belonged to the same nationality only after having reached America. Their identity was rarely perceived as a national one. The emigrants’ belonging to the motherland was estab-lished primarily through the reconfirmation of their common cultural roots, which in the case of Italians consisted of music as well as food. Regarding the musical tradition, most emigrants did not make a distinc-tion based on geographical provenance. That is, in this case the borders of the old Bourbon kingdom and its capital Naples prevailed, and the emi-grants identified above all with the Neapolitan repertoire. South of Rome the lyrics of the Neapolitan songs were understood by nearly all Italians, including those who migrated, bought records, and went to the theater to listen to Neapolitan artists on tour. All of this allowed for a widespread penetration of Neapolitan song among the emigrants. This repertoire for a long time then represented Italian song for the Italian emigrants, and this explains why outside of Italy there still exists confusion regarding the difference between Italian song and Neapolitan song. Even today, in Sicily there exists a considerable number of Sicilian singers who sing in Neapolitan, and this is evidence of what I write. Thus, those who study Neapolitan song in relation to the migratory phenomenon are constrained to follow this terminological confusion and adopt the term “Neapolitan” to designate the musical repertoire enjoyed by the emigrants, tout court, and “Italian” to refer to the entire ethnic group.

In the Italian sources little is left of the adventuresome biographies of the artists who crossed the Atlantic and often the entire expanse of the United States as well to establish themselves in the great urban centers on the West Coast. The discography published by Richard Spottswood in 1990 on ethnic music produced in America up to 1942 has partially restored the hope of being able to retrace the careers of many emigrant




artists who had close ties with the production of Neapolitan song for con-sumers. Just as fundamental is the supporting documentation of the Rigler and Deutsch Record Index, 28 which gathers information on approximately 615,000 recordings of commercial music made in the United States before 1950 and is preserved in the five largest American sound archives: the Belfer Audio Laboratory and Archive of Syracuse University; the Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division of the Library of Congress; the Rodgers and Hammerstein Archives of Recorded Sound of the New York Public Library; the Stanford University Archive of Recorded Sound; and the Yale Collection of Historical Sound Recordings.

The essential study by Emelise Aleandri on Italian-American theater in New York, 29 the corresponding one on the San Francisco scene by Lawrence Estavan, 30 and the research by Victor Greene 31 of emigrants’ music at the beginning of the twentieth century particularly with regard to the white European ethnic group, are important writings directly focusing on the cultural and musical environment that is the subject of my study. The other titles in the bibliography cover various aspects of the field of research, such as the contribution by Ruth Glasser 32 on the musi-cal activity of the Puerto Rican community in New York from 1917 to 1940. By means of historic reconstruction of a few record labels, this work reveals the existence of Neapolitan artists who collaborated on musical experiences with Latin American musicians.

In those years artists were not yet bound to the imperatives of spe-cialization in their art and moved between diverse entertainment dis-ciplines. In view of this mobility, research in the history of cinema has proven essential. Particularly helpful in this regard are the books by Enza Troianelli and Giuliana Bruno on the emblematic case of the Neapolitan Elvira Notari, 33 the first female director to export her productions to the United States in the early days of silent films. In addition, the studies by Giuliana Muscio and Giorgio Bertellini of the contributions of Italian and Italian-American artists to American cinema was also essential. 34 Lastly, the precise historical and anthropological inquiry by Simone Cinotto regarding the food habits of the Italian community that was established in New York shortly after the great migration was useful for my study. 35 In addition, this book also draws on a great number of studies of jazz and on a more ephemeral bibliography composed of music festival booklets, record label catalogues, journalistic coverage, published and unpublished interviews, most of them gathered by me during a study visit financed by the American Fulbright Commission for cultural exchange.

The story that is about to begin is subdivided into six chapters based on the memories of those who are still living, press clippings, web pages, and a sometimes slender, but for that reason all the more precious,



INTRODUCTION 13

bibliography. This history identifies Enrico Caruso as the pioneer who paved the way for virtually all of the other performers of the first phase of Italian emigration. The first three chapters address these subjects. Part of chapter 2 and the entire chapter 6 are dedicated to the history of the record labels, to the work of orchestra conductors and arrangers who have guaranteed the survival of this repertoire. Chapter 4 focuses on the reverse journey of some artists who returned to Italy, thus resembling the migratory birds referred to in the title of this book. Chapter 5 deals with some aspects of gender within the Italian community, the so-called Great Emigration, the move of millions of Italians in the years between 1880 and 1925, represented an undoubted advancement of consciousness that led to the redefinition of gender roles and of the significance and scope of female artists’ influence in both the individual and collective spheres. The opinions of Mim ì Aguglia, for example, an important artist in this context, bear witness to the complexity of the woman question; yet, these views were associated with Italian emigrant women in the years in which the United States was engaged in the debate about the extension of suffrage.

I have chosen the period of time from 1895—the beginning of the era of the record marked by the publication in Naples of “ ’A risa,” a rework-ing of an original African American piece that would represent the first example of interrelation between the Neapolitan and the American rep-ertoires—to 1940 when virtually all substantial transformations in the Italian community began to be recorded. At the end of the 1930s the scenario changed; the Italian Americans became Italian-Americans. The Italian Writers Project of the Municipal Reference Archive of New York, an important source for this research, registers sociocultural and economic conditions of the Italian ethnic minority in the United States emphasizing precisely that period of the twentieth century. In those years an ethnic prototype took shape that was no longer the simple combina-tion of two terms, Italian and American, but something new. This new generation appeared just before the outbreak of the Second World War. For that era Italian-American music presented itself as an innovative language that would no longer be in debt to the one that was imported from the motherland. For example, the boogie-woogie and consumer jazz genres in which the Italian emigrants were participating were formalized, and well-defined musical personalities emerged.

By the time the Second World War began, the generation of Italian-American musicians with ties to the Neapolitan repertoire had definitively completed the next step toward integration. However, in terms of histori-ography, there is a void regarding the first four decades of the twentieth century, a time of repression resulting from nationalistic, antimodernist,




and anti-emigrationist prejudices. These developed more or less notice-ably in the years we are concerned with here and have remained a con-stituent element of the Italian-American until today.

Due to difficulties in tracing facts, this book follows some apparent detours from the central path of this study, namely, the analysis of musi-cal exchanges between Naples and New York. This investigation remains essentially a work in progress, and future studies should be conducted for example on some other aspects such as on performers and artists who did not demonstrate a substantial interest for American music. The clash between the innovative contributions of emigrant artists on the one hand and their conservative tendency on the other has led to the formation of a new generation of musicians who are fully Italian-American and who give their art an identity and style all its own.

Let me entrust the final words of this introduction to Rita Berti, one of the last living performers of the Neapolitan repertoire in New York, with whom this phase of the emigration of Neapolitan music ends:

We were in the Galleria Umberto in Naples, I was very excited; in front of me was the great Gennaro Pasquariello. All of a sudden my manager asked him: “Maestro, what name do you see for this piccerella [young girl] [?” He looks at me: “What’s your name?” “Rita.” He starts counting on his fingers the four letters of my name, then he listed the letters of the alphabet, and says to me: “B, stops on the B the sound of your name. Piccer è [girl], for me Berti is perfect, short, like your name.” The fifties were also the times for Neapolitan song. In America as in Italy, theater changed, faded away. Except for Atlantic City where Jimmy Roselli, Jerry Vale, and also Italians like Gianni Morandi, Mauro Nardi, Mauro Caputo perform, there are no longer all those theaters of long ago where all the singers, even new talent, could perform. The less well known names can now only perform at din-ner parties, very much in vogue here; people get together to celebrate some occasion and there’s always a stage for a singer called upon to perform, like in the Godfather , Francis Ford Coppola’s film. Atlantic City is a little bit like Las Vegas; the managers organize the shows of the big names of the Neapolitan-Italian songs but no one truly is interested in the music, they go there to play in the casino. Until the early eighties, the Walk Theater in Brooklyn between 18th Avenue and 64th street and the Brooklyn Academy of Music were active. In New York, when I arrived in the fifties, there was a great ferment for Neapolitan artists. I had a radio broadcast at WOV, an Italian radio station, together with Joe Masiello in the morning at 11:15 and we had a big following, not just of Italians. Our program was called Olio Gem and we sang the classic Neapolitan repertoire accompanied by Dick Dia’s orchestra. The last great aftershock for Neapolitan music culture was in 1978 when Mario Merola 36 came and together we did a few sceneggiate ; the success was enormous. Attention to Neapolitan song definitively waned



INTRODUCTION 15

at the end of the seventies. I remember with sadness a show with Nino Taranto’s company, I was reciting together with Dolores Palumbo and that was the last Neapolitan show at the Academy of Music; someone as an insult destroyed all of the orchestra seats and from that day on the theater manag-ers no longer wanted to host an Italian show. The Italian American public is very different from the Neapolitan public, there are many true aficionados of Neapolitan song, but most love the anthologies of songs without respect for the history. It is sad to see the young aspiring singers that go up onto the stage with sheet music without making the effort to memorize the words. I perhaps had more fortune because I worked in a period of great musical vivacity. I was 20 years old when at the Teatro Bellini in Naples I worked in the famous Piedigrotta of Furio Rendine. During one of the encores of the show, Gennaro and Vincenzo Gardenia participated. Gennaro was the first great Italian-American actor to be engaged in Hollywood. They were taken with my voice and offered me a contract in America. I had already travelled in 1949 with Cafiero-Fumo Company and Luisa Conte; we had been in Brazil for almost 6 months. But the Gardenia’s contract was the true beginning of my American career. 37



“A suon di jazz” (By sound of jazz), 113–14

Abruzzese, Alberto, 5, 11Adorno, Theodor W., 177, 179advertising. See food: advertising;

phonograph records: advertisingAfrican American, 6, 18, 44, 72–6,

111, 114, 185, 186, 206n72, 207n78, 208–9n84

music, 13, 27, 115, 167, 183, 212–13n34

neighborhoods, 22Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 219n13Aldrich, Richard, 52Aleandri, Emelise, 12, 138, 196n2,

209–10n2, 226n68Alighieri, Dante, 23, 24All-Star Orchestra, 170, 229n15American popular music

African-Latino-American, 119, 152, 161

in the Dominican Republic, 161–2in Europe, 8–10, 112–13, 115in Naples, 119, 120, 163See also commercial music; popular

culture

Americanization, 8, 19, 33, 79–80, 143of names, 111, 212–13n34resistance to, 93, 143See also integration

anarchism, 140–1Argentina, 116–17, 219n13, 225n59Armetta, Henry, 139Armstrong, Louis

admiration for Caruso, 208n83and integration, 75–6

Aspinall, Michael, 199n25audience, 32, 85, 87, 210n4

and class, 29, 30, 32, 34, 112creation of, 53, 69, 78, 104, 200n29and ethnicity and race, 76, 82, 100,

110–11, 162, 167women, 133, 134See also ethnic music; high and

low cultural hierarchy; popular culture

Avalon, Frankie, 182Azpiazu, Don, 147

Baer, Abel, 146Baker, Josephine, 114Bell, Alexander Graham, 47, 199n25

Topical Index

Note: The index is divided into a topical index and a specialized name index listing musicians, performers, and composers of Neapolitan song in New York and Naples from the late 19th century to the beginning of the Second World War. The exceptions are Enrico Caruso and Farfariello (Eduardo Migliaccio), indexed here. Names of songs, films, bands, scholars, and historical figures can be found in the topical index. Cross-references between the topical index and name index are set in bold type.



248 TOPICAL INDEX

Benjamin, Walter, 177Bennett, Tony, 35Berkeley, Busby, 99Berlin, Irving, 109Berliner, Emile, 48, 185

Johnson and Berliner Company, 51, 53, 163

See also Victor Talking Machine Company

Bernhardt, Sarah, 140, 142“bird of passage,” 1, 94, 100, 109,

198n15, 213–14n46Bizet, Georges, 116, 218n12Black. See African AmericanBlack Hand, the. See criminalityBlack Hand, the, 98Bongiorno, Mike, 189n3books, 24–5Borgna, Gianni, 4, 212n19Bourdieu, Pierre, 178Brazil, 15, 55, 114, 225n59, 225–6n63.

See also tango: maxixeBrito, Eduardo, 162Brown, Lew, 105Bruno, Giuliana, 12Bullock, Rita, 228n6

Caesar, Irving, 91Cali, John, 171California Ramblers, 88, 186Campania, 1Campbell, Gavin James, 133“Canzone ‘e Pearl Harbor, ‘a” (The

song of Pearl Harbor), 183Capuana, Luigi, 140Carles, Philippe, 207n78“Cartulina ‘e Napule, ’a” (Postcard from

Naples), 144, 147, 148, 165, 205n64Caruso, Enrico, 123–5, 185, 186

as caricaturist, 39–40, 196–7n4contract with Victor Company,

43–4, 47, 49, 50–2declining health, 205–6n65and “hybrid” song, 55as immigrant role model, 42, 45–6,

53, 72, 77

and integration, 72, 76and the Italian Writers Project, 28museum, 44musical education, 42–3, 198n10and Neapolitan song, 53–4, 56,

61–3, 66, 69as songwriter, 59–61tenor vs. baritone, 42–3See also Gaisberg, Fred;

Giachetti, AdaCastle, Vernon and Irene, 9Cautela, Giuseppe, 192n9Cavaliere, Felix, 182Cesarini, Gianni, 3, 198n10Chaliapin, Feodor, 199n26Charleston, 114, 157, 164, 187Chevan, David, 85“Chist’è New York” (This is New

York), 93–7Ciarlantini, Franco, 25cinema, 1, 12, 79, 133–4, 171–2

cinemas, 27, 28, 29, 210n4travelogue, 135–6See also criminality: in cinema;

entertainment; venuesCinotto, Simone, 12class

access to music, 27, 53, 69, 78, 192n10and dialect, 19, 116, 148, 223n39and housing, 23middle-class, 46, 90mobility, 174, 176and race, 73–4, 208–9n84stratification, 173–4, 230n3and taste, 174, 178–9and women’s suffrage debates,

134–5See also audience: and class;

ethnic group; racecoffee houses (cafè chantant), 3, 20,

40, 135, 137, 138, 192n10, 210n4Caffè Ronca, 91–2Reisenweber’s dinner-cabaret,

110–11, 186Vittorio Emanuele III, 138See also venues



TOPICAL INDEX 249

Cohan, Irving, 91Cole, Nat King, 212–13n34“Comme se canta a Napule” (How

they sing in Naples), 63, 70–1, 186commercial music, 9, 13, 47, 51, 69, 85,

104, 114, 115, 161–2, 168, 177and Neapolitan song, 1, 4–5,

202–3n55, 227n2See also American popular music;

phonograph records; popular culture; studio band

Comolli, Jean-Louis, 207n78concert halls, 10, 20, 28, 46, 69, 78,

135, 176. See also venuesconsumer, 46–7, 133, 177consumer music. See commercial

musicContursi, Pascual, 204–5n62Cook, Will Marion, 110Coppola, Francis Ford, 14, 101,

226n64“Core ’ngrato” (Ungrateful heart), 24,

54–5, 56–8, 60, 186, 195–9n1Corsi, Edward, 80criminality, 44–5, 73, 90

Black Hand, the, 45, 98–9, 199n20, 223n34

in literature, 24in film, 98–9Mafia, the, 45, 144

Croce, Benedetto, 3Cross, Gary, 46Cuban, 162

music, 115–16, 147, 218n12

Dabney, Ford, 110Daniele, Ciro, 4D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 54, 140De Angelis, Rodolfo, 3De Iradier, Sebastián, 218De Lucia, Fernando, 154De Mura, Ettore, 3, 102, 113, 150,

197n6, 225n59De Rosa, Eugene, 30De Simone, Roberto, 2, 3, 216n60Demarsky, Lina Del Tinto, 34, 35

DeSylva, Bud G., 105Di Massa, Sebastiano, 3, 5dialect, 22, 80, 210n7

Cocoliche, 117, 219n16Creole, 116, 117vs. language, 190n19Lunfardo, 116, 117, 219n14Neapolitan, 52, 66, 92–3, 96, 148,

155, 223n29poets, 31, 40–1See also class: and dialect;

Fascism: repression of regional traditions and dialects; Italian (language)

diaspora (Italian), 7, 21–2, 93, 142, 173–4

solidarity through music, 178See also Italian (identity); Italian

(language); Italian American; southern Italy

diffusionof Italian culture, 24phonograph records and, 2, 161,

165, 177sheet music and, 10, 85

discographyRigler and Deutsch Record

Index, 12Spottswood, 11–12, 91, 103, 142–3,

151–2, 154, 157, 159, 216n59Dixon, Mort, 101Dorsey, Tommy, 171, 172, 212–13n34Du Bois, W. E. B., 72–3, 75, 207n78Due gemelli, i (The twins), 156, 187Durante, Francesco, 81, 91Duse, Eleonora, 139–40, 142, 221n19

Edison, Thomas Alva, 46, 47–8, 50, 185, 199n25

emigration, 7–9difficulties of, 17, 96“Great Emigration,” 13, 17–18positive aspects of, 7women and, 13, 137, 150See also immigration; integration;

nomadicism



250 TOPICAL INDEX

entertainmentearly non-specialization of roles,

12, 19industry, 9, 46, 78See also free time; high and low

cultural hierarchy; venuesEsposito, Fernando, 163, 217n65Estavan, Lawrence, 12, 151ethnic group, 21, 33, 45, 72–6, 79, 80,

82, 102, 174–6, 178multiethnic, 96, 116See also African Americans; Cuban;

Italian (identity); ethnic music; Italian-Americans; Hispanic; Irish; race

ethnic music, 11, 105, 138, 166–8, 172, 192n10

publishing houses, 8See also audience; African

American: music; Cuban: music; ethnic group; Italian (identity): and music; race

“Faccetta nera” (Little Black Face), 149Fall, Richard, 91family

businesses, 33endangered in America, 97, 133–4

Farfariello (Eduardo Migliaccio), 20, 81–3, 85–93, 132, 185, 187, 210–11n8

as Italian immigrant role model, 8, 83

and language play, 89–90, 92and Piedigrottas, 40, 102praise for, 30, 99recordings of, 105as songwriter, 55theater of, 29

Fargion, Janet Topp, 147Fascism

anti-fascist radio, 33Fascist era, 26, 134–5, 214n49,

223n41“ fascistizzazione” (promotion of

Fascism), 32, 223n40

newspapers, 24repression of regional traditions

and dialects, 5–6, 149–50, 223n41

See also Mussolini, Benito; nationalism

fear, 7, 10, 52, 90, 96, 97, 176feasts, 4, 26“Festa d’ ‘e marenare, ’a”

(Sailors’ feast), 106–7festivals, 3, 182–3

religious, 25–6See also Piedigrottas

fidelity, 47, 50, 200n30film. See cinemaFinston, Anna, 170First World War, 6, 8, 80, 113, 134,

146–7, 150folk music, 20, 179–80, 192n10

referenced in Neapolitan song, 64, 65

transformation into popular music, 6, 89, 161, 162, 174–5, 182, 190n21

food, 43advertising, 33, 35, 36, 195n33,

195n35and class, 178and Italian identity, 11, 12and sexual innuendo, 147

“For me and my girl,” 99Fowler, Gene, 77–8fox-trot, 99, 101, 103, 104, 111, 153,

164, 165, 186and Neapolitan song, 120origins, 113–14

“Fra un tango, un fox trot, e uno shimmy” (Between a tango, a foxtrot, and a shimmy), 145–6

free time, 2, 5, 46, 78, 133–4. See also consumer; entertainment

“Frenetico, il” (The frantic), 113, 122, 186

Fried, Norton H., 173Friend, Cliff, 91“Fronn’ limons’ focstrott” (Lemon

leaves fox-trot), 103–4, 153



TOPICAL INDEX 251

Fuller, Samuel, 77fusion, 6, 182

Gallone, Carmine, 111Gargano, Pietro, 3, 4, 198n10Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 22, 23Garland, Judy, 99gender. See emigration: women and;

jazz: women’s bands; popular culture: women in; vaudeville: women performers

Genovese, Vito, 216–17n64Gentile, John, 10, 106, 216–17n64,

217n65Geraci, Mauro, 87, 175Gershwin, George, 171, 212–13n34Gervi, Giuliano, 36Giangrande, Tony, 144Gilbert, L. Wolfe, 146Gilded Age, 44Glasser, Ruth, 12, 161, 166globalization. See transnational

cultureGluck, Alma, 169, 201n36Goetz, Ray E., 99, 218n11Goodman, Benny, 171Gould, Glenn, 177gramophone. See phonograph recordsGramophone Company. See Victor

Talking Machine CompanyGramsci, Antonio, 173, 230n1, 230n3Green, Bud, 91Greene, Victor R., 12, 85, 90“gringo,” 118“Guardanno ‘a Luna” (Watching

the moon), 55, 59, 63, 201n43, 224n56

“guardia vieja” (old guard), 116Guglielmo, Jennifer, 73Guthrie, Woodie, 6

habanera, 99, 115–16, 146, 157origins, 218n12See also tango

Haller, Hermann W., 83, 89, 92Handy, William C., 167, 223n37

Harvey, David, 71head arrangement. See stock

arrangementhegemony

of north Italy, 173Henderson, Ray, 105Hennessy, David, 73Herbert, Victor, 170high and low cultural hierarchy, 9, 19,

27, 168, 169, 179and record prices, 48–9, 53See also audience; entertainment;

popular cultureHispanic, 117–18humor, 83, 82, 90, 92, 95Hoover, Herbert Clark, 80Howells, William Dean, 44

“I’ m’arricordo ‘e Napule” (I remember Naples), 55, 61–5, 66–8, 69, 148, 186, 204n61

illiteracy. See literacy/illiteracyimmigration, 17–19

as emotional state, 90, 94–6See also emigration; integration;

New York: immigrant neighborhoods; southern Italy: emigration from

integration, 10, 72–6, 79–81through music, 8, 11, 42, 74, 177–8symbols of, 45, 85, 142, 181See also Americanization; Caruso,

Enrico: as immigrant role model; Italian-American

Irish, 176“Italia al Polo Nord, l’” (Italy at the

North Pole), 98, 214n48Italian (identity)

as ethnic group, 17–18, 75formation of, 11, 13, 96and music, 45, 72, 77, 121, 175–6,

181See also food: and Italian identity;

Italian-American; Italian (language); Neapolitan; Sicilian; southern Italy



252 TOPICAL INDEX

Italian (language), 32, 34, 92, 96, 119as national language, 4, 5, 112, 149publications, 39See also Italian-American; dialect:

NeapolitanItalian Socialist Party, 173Italian Writers Project, 10, 21, 24,

26–7, 28Italian-American, 10–11, 13

differences between generations, 35importance of family, 97See also Italian; jazz: Italian-

American influences on

James Reese Europe band, 9, 110–11jazz, 85, 114, 120, 167, 179, 183, 186,

223n37Italian-American influences, 9, 13,

34–5, 86, 136, 181and Neapolitan song, 6, 146studies of, 12women’s bands, 134See also Original Dixieland Jass

Band; Primo, Loius“Jazz-band, ’o,” 113, 131Johnson, James P., 114Johnson and Berliner Company. See

Berliner, EmileJohnson-Reed Act (Immigration Act),

18, 186Jolson, Al, 105–6Jordan, Joe, 110

Kelly, Gene, 99Kline, Olive, 54Kress, Carl, 171Kubrick, Stanley, 172

La Capria, Raffaele, 148, 223n39La follia di New York, 39–42, 176, 185,

195–6n1Caruso’s caricatures, 196–7n4on gender roles, 133–4on integration, 78–9racial debates in, 76on radio, 194n28, 195n33

reviews, 140, 150, 205n63, 215n56venues advertised in, 28–31See also newspapers; Sisca,

Alessandro; Sisca, Francesco; Sisca, Marziale

La Guardia, Fiorello, 30Lao, Meri, 219n13“Laughing song, the,” 84–5, 185Laurel & Hardy, 169, 172Le Pera, Alfredo, 66lead sheet. See stock arrangementLehár, Franz, 153“Lengua ‘taliana, la” (The Italian

language), 92–3Leoncavallo, Ruggero, 56, 208n83Leslie, Edgar, 99Levant, Oscar, 101Levy, Ted, 91Liguoro, Mimmo, 4Lindström, Carl, 163Liperi, Felice, 4, 109, 218n9literacy/illiteracy, 6, 24, 80, 81,

208–9n84, 210n6Little Italy, 20, 22, 26, 45, 93, 99, 143,

191n36, 209–10n2Lomax, Allen, 179–80loss, 2, 66, 72, 174

of family, 97of identity, 162and urban experience, 90See also nostalgia

Love, Live, and Laugh, 146Luconi, Stefano, 32, 34–5, 194n29

macchietta (“sketch”), 81–2, 87, 98Mafia, the. See criminality“Malavita, ’a” (A hard life), 152“Malavita, ’a” (Underworld), 154Mancusi, Aldo, 43–4Mann, Daniel, 140Mannarini, Rino, 189n3marching band, 54, 170, 193n22. See

also Shilkret, Nathaniel; Sousa, John Philip

Mariano, John Howard, 21, 22Markham, Edwin, 208–9n84



TOPICAL INDEX 253

Marks, Edward B., 147“Mattchiche, la,” 114, 185Mazza, Angelo, 34, 35–7Mazzoletti, Adriano, 8, 136, 219n18McCormack, John, 51McPartland, Jimmy, 171melting pot, 79, 178Meyer, George W., 99“Mi noche triste” (My sad night),

65–6, 118, 186, 204–5n62Mililotti, Pasquale, 203–4n58Miller, Glenn, 171Mistinguett (Jeanne Bourgeois), 136modernity, 30, 95. See also

urbanization; technologyMole, Miff, 171Molino, Jean, 177Mollo, Ugo, 189n3Morandi, Gianni, 14Morelli, Giulia, 24Morton, Jelly Roll, 223n37Movie Actor, The, 93“’Mpareme a via d’ ’a casa mia” (Show

me the way to go home), 83, 86–91, 187, 229n8

Mulberry Street, 20, 22, 25, 83, 192n10Muscio, Giuliana, 12, 93, 139, 195n32,

202n54, 226n64music

and ethnic identity, 11, 19, 31, 180stores, 74, 196n2, 227n3See also ethnic music; integration:

through music; Italian (identity): and music

Mussolini, Benito, 5, 25, 32, 194n29

Naples, 7, 8, 70–1nationalism

in cinema, 150cultural traditions, 3, 5, 149–50,

202–3n55identity, 11, 79, 142, 174, 175language, 4, 112pride, 98unification of Italy, 5–6, 22, 173See also Fascism

Neapolitan (identity), 7–8, 11, 14–15, 53, 62, 82, 99

stereotype, 198n10See also dialect: Neapolitan; Italian

(identity); southern ItalyNeapolitan song, 1–7, 99, 174–5, 180

and cinema/theater, 12, 146“contamination” of, 115, 118–22, 157discographies, 11–12emigrant influence on, 8–9, 112and ethnic identity, 143, 148fading of, 14–15, 120, 182vs. Italian song, 11as modern repertoire vs. symbol of

the past, 5, 6motifs, 66, 71as popular vs. folk music, 174–5at private parties, 4, 14, 52, 182scholarship on, 3–4spread of, 165See also Caruso, Enrico; commercial

music; folk music; phonograph records; Neomelodica

neomelodica, 4, 182–3Nettl, Bruno, 174, 176, 178New Deal, the, 21New Orleans, 6, 9, 73. See also

Original Dixieland Jass BandNew York, 7, 19, 77–8

immigrant neighborhoods, 21–3in song, 95–6See also Little Italy; Mulberrry Street

newspapers, 23–4, 25, 98, 185positive images of Italians, 24, 41, 78radical, 141See also La follia di New York

Nobile, Umberto, 98, 214n48nomadism

of emigrants, 17, 109, 112as methodology, 14, 163

nostalgia, 66, 72, 158, 176, 193n16relief of, 23, 36, 37in songs, 55, 62, 104, 112, 121,

142, 204n61See also loss

Noto, Oreste, 42



254 TOPICAL INDEX

“O Katharina!,” 91, 105Ohnet, Georges, 140opera, 27–8

changes in listening to, 51vs. commercial music, 9

opera housesBrooklyn Academy of Music

(BAM), 14, 27, 92, 185, 193n21Metropolitan Opera House, 27–8,

43, 44, 49, 165, 170, 185See also venues

Original Dixieland Jass Band (ODJB), 10, 88, 110–11, 166–7, 186, 229n10. See also La Rocca, Nick

Orsi, Robert, 73–4Owen, William Berry, 48

Paliotti, Vittorio, 3Palomba, Salvatore, 3Parisio, Giulio, 124, 125“Peanut Vendor, The,” 146, 147, 187Peer, Ralph, 147Pepe, Francesco, 186periodiche (private performances),

52. See also Neopolitan song: at private parties

Pesce, Anita, 3, 227n2Petrosino, Joe, 45Pezzano, Mark, 99, 106phonograph records, 46–7, 88

advertising, 39, 48–9, 50–1, 124, 129, 132

as democratic, 10, 47, 51, 53phonographs vs. gramophones, 48,

49–50recording of, 68stores, 25See also diffusion: phonograph

records and; publishing housesPiazzolla, Astor, 219n15Piedigrottas, 40–1, 101–2, 113, 144,

156, 186, 196n2, 198n7in Naples, 15, 149, 197n6, 223n40Rossi, 164–5, 186See also festivals

Pine, Jason, 4, 186

Pittari, Carmelo, 3Ponselle, Rosa, 28popular culture, 5, 79, 133

of Campania, 1–2feminization of, 133, 220–1n1women in, 133–8See also audience; commercial

music; entertainment; high and low cultural hierarchy

Porcasi, Paul, 139Portelli, Sandro, 3, 190n21Porter, Cole, 54, 212–13n34prejudice

against Italians, 44–5against southern Europeans, 18See also ethnic group; race southern

Italy: prejudices against; stereotypeProhibition, 77propaganda, 32–3, 34, 194n29Pryor, Arthur, 170publishing. See books, newspapers,

publishing housespublishing houses, 9, 10, 55, 111,

195–6n1, 197n6, 203n56, 216n57&59, 225n57

Beka, 163Cafiero-Fumo Company, 15La Canzonetta, 25, 100, 113, 122,

145, 152, 163CERIA, 163–4Columbia, 166–7Geniale Records, 144–5, 154–5,

163, 165Italian Book Company, 25, 100, 101,

113, 145, 163, 186Italian Publishing Company, 25Okeh, 167, 186Vincent Publishing Company, 31,

186See also ethnic music; phonograph

records; Victor Talking Machine Company

Puccini, Giacomo, 51, 148“‘Pugilatore italiano, ’O” (The Italian

boxer), 98, 214n49Puglia, Frank, 139



TOPICAL INDEX 255

race, 44–5, 73–5, 111and citizenship, 18records, 167–8, 186See also audience: and race;

African American; ethnic group; southern Italy: and race; whiteness

racket, 26radio, 32–3, 194n29

contemporary Italian-American, 33–7

WOV, 14, 32, 36–7, 104, 154, 187, 194n28

See also venuesragtime, 115, 208n83, 216n62record companies. See publishing

housesRed Seal Catalogue (Victor),

48–9, 51, 169refugees, 22Ricci, 28Rio de la Plata basin, 116“Risa, ’a” (The laughing song), 13,

84–5, 163, 185Riviera Five, 136Romanticism, 2, 66, 219n16Romeyn, Esther, 97Roosevelt, Franklin D., 21, 80,

196–7n4, 208n84Rose, Billy, 101Ruffo, Titta, 28Rulli, Dino, 136rumba, 115, 146, 148, 187, 223n37“Rumba delle fragole, la” (Strawberry

rumba), 115, 146, 147–8, 187Rust, Brian, 6Ryder, Mitch, 182

Sacco and Vanzetti, 141sainete, 117San Francisco, 12, 19, 117, 140, 151,

191–2n7“Santa Lucia luntana” (Santa Lucia far

away), 121, 128, 186, 220n23film, 187, 225n58, 226n64

Sardou, Victorien, 140, 151

Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, 219n13

Sarno, Giovanni, 3sceneggiata, 4, 14, 132, 183, 191n36Schönberg, Arnold, 172schools, 22

music, 30–1segregation, 18

Schuller, Gunther, 75, 110–11, 208n83Scialò, Pasquale, 4Sciotti, Antonio, 4, 150, 223n34“Sciurillo ‘e maggio” (Little may

flower), 157“Scordame” (Forget me), 55, 58Scorsese, Martin, 213n42, 225n58Second World War, 13, 32–4, 36, 74,

181, 183, 227–8n3“Senza mamma” (Without mama),

101, 103, 158, 187, 226n64“Senza mamma e nnammurata”

(Without mama and lover), 155, 226n64

sheet music, 4, 15, 69, 91, 165as means of integration, 8See also diffusion: sheet music and;

stock arrangementshimmy, 114, 152Sicilian (identity), 11, 18, 19, 22, 82,

141–2. See also Italian (identity)Siefert, Marsha, 47, 51Simóns, Moíses, 146Singing Fool, the, 105–6sketch. See macchiettaSlezak, Leo, 51“Sole mio, ’o” (My own sun), 4, 26, 54,

63, 69, 106, 115–16, 186, 218n12“Sonny Boy,” 105–6Sorce Keller, Marcello, 8, 173Sorlin, Victor, 169southern Italy

emigration from, 1, 9, 26and gender, 137prejudices against, 44, 96and race, 18, 73–5, 208–9n84“the southern question,” 173, 230n1,

230n3



256 TOPICAL INDEX

southern Italy—Continued“southernism,” 45, 199n18urban entertainment, 210n4See also dialect; Italian (identity);

Italian (language); Italian-American; Neapolitan (identity)

Spottswood, Richard K. See discography: Spottswood

Springsteen, Bruce, 182“Sta terra nun fa pi mia” (This land is

not for me), 142statues, 23Stazio, Marialuisa, 3, 5, 202–3n55Stept, Sam H., 91stereotype, 34, 35, 44–5, 137, 198n10

of the musician, 175–6in theater, 81, 82, 110See also prejudice; southern Italy

stock arrangement, 8, 84, 85, 211–12n8Stravinsky, Igor, 172studio band, 88, 170–1suffrage, 13, 134–5Sunshine, Marion, 146“Sultanto a te” (Only to you), 55, 58

Tamanini, Lawrence, 34–5“Tammurriata di Pimonte,” 2, 189n1tango, 65–6, 116, 145, 175, 183, 186,

187, 204–5n62, 205n63, 218n7maxixe (Brazilian tango), 114, 116origins, 118–19, 219n15See also habanera

“Tango delle geishe, il” (Geisha tango), 130, 145, 148

“Tango rag,” 205n63tarantella, 59“Tarantella sincera” (Heartfelt

tarantella), 55, 59, 63, 224n56taste, 178–9, 181technology, 46–7, 177

and aesthetics, 51, 53, 74strangeness of, 10, 49, 52and urbanization, 174See also cinema; phonograph

records; radiotenements, 23, 89, 96, 192–3n15Tetrazzini, Luisa, 28

theaters, 20, 30, 31, 151, 176, 193n20marionette, 20, 81Thalia Theater, 29–30, 31vaudeville, 28, 78, 89, 151, 200n29See also entertainment; venues

Thérien, Robert, 168, 169“Tiempo antico” (Olden times), 56, 59–61transnational culture, 2, 6, 162, 178Troianelli, Enza, 12

“Uocchie celeste” (Blue eyes), 55, 59, 63, 202n47, 224n56

urbanization, 71, 81, 90, 96–7, 174in Italy, 4–5

Vaccaro, Riccardo, 59–60, 202n44Vajro, Max, 3Valentino, Rodolfo, 110Van Vechten, Carl, 20vaudeville, 27, 33, 98, 110, 133, 137–8,

193n20, 203n56influence of, 88recordings, 49women performers, 137–8, 153See also theaters: vaudeville

venues, 19, 26–7, 28–9, 46, 78. See also cinema: cinemas; coffee houses; concert halls; festivals; Piedigrottas; radio; schools: music; theaters; opera houses

Verdi, Giuseppe, 23vernacular. See also dialect“Vesti la giubba,” 53, 208n83Victor Salon Orchestra, 169, 170–1,

178. See also Shilkret, Nathaniel

Victor Talking Machine Company, 47, 48–9, 50, 53, 72, 165, 168–9. See also Caruso, Enrico: contract with Victor Company

“Volver” (Return), 66Von Stroheim, Eric, 139

waltz, 67, 100, 103, 112, 122, 145, 157Washington, Booker T., 72–6, 186Whiteman, Paul, 171whiteness, 18, 73–4, 75, 81



TOPICAL INDEX 257

Wilde, Oscar, 140, 196n4Williams, Tennessee, 140women. See emigration: women

and; jazz: women’s bands; popular culture: women in; vaudeville: women performers

workers, 18, 46WOV. See radio: WOV

Zappa, Frank, 182“Zi Tore” (Uncle Tore), 100–1Ziegfeld, Florenz, 43Zucchero, 35



Acciani,Tobia, 78, 205n63Acierno, Feliciano, 29, 31, 144, 155,

186, 222n33Acierno, Franco (Frank), 144, 155Aguglia, Mimì, 13, 30, 78, 127,

138–43, 151, 153, 185, 215n55Albano, Ferdinando, 100Albin, Gustavo, 113, 131, 186Alessandro, Antonietta

Pisanelli, 151Altavilla, Pasquale, 211n16Amato, Gennaro, 78Amauli, Giulio, 31, 36, 37Amodio, Frank, 41, 93, 99, 105,

159, 205n64Andreatini, Gilda. See Mignonette,

GildaAndreatini, Oscar, 151Anselmi, Angelo, 151Aratoli, Alfred, 147Arvizu, Juan, 166Aschettino, Ciro, 112Aversano, Nick, 101, 104, 159

Balsamo, Raffaele, 102–4, 105, 152–3, 179, 186

Baratta, Salvatore, 41, 78, 150, 151, 224n52

Barile, Franco, 165Barthelemy, Riccardo, 56, 202n44Bascetta, Alfredo, 31, 78, 103, 141,

156, 158, 225n57Battiparano, Enrico, 102, 145Bellezza, Vincenzo, 54

Benjamin, Dorothy, 60Bennett, Leonore, 205n63Berti, Rita, 14, 156Bianchi, Gennaro, 78Bideri, Ferdinando, 63, 120,

186, 196n2, 197n6, 203n56, 216n58

Bijou, Ester, 154Bijou, Ninì, 115, 154, 186Billi, Vincenzo, 202n44Biricchina, Ninì, 154Bonagura, Enzo, 146Bonavolontà, Giuseppe, 100, 112Bonci, Alessandro, 51, 196–7n4Bonnard, Mario, 111Bourdon, Rosario, 168–9, 170Bovio, Libero, 4, 54, 100, 122, 158,

220n24, 228n5Bracco, C. A., 202n44Brandi, Leo, 78, 127Bruges, Ada (Ida Papaccio), 126, 153,

154, 166Bruno, Aldo, 78Bruno, Amelia, 154Bruno, Stella, 154Bufano, Remo, 20Buongiovanni, Francesco, 152, 158Buongiovanni, Pasquale, 102,

144, 187, 214–15n53, 224n56

Buti, Carlo, 156, 187

Califano, Aniello, 196n2, 216n58Camerlingo, D. J., 159

Name Index



260 NAME INDEX

Camerlingo, Gennaro, 41, 55, 58, 59, 78, 152, 157, 158, 224n56

Campagnone, Catherine, 226n64Campobasso, Alberto, 102, 222n33Canoro, Luigi, 99, 157, 214–15n53Cantalamessa, Berardo, 84, 163,

185, 212n19Capolongo, Gennaro, 105Capurro, Giovanni, 4, 54, 101, 115Caputo, Mauro, 14, 112, 182Cardilli, Mauro V., 100Cardillo, Salvatore, 55, 156, 186,

195–6n1Cardillo, Vincenzo, 25Cardini, Giovanna.

See De Charny, NinaCardoville, Ida, 154Carnera, Primo, 98, 214n50Carroll, Earl, 56Caruso, Enrico. See Caruso, Enrico;

Gaisberg, Fred; Giachetti, AdaCaslar, Dan (Donato Casolaro), 78,

109–12, 175, 186Castellucci, Omero, 145Cataldo, F., 159Cennerazzo, Armando, 100–2, 159,

185, 187, 202n52Chiappello, Carly, 112, 185Chiurazzi, Raffaele, 100Ciannelli, Eduardo, 62, 202n54, 229n17Ciaramella, Roberto, 78, 125, 126,

144, 152, 154–5, 166, 186, 187, 222n33, 225n57

Cibelli, Alfredo, 91, 165–6, 185, 228n5, 228–9n7

Cibelli, Eugenio, 224n56Cioffi, Giuseppe, 146Coll, E. Palacio, 166Columbo, Russ, 216–17n64Como, Perry, 176Conte, Luisa, 15Contursi, Enrico, 114, 186Cordiferro, Riccardo. See Sisca,

AlessandroCoruzzolo, Silvia, 154–5, 166, 186,

222n33

Cossovich, Enrico, 54Costantino, 51Cottone, Melchiorre Mauro, 28Cottrau, Teodoro, 54Creatore, Giuseppe, 9, 185, 194–5n30

Daddi, Francesco, 152Damone, Vic, 182Darin, Bobby, 182D’Avanzo, Nicolino, 101De Caro, Frank, 82De Charny, Nina (Giovanna Cardini),

157–8De Crescenzo, Vincenzo, 28, 55, 58–9,

78, 102, 150, 151, 152, 155, 185, 201–2n43, 224n52

De Curtis, Ernesto, 54, 159, 196–7n4De Laurentiis, Giuseppe, 8, 78, 93–9,

100, 175, 187, 205n64, 214n50De Luca, Giuseppe, 78, 102, 103, 144,

159, 187, 195–6n1De Luca, Raffaele (Ralph), 40, 101, 103De Martino, Giacomo, 25De Matienzo, Teresa, 29–30, 31, 138,

150–3, 154De Nunzio, Arthur, 159De Rosalia, Giovanni. See NofrioDe Stefano, Ettore, 39De Stefano, Rosina, 10, 78, 138, 155,

226n64De Vito, Mariano, 112Defrancesco, Joey, 35Del Colle, Giovanni, 100Del Gaizo, Diodato, 152Denza, Luigi, 56Di Capua, Eduardo, 54, 115, 181,

229n8Di Capua, Ernesto, 54Di Giacomo, Salvatore, 3, 4, 135,

189n1Di Landa, Annita, 122, 199Dia, Dick, 14DiMucci, Dion, 182Donadio, Luigi, 101, 103, 155, 157,

159, 226n64Donnarumma, Elvira, 225n57



NAME INDEX 261

Ducal, Rodolfo, 166Durante, Jimmy, 93

Esposito, Gaetano. See PasqualottoEsposito, P. L. (Pasquale Esposito), 55,

61, 65, 72, 78, 101Esposito, Raffaele, 163

Farfariello (Eduardo Migliaccio). See Farfariello

Feola, Francesco, 101, 152Ferraù, Vincenzo, 139–40Ferrazzano, Tony, 81, 91–2Forte, Fabian, 182Fougez, Anna, 3, 136Franchi, Luigia, 138Francis, Connie, 176, 182Franco, Gino, 113Frustaci, Pasquale, 114, 159Fucito, Salvatore, 55, 58Funicello, Annette, 182

Gabrè, Nino, 104Gaeta, Giovanni Ermete.

See Mario, E. A.Gaisberg, Fred, 49, 163, 185,

199–200n26. See also Caruso, Enrico

Galdieri, Michele, 111Galdieri, Rocco, 120Gallo, Fortunato, 30Gambardella, Salvatore, 63, 152,

203n56, 216n58Garcia, Manuele, 27, 185Gardel, Carlos, 65–6, 118, 166, 186Gardenia, Gennaro and

Vincenzo, 15Gatti-Casazza, Giulio, 43Genoino, Giulio, 64Giachetti, Ada, 60, 198n10.

See also Caruso, EnricoGiambone, Nicola, 41GianNinì, Diego, 214n53Gigli, Beniamino, 3, 28, 111, 224n56Giglio, Clemente, 29–30, 82Gildo, Armando, 157, 225n61

Gill, Armando, 55, 113, 201n41, 224n56, 225n61

Gioè, Giuseppe, 55, 61–2, 65, 72, 101, 159

Gioia, Mario, 132, 165Giordano, Mimì, 115, 187Giovannelli, Attilio, 78Giuliani, Americo, 113Godsoe, Harold, 187, 225n58,

226n64Grasso, Giovanni, 19, 139Grauso, Antonio, 39Gravina, Cesare, 139Griffo, Giovanni, 114Guarnieri, Fernando, 206n66Guizar, Tito, 166

Howard, William K., 146

Ietti, Domenico (Jetti), 41, 101, 155, 226n64

Ingenito, Giovanni, 102, 157Invernizio, Carolina, 24, 135Iraci, John, 36, 194n28Izzo, Guido, 164, 201n43

Johnson, Albert, 136Johnson, Eldridge R., 48, 49, 51, 53,

199n25Johnson, George W., 84, 185Johnson, Lydia, 136

King, Eddie, 170King, Irving, 83

La Capria, Raffaele, 148, 223n39La Rocca, Nick, 110, 229n10.

See also Original Dixieland Jass Band

Lama, Gaetano, 78, 101, 113, 119–20, 121–2, 145, 148, 186, 224n52

Libardo (Libaldi), 157, 225n61Lombardo, Gay, 28Lovano, Joe, 35Loveri, Carlo, 114, 187Luciano, Lucky, 223n34



262 NAME INDEX

Mafalda (Mafalda Carta), 156, 198n7, 225n59

Maggi, Luigi, 139Maggio, Mimì, 155, 186, 222n33Magliani, Agostino, 140Magnani, Anna, 135Maiori, Antonio, 29, 226n66Maldacea, Nicola, 83, 84, 215n55Mario, E. A. (Giovanni Ermete Gaeta),

51, 53, 54, 62, 85, 110, 111, 121, 125, 126–8, 147, 200, 201

Marks, Charley, 91Marrone, Mario, 115, 187Martin, Dean, 35, 93, 176, 182Martin, Riccardo, 51Martini, Nino, 28Martoglio, Nino, 139Mascheroni, Vittorio, 56Masiello, Joe, 14, 106, 154, 179Massey, Guy, 105Matino, Pat, 35Mazzini, Giuseppe, 23Melina, Alfredo, 41, 78, 150, 152Merola, Mario, 14Miccio, Tony, 159Migliaccio, Arnold, 85Migliaccio, Eduardo. See FarfarielloMignonette, Gilda (Gilda Andreatini),

4, 10, 29, 78, 115, 129, 138, 143–50, 153, 154–5, 156, 158, 165, 166, 178, 179, 187, 198n7, 205n64, 214n53, 222n33, 227–8n3, 229n8

Milano, Giuseppe, 91, 100–1, 104–6, 132, 152, 214

Minciotti, Silvio, 36Mongillo, Antonio, 39, 196n2Mongillo, Pietro, 25Montagna, Alberto, 152, 224n51Musco, Angelo, 19, 139

Nardi, Mauro, 14, 182Nicolardi, Edoardo, 152Nicolò, Mario, 78, 101, 114, 122, 145,

158, 163–5, 186, 187Nofrio (Giovanni De Rosalia), 29, 30,

41, 82, 133, 165, 211n14

Notari, Elvira, 12, 135Nutile, Emanuele, 54

Onofri, Guglielmo, 102Ostuni, Mario, 101Ottaviano, Gennaro, 224n50

Palumbo, Dolores, 15Paolella, Mariano, 64Parisi, (couple), 32Pasqualotto (Gaetano Esposito), 31,

61, 103, 158Pasquariello, Gennaro, 14Pasternak, Josef, 54, 169Patti, Adelina, 27, 47, 185, 193n21Pennino, Francesco, 78, 101, 103, 104,

157, 158, 187, 226n64Pennino, Gaetano, 152, 154Prima, Louis, 10, 181–2Profes, Anton, 91

Quaranta, Gennaro, 31, 102, 151, 159Quaranta, Salvatore, 78, 102

Reibold, Bruno, 91, 168Renard, Carlo (Carlo Della Volpe), 78,

101, 156Rendine, Furio, 15Ricciardi, Gugliemo, 29, 158, 226n66Ripoli, Pasquale, 113, 131, 164, 186Rogers, Walter B., 54Romani, Romano, 105, 148, 168Ronca, Giovanni, 92Ronca, Pasquale, 92Rosa, Ria, 10, 99, 106, 138, 155–6, 157,

187, 214–15n53, 225n57Roselli, Jimmy, 14Rossi, Ernesto, 163, 186, 227–8n3Rossi, Louis, 154–6, 227–8n3Russo, Ferdinando, 4, 54Russo, Salvatore, 41Russo, Vincenzo, 4, 54, 181, 229n8

Sacerdoti, Renzo, 36Santelia, Gina, 156, 158–9Schipa, Tito, 111, 224n56



NAME INDEX 263

Scotti, Vito, 159Secchi de Casali, G. F., 24Segrè, Raffaello, 55, 159, 196n2Shilkret, Arthur, 170, 172Shilkret, Nathaniel, 83–4, 103, 168,

169–72, 186. See also Victor Salon Orchestra

Sigismondi, Aristide, 32Sinatra, Frank, 35, 176, 182,

216–17n64Sisca, Alessandro (Riccardo

Cordiferro), 36, 39, 42, 54–5, 76, 78, 186, 187, 195–6n1, 214–15n53. See also La follia di New York

Sisca, Francesco, 39, 185. See also La follia di New York

Sisca, Marziale, 39. See also La follia di New York

Somma, Vittorio, 31, 214–15n53Sousa, John Philip, 27, 54, 169, 170,

193n22Stella, Clara, 138, 155

Tagliaferri, Eduardo, 112Tagliaferri, Ernesto, 103, 122, 155, 159Taranto, Nino, 15Tetamo, Giuseppe, 164Tieri, Francois, 216–17n64Tirado, Alfonso Ortiz, 166Tocci, Francesco, 25Tortora, S. N. (Salvatore Neri), 148Tosti, Francesco Paolo, 54, 56

Vale, Jerry, 14Valente, Nicola, 122, 152, 224n52Valli, Frankie, 182Vanni, Pietro, 25Vento, Pacifico, 114, 158, 164, 187Venuti, Joe, 171Verdile, Alessandro, 41Viviani, Raffaele, 144, 222n32

Warren, Harry (Salvatore Guaragna), 91, 175, 212–13n34

Weinberg, Mortimer, 91

Yon, Pietro, 28


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