confidence and motivation in design thinking

Confidence and Motivation in Design Thinking 1

Confidence and Motivation in Design Thinking

Exploring the differences between seasoned and first time practitioners and their confidence in the process

RolfLorenGuzonAcevedoDepartmentofProductDesign

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology

ABSTRACT Withtheincreasingpopularityandapplicationofdesignthinkingwealsoseeanincreaseintheamountoffirsttimepractitionersfromvariousprofessionalandacademicbackgrounds.Thispapersetouttouncoverthedifferentgapsthatmayoccurbetweenthepractitionerandtheprocess,andhowtonarrowthosegaps.

Gapscanmeananythingfromdoubts,questions,insecuritiesetc.,thatresultsinthepractitionerdistancingthemselvesfromtheprocessandinturnmightleadtolossofmotivationanddrive.

Practitionersweredividedintofourdifferentcategoriesbasedontheirpreviousexperiencewithdesignthinkingandtheninterviewed.Thefourprinciplesofdesignthinkingwereusedasthebasis,inaddition,a

contentanalysiswasdonepriortotheinterview.Thecontentgatheredwascloselyrelatedtothepractitioneronapersonallevelandtoskillsandelementsbeneficialfordesignthinkers.Asampleof15practitionerswere

interviewedinasemistructured,conversationalform,onebyone.

Centralfindingswerethatthethedifferencebetweenhavingexperiencewithinthefieldoftheproblemyouwanttosolvehadlesseffectcomparedtothedifferencebetweenhavingexperiencewiththeprocessornot.

Furthermore,theteamplaysabigrolewhenitcomestotheoverallexperience.Theteamcompositionanddynamicscancreategreatbenefitsforallthepractitionersbyforinstancecreating

acreativeenvironmenttothrivein.Thiswasespeciallytrueforthefirsttimers.Itcanhoweverworktheoppositewayaswell,andtheresultssuggestthatforinstance,onesingleteammembercouldpotentiallydragthewholeteamdownandcreategapsforalltheparticipantswithinthatteam.Theambiguityofthedesignthinkingprocessplayedabigpartwhenitcametocreatinggaps,thishowevervarieddependingonthe

practitioner’sbackgroundandpreferencetoproblemsolving.Itwasalsouncoveredthattheiterativestepsoftheprocessandfocusingontheprocessandnottheoutcome,couldhelpthepractitionersstaymore

connectedtothedesignthinkingprocess.

KEYWORDS: Designthinking,Experience,Practitionersatisfaction,Doubt,Skeptic,Creativity,Socialskill,Confidence,Team,Atmosphere,Mindset


1. INTRODUCTIONDesignthinkingisbecomingmoreandmoreadaptedbypeoplefromdifferentprofessionalandacademicbackgrounds.Organizationsfromsmallstart-upsallthewaytolargecompaniesacknowledgethevalueitcancreate,bothoutcomerelatedandalsolongertermeffectsoncompetences,innovationprocessesandmindset.[4].Ideaslikeleanstartup[1],customerdevelopment[2]andbusinessmodelgeneration[3]arewidelyspread,implementedandsharecertainelementsdirectlywithdesignthinking.Creatingteamsoutofpeoplewithdifferentbackgrounds,alsoknownasinterdisciplinarityisanessentialprerequisitefordesignthinking[5].Thisisunderlinedbythebasicprincipleofradicalcollaboration[6].Thismeansthatinadditiontohavingpeoplewithdifferentbackgroundsandperspectivesonateam,itisalsoimportanttomakesurethatthewholeteamworktogetherthroughthestepsoftheprocess.Inotherwords,youdonotwanttodivideuptasksbasedonwhatismostsuitableforthemembersoftheteam.Interdisciplinarityandradicalcollaborationsinpracticeleadstovaryinglevelsofexperienceandexpertisewiththeprocesswithintheteam.Alotofthepractitionersmaybefirsttimers,comefrombackgroundswithaverydifferentwayofthinkinganddoing,orsomethinginbetween.Thepurposeofthispaperistoexplorethepossiblegapscreatedbythevaryingexperiencelevelofdesignthinkingpractitioners.Bygapswemeanfactorsthatdistancethepractitionerfromtheprocess.Thiscanforinstancehappenwhenthepractitionerstartdoubtingthetoolsused,ortheystarttoquestiontheuseoftheirtime.Thepaperwillbeintheformofadirectedcontentanalysisfollowedbyqualitativeinterviewsofpractitioners.Thecontentanalysiswillconsistofpriorresearchandexistingtheory.Theresourcesarecollectedfromvariousfieldsandgroupedintoclusters.Theresourceswillthenbeputupagainstthefindingsfromtheinterviewsanddiscussed.

Figure1(Original):Illustratingthegapthatcanoccurduringtheprocess.Thethresholdisforadaptingdesignthinkingandstartingtouseityourself.Thethicklineillustratesfirsttime

practitionerswhilethethinlineisforsecondtimepractitionersormore.

1.1HowthepractitionerfeelsThisstudywillfocusonhowthepractitionerfeelsregardingdesignthinking.Morespecificallywefocusontheirsenseoftrusttowardstheprocessandwewillalsotrytouncoverwhichaspectsofdesignthinkingaremostlikelytoraisequestionsandbywhom.Thepractitionerandtheirpointofviewisthepriorityofthisstudy,meaningthattheresultsfromthestakeholders’pointofviewislessprioritized,unlessitisdirectlylinkedtohowthepractitionerfeelsaboutdesignthinking.Itishoweversafetoassumethatthesatisfactionofthepractitionerandthesatisfactionofthestakeholdersincludingtheenduser,arecorrelated.Afterall,empathytowardstheuseriskeyindesignthinking[7]2. DESIGNTHINKINGTRAITS Thedesignthinkingprocessisastructuredprocesstowardssolvingproblems,creativelynavigatingthroughthreeconstraints;‘feasibility’,‘viability’and‘desirability’[5].Theprocesscanbeillustratedbyforinstancefiveiterativestepstypicaloftheprocess,whichare‘empathize’,‘define’,‘ideate’,‘prototype’and‘test’[7].Thisisoneexampleofmanyanddifferent


interpretationscanbefoundallthewayfromcontainingsevensteps[8],downtoasimplified4stepinterpretation[9].‘Creativity’,‘ambidextrousthinking’,‘teamwork’,‘user-centeredness’,‘curiosity’and‘optimism’aretraitslistedascommonfordesignthinking[11].Thesetraitswillbefurtherdiscussedthroughoutthedifferenttopicsofthispaper.In2010researchersdefinedfourprinciplestodesignthinking[12]whichare:

• Thehumanrule–alldesignactivityisultimatelysocialinnature.Studiessuggestthatsuccessfulinnovationthroughdesignthinkingactivitieswillalwaysbringusbacktothe“human-centricpointofview”.Thisistheimperativetosolvetechnicalproblemsinwaysthatsatisfyhumanneedandacknowledgethehumanelement.

• Theambiguityrule–designthinkersmustpreserveambiguity.“chancediscovery”isnotpossibleiftheboxisclosedtightly.Innovationdemandsexperimentationatthelimitsofourknowledge,atthelimitsofourabilitytocontrolevents,andwithfreedomtoseethingsdifferently.

• There-designrule–alldesignisre-

design.Becausetechnologyandsocialcircumstanceschangeconstantly,itisimperativetounderstandhowneedshavebeenaddressedinthepast.Wecanthenapply“foresighttoolsandmethods”tobetterestimatesocialandtechnicalconditionswewillencounterinthefuture.

• Thetangibilityrule–makingideas

tangiblealwaysfacilitatescommunication.“Prototypesarecommunicationmedia”andmakingthemtangibleopensupnewpossibilities.Thereispotentiallymoreinsighttobe

gainedbymakingsomethingtangiblethanjustwritingtheideaonpaperandtryingtoexplainit.

Thosefourprincipleswillbeusedasaframeworkforthisstudyincludingtheinterview.2.1PersonalpractitionertraitsThisstudy’smainpurposeistouncovergapsthatmayoccurbetweenthepractitionerandthedesignthinkingprocess.Thesegapsmaybedoubt,skepticism,insecurityetc.,andmayoccurfrompreviousexperience,academicorprofessionalbackgroundandmindsettonameafew.Gapsinthiscontextarethingsthatleadtothepractitionerdistancingherselffromtheprocess.Wehavethefourprinciplesofdesignthinkingservingasafundamentinourmissiontofindthesegaps,butwealsoneedtoconnectthepractitionertotheseprinciples.Weneedtolookevencloseratthepractitionerasanindividualandseehowdifferentaspectsofthem,mayaffecthowtheyviewdesignthinkingandthedifferentstepsandmeasureswithintheprocess.Wecallthesepersonalpractitionertraits,andtheywillbeusedalongsidethefourprinciplestodiscusstheresultsoftheinterviews.2.1.1CreativityTherearealotofdifferentdefinitionstocreativity,butMichaelMumfordsuggeststhat:‘creativityinvolvestheproductionofnovel,usefulproducts’[18].Dr.E.PaulTorrancedescribescreativityas:‘aprocessofbecomingsensitivetoproblems,deficiencies,gapsinknowledge,missingelements,disharmoniesandsoon;identifyingthedifficulty;searchingforsolutions,makingguessesorformulatinghypothesesaboutthedeficiencies:testingandretestingthesehypothesesandpossiblymodifyingandretestingthem;andfinallycommunicatingtheresults’[19].


Dr.E.PaulTorrance’smoredetaileddefinitionmightseemmoreinlinewithcreativityindesignthinking,butMichaelMumford’sstatementdoesnotexcludecreativityfromdesignthinkingeither.Whenconnectingcreativitytoapersonallevelandlookingatitasatrait,JeffDyer,HalGregersen&ClaytonM.Christensenhasdonesomeinterestingfindsregardingwhatcharacterizesaninnovator[20].Throughsurveysof500innovatorsand5000executivesin75countriesandInterviewsofinventors,foundersandCEOsofinnovative,game-changingcompaniestheystatethattherearefivediscoveryskillsessentialforinnovation‘Associating’,‘Questioning’,‘Observing’,‘Networking’and‘Experimenting’.

Figure2:Fivediscoveryskillsfrom

theinnovatorsDNA[20].Pleasenotethatallthefiguresinthispaperhavebeenremadeinordertofittheformatbetter.Theoriginalsourcewill

bereferredto.Basedontheattributeswefoundfordesignthinkingweseethattheygotogetherwell,anddonotethatthe‘associationalthinking’skillisconnectedtotherest(seefigure2).

MoreinterestinglyJeffDyer,HalGregersen&ClaytonM.Christensenarereferringtoresearchdonebyagroupofresearchers[21].Bystudyingcreativeabilitiesin117pairsofidenticalandfraternaltwins,theyfoundthatonlyabout30%oftheperformanceofidenticaltwinsonabatteryoftencreativitytestscouldbeattributedgenetics.creativityisnotagenetictrait,butsomethingthatcanbeacquired.Sixothercreativitystudiesofidenticaltwinsconfirmthisnumberandtheypointtowards25-40%ofcreativityattributedtogenetics.[22]Sowhatdoesittaketobecomecreativeifitisnotageneticattribute.AccordingtoTeresaAmabile,therearethreecomponentstocreativity[23]:‘Expertise’,whichistechnical,proceduralandintellectualknowledge.‘Creativethinkingskills’,whicharehowflexiblyandimaginativelypeopleapproachproblemsand‘Motivation’,whereintrinsicismoreeffectivethanextrinsic.Bycombiningallofthesethreeyouwillhavecreativity[23].

Figure3:Thethreecomponentsofcreativity

accordingtoTeresaAmabile[49]


DanPinkstatesthat‘mostinventionsandbreakthroughscomefromreassemblingexistingideasinnewways.’[24]SteveJobsandAlbertEinsteinviewedcreativityascombinatoryplayorconnectingthedots[25]DonotethesimilaritybetweenthisandMeinel’s‘there-designrule’[12]2.1.2ConstraintsCreativitylovesconstraints,CaneelK.Joycesuggeststhatwhilesomeamountofchoiceisimportantforencouragingcreativity,toomuchcanbecounterproductive[26]Thisisbackedbypractitioners[27].AndthoughtleaderslikeTeresaAmabile[28],DavidHansson[29]andDavidKelley[30]tonameafew.2.1.3Causalvs.effectualreasoningSarasD.Sarasvathyhasdonealotofworkwithentrepreneursandwhatmakesthementrepreneurial.Asanentrepreneuryouhavetobecreativegiventherestrictedresourcesliketime,moneyandhuman.Inordertosucceed,oneneedstobeinnovativeinonewayoranother.Saras’studiespointstowardstwodifferentthoughtprocessesandapproachestosolvingproblems.Oneiscalledcausalreasoningandtheotheroneiscalledeffectualreasoning.Thelatterisacommontraitofentrepreneursandinherwordsit’sabout‘believinginayet-to-be-madefuturethatcanbeshapedbyhumanactionandrealizingthat,totheextentthatsuchactioncancontrolthefuture,oneneednotexpendenergytryingtopredictit.Itismuchmoreusefultounderstandandworkwiththepeoplewhoareengagedinthedecisionsandactionsthatbringitintoexistence.’[31]

Figure4:Causalvs.Effectualreasoning[50]Effectualreasoningisallaboutusingtheavailableresourcesintherightwaytocreateapathtothesolutionofaproblem,asopposedtoknowingthewaytothesolutionbeforehandandtryingtoexecuteinordertogetthere.Inordertosuccessfullydoso,oneneedtohavesocialandassociatingskillssoonecanmobilizepeopleinthecorrectway,confidencetotaketheteamtowardstheunknownandcreativitytocomeupwithdifferentsolutionpaths.Ifwelookatentrepreneursasindividualsoperatinginanenvironmentnaturallyconstrained[32]andthattheirsuccessandvaluecreationisdependentontheircreativity,wecanconnectthatdefinitiontotherolesofassociationandambidextrousthinking[11][20]andseehoweffectualthinkingmaybebeneficialfordesignthinkingpractitioners.


2.1.4HunchesNobelpeaceprizewinnerineconomicsprof.DanielKahnemanisapioneerwithinthefieldofcognitivepsychologyanddecisionmaking.Hisworkhasrevealedthattherearetwosystemsworkinginourbrain.System1andsystem2,alsoaddressedasfastandslowthinking.Duetotheamountofinformationourbrainhastoprocessthroughoutthecourseofaday,wemostofthetimeoperatewithinsystem1orfastthinking.Thiswayofthinkingworksfast,subconsciouslyandintuitively.Oncewemeetataskthatcannotbesolvedthroughsystem1,system2willkickin,whichisanalyticalandgoodatsolvingmorecomplexproblems.Thisishoweveramoredemandingprocessandourpupilsdilateandwebecomemorefocused.[33]Moreimportantlyforthisstudy,istorealizethathumansoperateandaremorecomfortablewithinsystem1.Weareexpertsattakingshortcutsandmakingassumptionsinordertomakelifeeasier.System1isanecessityinordertonotoverloadthebrainwithtaskstobesolvedfromdaytoday.

Figure5:System1andSystem2thinking[51]

Hunchesorgutfeelingisanothertopicrelatedtofastthinking,andresearchshowsthatactingonhunchescanbepowerfulwhenusedinthecorrectway[34].DuringastudybyGaryKleinheinterviewedafiremanwho’shunchsavedhisandhissquadrons’lifefromacollapsinghouse[35].AccordingtoEugeneSadlerSmithintuitioninformsmanyethicaldecisions;itaidscreativity,itisaboutfeelingsanditdoesnotspeaktousinword,butinimageryormetaphor[36].Weseethatthisideaiscompatiblewiththetangibilityruleofdesignthinking[12].Sadler-SmithbuildsontheworkofNobelprizewinnerHerbertSimon,whostudieddecisionmakinginchessandofchessplayerswithover10000hoursofpracticebehindthem[37][38].AccordingtoSadler-Smith,intuitionworkswhenlongexperienceissaltedawayandtheninstantlyrecalledbythenon-consciousmind.‘Therearenoshortcuts’hesays.‘Youhavetohavehadtheexplicitlearning,theexpertise,theexperiences;youranalyticalmindcompressesallthatstuffandfeedsitintolong-termmemory.’[34]2.1.5FlowHunchesandfastthinkingaresub-consciousprocessesinourminds.MihalyCsikszentmihalyihasdonealotofresearchonwhathecallstheoptimalexperience,thosetimeswhenpeoplereportfeelingsofconcentrationanddeepenjoyment.Ithasrevealedthatastateofconsciousnesscalledflow[39]iswhatmakesanexperiencegenuinelysatisfying.Peopletypicallyfeelstrong,alert,ineffortlesscontrol,unselfconsciousandatthepeakoftheirabilities.Bothasenseoftimeandemotionalproblemsseemtodisappearandthereisanexhilaratingfeelingoftranscendence.Therearethreeconditionsthatmustbemetinordertoachievethestateofflow.[39]


1. Onemustbeinvolvedinanactivitywithaclearsetofgoalsandprogress.Thisaddsdirectionandstructuretothetask.

2. Thetaskathandmusthaveclearandimmediatefeedback.Thishelpsthepersonnegotiateanychangingdemandsandallowsthemtoadjusttheirperformancetomaintaintheflowstate.

3. Onemusthaveagoodbalancebetween

theperceivedchallengesofthetaskathandandtheirownperceivedskills.Onemusthaveconfidenceinone'sabilitytocompletethetaskathand.

Inaddition,thereisalsoaphenomenoncalledgroupflow,thatmightappealtodesignthinking.Thishappenswhenflowbecomesinherentlymutualwithinagroup.Csikszentmihalyisuggestsseveralmeasuresinordertofacilitategroupflow[40]:

1. Creativespatialarrangements:Chairs,pinwalls,charts,butnotables;thusworkprimarilystandingandmoving

2. Playgrounddesign:Chartsforinformationinputs,flowgraphs,projectsummary,craziness(herealsocrazinesshasaplace),safeplace(hereallmaysaywhatisotherwiseonlythought),resultwall,opentopics

3. Parallel,organizedworking4. Targetgroupfocus5. Advancementofexistingone

(iterativeprototyping)6. Increaseinefficiencythrough

visualization7. Usingdifferencesamongparticipantsas

anopportunity,ratherthananobstacle.

2.1.6CreativeconfidenceTomKelleyandDavidKelleyhavewrittenabook[41]wheretheydescribecreativeconfidenceandhowitisthekeytounleashingthecreativepotentialwithinusall.Aswesawearlierinthispaper,previousresearchsuggeststhatcreativityissomethingthatcanbelearned[22].AccordingtoTomandDavidtheonethingthatholdsusbackistheconfidencewithinourselves.Wearefromanearlyageconditionedtonotbecreative,butpredictableandreliable.Hencemostofusdisregardthefactthatwehavecreativepotential[41].Wewillnotgotoomuchindepthinthefieldofcreativeconfidenceastherehasbeendonealotofgoodresearchonit,alsowithinthefieldofdesignthinking.Onethingtonoticeisthatastudyfrom2010suggeststhatthedesignthinkingprocessisoneofmanypossiblepathwaystocreativeconfidence[6].2.1.7MindsetCarolDweckhasstudiedmindsetandwhatshecalls‘thepsychologyofsuccess’.Thereisalotofvaluableinsightinherworkandthroughitshehasidentifiedtwodifferentmindsetsinpeople.Agrowthmindsetandafixedmindset,wherethelatteristhemostcommonone.[44]


Figure6:Fixedvs.GrowthMindset[52]Peoplewithafixedmindsettendtothinkthatourpersonalskillsandabilitiesissomethingthathasbeendefinedbyourgeneticsandwhoweareasaperson.Thisimpliesthatpeoplewhohavemasteredacertainskillweredestinedtodoit.Theyhavebecomegreatatwhattheydobecauseitwassomethingtheyweremeanttodo.Ontheotherside,thisalsoimpliesthatitishardorimpossibletolearnandmastersomethingyouwerenotmeanttobegoodat.Withafixedmindset,tryingtobecomegoodatsomethingthatisinitiallyhardorsomethingthatyoubelieveyouwerenotmeanttodoisdiscouraging.Failingwithafixedmindsetmeansthatyouhaveproventotheworldthatyouarenotoneofthegiftedones.Hencegatheringtheconfidencetogenuinelytrysomethingnewandunknownbecomesmuchharder[44].

Thisiswhereweseethelinktotheideaofcreativeconfidence,andgiventhatdesignthinkingfacilitatespeoplefromanon-creativebackgroundtobecreativeweseethatmindsetplaysabigrolewhenitcomestopractitionersatisfactionandpotentialgaps.Previousresearchhasalsoshownthatdesignthinkingitselfmayleadtoachangeinmindset[4].Havingagrowthmindsetistheoppositeofafixed.Withagrowthmindsetyoubelievethatskillsandabilitiescanbelearnedandachievedgivenenoughtimeandmotivation.DorecallHerbertSimon’sworkandthatthemasterchessplayerswhoexperiencedhunchesandthestateofflowwhenplayingchesshadover10000hoursofpracticebehindthem[37].Whenhavingagrowthmindset,takingonchallengesbecomelessintimidating.Failing,meaningnotbeingabletodowhatyousetouttodo,justmeansthatyouhavetoworkharderandgrow.Gatheringupconfidenceinyourselfandtheprocessbecomeseasierasthefearoffailingdisappears.Dweckstatesthatthetwomindsetsarenotmutuallyexclusiveandthatmostofusareinbetweengrowthandfixed,withaskewtowardsafixedmindset.However,switchingtoagrowthmindsetissomethingthatallofuscandoandbyknowingandbeingabletodistinguishbetweenthetwo,alotofworktowardsagrowthmindsethasalreadybeendone[44].2.1.8EmpathyEmpathy,thecapacitytounderstandorplaceoneselfinanother’sposition[46]isthekeytoMeinel’s‘thehumanrule’[12]andtheusercenterednessindesign.Developingempathyissomethingthathappensataveryearlystageofourlife[47]anditisessentialinordertointeractwellwithotherpeople.Empathyisnotaskillthatislearnedwhenpracticingdesignthinking.Developingempathy


skillsindesignthinkingmeanslearningtoshiftthefocustowardstheuserandimplementmethodologiesthatfacilitatesthisfocus[7].Whetherornotsomepeoplearemoreempathicthanothersandhowthatplaysaroleinpractitionersatisfactionisbeyondthescopeofthispaper.Wewillinsteadfocusonhowpersonalexperienceaffectstheprocessoflearningempathyinthedesignthinkingcontext.2.1.9CommunicationTheabilitytocommunicatewellisimportantforateam.Indesignthinking,tofacilitatecommunicatingideasinatangiblemannerisimportant,hencethetangibilityrule[12]Conceptualprototypesarecentralindesignthinking,buttheyarealsoviewedascommunicationmedia[12].Thismeansthatmakingconceptsandideastangiblemakesthemeasiertounderstand,alterandprocess.Havingexperiencefromdesignorasimilarfieldmightmakethetangibilityruleeasiertoadaptasitisacommonpracticewithinthesefields.Theconceptofrapidprototyping,MVPsandthereasonwemakethemshouldnotbeunfamiliarforapractitionerwiththerightkindofexperience.Thecasemightbedifferentforsomeonewhoarenotusedtothewayofworking.3.EXPERIENCE3.1DefiningexperienceWewilldefinetwotypesofexperiencebasedonhowexperienceincombinationwiththegatheredcontentmayaffecthowthepractitionerviewsthedesignthinkingprocess.3.1.1ProcessexperienceThefirstoneisexperienceasaresultofhavingpracticeddesignthinkingorasimilarprocessearlier.

Thistypeofexperiencecanbefoundinforinstancedesignprofessionalspracticingdesignthinkinginanewenvironment,likeforinstanceinnovatingabusinessmodel.Wewillcallthis‘processexperience’.3.1.2BackgroundexperienceThesecondtypeofexperienceisaresultofthingsyouhaveexperiencedasaperson.Forexample,youmayhaveneverpracticeddesignthinkingorasimilardesignprocess,butyouhaveacquiredexperiencethroughyourbackgroundandstory.Toillustrateapractitionerwiththistypeofexperiencewecanimagineanaccountantpracticingdesignthinkingforbusinessmodelinnovationwithinauditing.Wewillcallthis‘backgroundexperience’.Keepinmindthatapractitionerwithalotofprocessexperiencedoesnotnecessarilyhaveexperiencewithdesignthinkingasthereareothermethodsthatsharethesamecharacteristicsandattributes.Forexample,aprofessionaldesignerwhohaspracticedindustrialdesignforyears,butneverapplieddesignmethodsoutsidethefieldofdesign.

3.2DifferencebetweennoviceandexpertsThemajordifferencebetweenexpertsandnovicesisthatexpertshaveaccumulatedalargenumberofexamplesofproblemsandsolutionsinaspecificdomainofinterest.[13]

Theabilitytomentallystandbackfromthespecificsoftheaccumulatedexamplesandformmoreabstractconceptualizationsrelatedtotheirdomainofexpertiseisakeycompetencyofanexpert.[14].

Theyarebelievedtobeabletostoreandaccessinformationinlargercognitivechunkscomparedtonovices,andtheycanrecognizeunderlyingprinciplesratherthanfocusingonthesurfacefeaturesofproblems[15][16][17].


Theaccumulationofexperienceisthereforecriticalinthetransformationfromanovicetoanexpert[13].

3.3ExperienceasaconfidenceboosterIn2002P.J.MorganandD.Cleave-Hoggconductedaresearchonthecorrelationbetweenexperienceandconfidenceinmedicalstudents.Afterproviding144medicalstudentswithaquestionnaireandafollowingtesttheyfoundthatthereisagoodcorrelationbetweenclinicalexperienceandlevelofconfidence.Therewerehowevernoindicationsoncorrelationbetweenexperience,confidenceandperformance[45].Wenowseehowthispreviousresearchandknowledgecanlinkbacktotheroleofexperienceandpractitionersatisfactioninthedesignthinkingprocess.4.METHODTheinterviewswereconductedwiththecontentanalysisasbasis.Theyweresemi-structuredwithopenformquestionsandaimedtowardsamoreconversationalflow.Thereasonforthisistheeffectthecontentgatheredplaysonhowthepractitionerfeelsabouttheprocess.Thecontentisbelievedtobecomplexandpartlysubconscious.Thisassumptionisbasedonthecontentanalysis.Byeasingupontherigidityandformalnessoftheinterviewweaimedtolowerbarriersandopenupfordiggingdeeperintotheintervieweesmind.Researchsuggeststhatinterviewscanrevealnegativeaspectsbetterthanforinstancesurveys[48].Thesampleofintervieweeswasdividedintofourcategoriesdependingontheinterviewee’sexperience.Thesecategorieswerecreatedforthispaperandweremainlybasedonthecontentanalysis(pleaseseechapter3formoreinformation).

Noprocessexperience

Processexperience

Nobackgroundexperience

Category1 Category2

Backgroundexperience

Category3 Category4

Figure7(Original):Illustratesthefourdifferentintervieweecategories

4.1InterviewstructureThesemi-structureoftheinterviewwasbasedonthefourprinciplesofdesignthinking.Inaddition,thegatheredmaterial,whichismorepersonalandpractitionerrelated,wasusedastopicstotouchuponifitbecamenaturaltotheflowoftheconversation.Alistofthefourprinciplesandthesubjectswerebroughtbytheinterviewer,butnotshowntotheinterviewee.Theaudiofromtheinterviewwasrecordedandnotesweretakenalongtheway.Theinterviewwasdirectedbytheintervieweraskingquestionsthatcamenaturaltotheflowoftheconversation,whilstkeepingthelistofbulletpointsinmind.Bulletpointsbroughttotheinterview:

• Thehumanrule• Theambiguityrule• There-designrule• Thetangibilityrule

• Personaltraitsandothers:

o Contraintso Causalvs.Effectualreasoningo Huncheso Flowo Creativeconfidenceo Mindseto Empathyo Communicationo Processo Endresult


4.2SamplesizeThefinalsamplereachedwasatotalof15practitionersdistributedthroughoutthedifferentcategories.Category3wasthemostrepresentedwith6practitionersfittingthiscategory.Theinterviewswereconductedface-to-face,butifthatwasnotpossible,videoconference,followedbytelephonewerethealternatives.Thelengthwasapproximately35-40minutesforeachpractitioner.Theresultsfromtheinterviewswerethengatheredandanalyzedinordertoseeifwecoulduncoverifandwhygapsoccurred,forwhomandwhereintheprocess.4.RESULTSAfterabouthalfwayintotheinterviews,patternsstartedtoemerge.Itbecameclearerthatthefourcategoriesthatwereusedwerenotassignificantasonewouldhavethought.Themaindivideoccurredbetweennoprocessexperienceandprocessexperience.Thedifferenceinbackgroundexperienceseemedtoplayalesserroleinhowthepractitionersfeltregardingdesignthinking.Itisinterestingtonotethatallofthepractitionerswhohadcompletedtheprocess,inhindsight,sawthevalueofthestepsandtools.Usuallytowardstheendoftheentireprocess,whenconvergencetowardstheendresultwasinprogress.Thisstageisillustratedasthelaterhalfofstage4infigure7.

Figure7(Partoriginal):Illustrateshowtrusttypicallydevelopsthroughouttheprocess,for

legend,pleaseseefigure1.[53]Thegapsthatwerediscoveredonlyoccurredduringthepractitioner’sfirstencounterwithdesignthinking.Inotherwords,duringthetransitionfromnoprocessexperiencetoprocessexperience.Practitionerswithpreviousprocessexperiencewerenolongerconcernedorquestioningtowardsthetoolsandsteps.Thetendencywasthattheyduringtheirsecondormoreroundofusingtheprocesshadmadepreferencesandopinionsonhowtousewhatandwhen.Essentiallynavigatingtheprocessmorefreely,comparedtothefirsttime.Manysawalotofvalueexperiencingtheprocessagainastheysawitfromanotherangle.Itwasdescribedasseeingthepictureclearer,even


thoughyoualreadyhaveanideaofwhatthepicturelookslike.Whenitcomestothegapsthatoccurredforthefirsttimepractitionersthereareacoupleofinsights.Unrelatedtothemindsetthepractitionershadwhentheyapproacheddesignthinking(somewereopen-mindedandsomeweremoreskepticetc.),mostofthemseemedtofeelmoreorlessdistancedfromtheprocessatonepointoranotheralongtheway.Findingsfromtheinterviewssuggestedthatalotofthefirsttimepractitionersfeltsomewhatdistancedbytheinitialfearofsomethingforeign.Thiswasbothequallytrueforcategory1andcategory3practitioners.Thedesignthinkingprocesscanbeverydifferentfromwhatthepractitionerswereusedto,thisalsodependedontheirbackground.Forinstance,financetendedtofocusontheoutcomeandthemeasurableendresult,whileengineeringfocusedonsolvingspecificdefinedproblems.Collectivelyitseemedthatmostquestionsoccurredduringthedivergingpartsoftheprocess.Ontheotherhand,theoppositehappenedduringtheconvergingparts.Thiswasexplainedbymanyas“feelingmorefamiliarwiththeprocess”,consideringthattheconvergingleadsthedesignthinkingprocesstowardsamorelinearand,dependingonbackground,conventionalwayofworking.Whenitcomestotheambiguity,itledtosomedistancingduetotheuncertaintyoftheoutcome.Someevenfeltanxious.Thepractitionerswhofeltlessdistancedbytheambiguity,weretheoneswhohadmadetheconnectionbetweentheambiguityoftheprocessandhowthingsareintherealworld.Averyinterestingfindingwashowlargeofaroletheteamplayedwhenitcametodealingwiththeambiguityandcreatingacreativeatmosphere.Practitionersoftenmentionedthattheyfoundconfidencefromtheirteamandthat

theambiguityandthechoicesmade,werenotasconcerningwhenyouhadawholeteambehindthem.Therewerehowevermixedfeelingsregardingtheinterdisciplinaryteams.Thisgenerallyboileddowntoeaseofcommunicationandcommonunderstandingofdifferenttopics.Thismeansthatsomepeopleexperiencedfrictionwhentryingtopresenttheiropinionsandviewstoothersfromadifferentbackground.Onepractitionerspokeaboutthecurseofknowledgeandhowcertainthingsthatseemedobvioustothemselves,wasnotatallobvioustotheotherandrequiredthoroughexplanation.However,therewasacommonunderstandingfromallthepractitionersonhowaninterdisciplinaryteamcreatesvalue,especiallyinaprocesslikethis.Onethingisthediversityofideas,butanother,moreinterestingfactorwasthecollectivemindsetandwillingnesstoexploreandhavefun.Apatternthatemergedduringtheinterviewswastheimportanceofhavingacreativeatmosphere.Asmentioned,theteamplaysabigroleinthis,butsomepeopleinadditionmentionedtheclassroomsetting,thehandsonapproach(thetangibilityrule)andtheoverallfunandunconventionalapproachofdesignthinking.Thisalsorelatesverywelltothestateofgroupflowdiscussedinchapter2.1.5Onemustalsomentionthatsomeofthepractitionersexperiencedsetbacksrelatedtotheteam.Typically,oneortwomembersofthegroupwouldbemoreskepticalandlessengagedinthecreativeactivities.Thishighlightedtheimportanceofhavingastrongandcollectivemindset,asthepractitionerswhoexperiencedthisreportedamajordecreaseintheirownwillingnesstobecreativeandplayful.HereitmightberelevanttolookbackatCarolDweck’stwodifferentmindsetsdiscussedinchapter2.1.7andconsiderthepossibilityofateammember’smindsetsaffectingtheothersontheteam.


Especiallyiftheyarenotawareofthedifferentmindsetstobeginwith.Movingawayfromtheteamandfocusingontheprocess,itturnedoutthatsomeofthepractitioners,especiallyfromanengineeringbackgroundinitiallyfeltdistancefromtheprocesswhenitcametotheempathizingpart.Thiswereespeciallytruewhenitcametoinvolvingthecustomer.Itwasnotthattheydidnotseetheimportanceofdoingso,butratherthefactthattheyfeltconfidentthattheycouldfigureoutalltheinsightswithintheteam.Interestingly,thisopiniondidnotchangeevenafterreceivinginsightsfromthedifferentempathystepsandtools.Thiswasearlyonintheprocessanditwasnotuntiltowardstheendoftheprojectandseeingtheendresultthatthosewhoweresomewhatskepticacknowledgedthevalueofinvolvingthecustomer.Theconcernwasnotonlyduetothementionedconfidencetowardstheknowledgewithintheteam,butsomepractitionersexpressedconcernsregardingthescopeofthedifferentobservationtools.ThePOVexercisewasexplicitlymentionedseveraltimes,andsomepractitionersfrombusinessandengineeringbackgroundswereconcernedofthescalabilityandscopeofthetool.Theyfeareditmightbetoospecific.Itwasalsomentionedbythesametypeofpractitionersthatthelackofmetricsandmeasurabilityoftheresultsfeltuncomfortableatfirst,butassoonastheyacceptedit,itdidnotcreatemoredistance.Lastlytherewasalotoftalkaboutthetimescopeoftheprojects.Mostofthepractitionersinterviewedhadexperienceddesignthinkingforthefirsttimeinanacademiccoursecontext.Theconcernherewasthattheyattimesfeltthattherewasnotenoughtimetoactoutthedifferentstepsandtools.Combinethiswiththeambiguousnatureoftheprocessanditcouldcreatediscomfort,especiallywhenitcametosettingdeadlines.Somefeltthatthe

implementationstagetowardstheendwasforcedandrushed.Practitionerswhopracticeddesignthinkinginanacademiccoursecontextalsostatedthattheyfeeltheywouldhaveconnectedbetterwiththeprocessiftheintensitywashigher,soinsteadofdoingdesignthinkingtwotimesaweekfortenweeks,theywouldprefer5timesaweekfortwotothreeweeks,allowingthemtokeepthemomentumgoingandbuildonthecreatedenergyandatmosphere.5.DISCUSSIONThefirstpartofthediscussionwillberegardingpotentialmeasuresonecantakeinordertonarrowthegapsthatoccurredforsomealongtheway.Thesemeasureswerefoundpartlyduringtheinterviewandpartlybyanalyzingandconnectingthegatheredcontentwiththeresultsfromtheinterviews.Thefirstmeasureisinregardstothemembersoftheteamwhofelloffthewagonanddampenedthecreativedriveoftheentiregroup.Severalpractitionershighlightedtheimportanceoftakingpartownershipoftheprojectmeaningthattheyfeltbetterandmoreconnectedwiththeprocesswhentheyrealizedthattheyhadasignificantroleintheprogressmade.Theambiguityoftheprocessledtosomepractitionersdoubtingthepotentialoutcome.Basedontheinterviewsitbecameclearthatshowingexamplesofrealworldbusinessesusingdesignthinkingandhowitwasbeforeandafterwouldmotivatethemsignificantly.Thiscanalsosatisfythepractitionerswhowereseekingmoremeasurableresultsandnumbers.Onepractitionermentionedthatshedidgainanincreasedappreciationtowardsdesignthinkingafterusingitasalastresort,havingfailedbyusingwhatwasconsideredtheconventionalapproachwithinherfield.


Anotherimportantpointisrelatedtotheteamdynamics,somepractitionersfelttheygainedconfidencewhentheyhadatleastonepractitionerwithprocessexperiencewhocouldserveasaguidethroughoutthedifferentsteps.Itisimportanttomentionthattheintendedfunctionoftheguidingpractitionerwouldnotbetocomeupwithbetterresults.Itwouldbetoserveasasourceofconfirmationthattheteamwasworkingthewaytheyweresupposedtoaccordingtodesignthinking.Highlightingtheprocesscouldalsobeapowerfulmeasure.Insightfromtheinterviewshowedthatsomepractitionersfoundconfidenceintheprocessbylookingbackattheiterativestepstheyhadtaken.Theywouldfighttheambiguitybylookingbackattheprogressthathadalreadybeenmade.Thiswayofthinkingcouldleadallthewaybacktotheinitialobservationsandinsights,thusconnectingtheprocesstotherealworld.Anotherimportantpointbesidesfocusingontheprocessistocreateasuitableatmosphere.Inadditiontotheteam,theclassroom,teachingstyleandtangibilityoftheprocesstonameafew,hadaneffectonhowthepractitionerfelttowardscreativeexerciseslikeforinstancebrainstorming.Bycreatingaspacewhereyouweremeanttoplayandexploreitwouldtakeawaythepressurefromhavingtocomeupwithmeasurableoutcomesandresults.Acknowledgingtheprocessitselfandsettingasideconcernsregardingtheendresultandimpactoftheprojectalsohelpedmanyfirsttimepractitioners.Theywouldremindthemselvesthattheprocessitselfwasagoalandthattherewasareasonbehindthemdoingit,eventhoughtheydidnotknowthereasonsmorespecifically.Seeingtheendresultandlookingbackinhindsight,seemedtobewheremostofthepractitionersbecamemostconvinced.Withthatsaid,theystressedtheimportanceofhavinggonethroughtheprocessandquestioningasaningredienttotherealizationtowardstheend.

Thisconnectswellwiththeideasoftherebeingnoshortcuttoexperience,discussedinchapter2.1.4andalsotheresearchdoneonwhatmakesanexpert,chapter3.2Somehighlightedtheimportanceofbeingpreparedtohavefunandacceptthatitisgoingtobedifferent,whilesomejustdecidedtogoalongwiththeprocessregardlessoftheirdoubts.Theoneswhodidthelatter,intheendturnedouttobecomemoreconvincedthantheyinitiallyexpected.Thesecondpartofthediscussionisdedicatedtodiscussingthepaperandmethod.Thefirstfactorweneedtolookcloseratisthepotentialsourcesoferror.Firstly,weneedtoconsiderthepossibilityofbiasesoccurringduringtheinterviewprocess.Tobeginwithit,Iwastheonlypersonconductingtheinterviews.ThisessentiallymeansariskofconfirmationbiasasIwasalsotheonewhocollectedthecontentpriortotheinterviews.Thestructureoftheinterviewswassemiopen,conversationalandcasual.Thereasonforthiswasthenatureofthetopicscovered,asmentionedmoreindepthunderthemethodsectionofthispaper,chapter4.Thereishoweverasourceofbiasbyhavingthisstructurewithnostrictanduniformquestionssetup.Afterhavingdoneseveralinterviewsandpatternsarestartingtoemergeitmighthappenthattheinterviewerunconsciouslystartssearchingforsimilarpatternswheninterviewingnewsubjects,creatingaconfirmationbias.Thequestionsthemselvescouldalsobeofasuggestivenature;howeverthiswasattemptedminimizedwithpilotinterviews.Itisimportanttoconsiderthattherearemorefactorsaffectinghowpractitionersexperiencedesignthinkingthanjustthepractitioners’viewontheprocess.


Howyouexperiencedesignthinkingmayalsovarysubstantiallydependingonfactorslikecontextandenvironment,teammembers,teachersandtutors,projectandsoon.Theinsightsgatheredfromtheinterviewscamefromdifferentsourcesthathadexperienceddifferentvariationsofdesignthinking,meaningthatwecannotoverlookthepossibilityofitaffectingtheresults.Therearealsoalargevarietyofwaystopracticedesignthinking.Thisdependsstronglyonthepeoplewhoareteachingitandhowtheywantthestudentstolearnit.Alargepartofthesampleinterviewedwasinternationalstudents.Thisisanimportantfactortoconsider.Thetopicthispapercoversmaybeaffectedbythefactthatsomeofthepractitioners,practiceddesignthinkinginaplacewhereculturaldifferencesandalanguagebarriermightbepresent.Thesethingscouldaffecthowtheyfeltaboutcertainpartsoftheprocess,likeforinstanceinterviews.6. CONCLUSIONToconcludethisstudy,ourmajorfindingswerethatthepriorexperiencewasmostlyrelevantwhenitdistinguishedbetweenpeoplewhohadexperiencefromthedesignthinkingorsimilarprocessesandpeoplewhodidnot.Distinguishingwhetherpeoplehadrelevantbackgroundexperiencewithinthedomainoftheprojectwasoflessrelevancetowhetherpractitionersdoubtedanddistancedthemselvesmorefromtheprocess.Theteamandit’scompositionplaysacentralrolewhenitcomestothemotivationofthepractitioners.Theteamcancreateacreativeatmosphereandserveasaspacewhereonecanexchangeideasandbuildoneachother’sinput.Itcanalsoworktheotherwayaroundandfindingssuggestthatifevenonlyoneteammemberisnotsharingthesameenthusiasmand

flowastherestoftheteam,itcanbeenoughtocreategapsforalltheteammembers.Oneofthemainsourcesofoccurringgapsturnedouttobetheambiguousnatureofdesignthinking.Thisvarieddependingonthepractitionersprofessionaloracademicbackgroundanditwasespeciallyduringthefirstandseconddivergingpartsoftheprocessthat.Forsomebackgroundslikefinanceandengineering,thelackofmeasurableoutcomecouldcreategaps.Forsomeofthetoolswithindesignthinking,especiallyPOV(Point-of-view)andcreatingapersona,practitionersexpressedaninitialconcernofitbeingtoonarrowandnotscalableenough.Onepossiblesolutiontothisgapistoshiftthefocusfromtheoutcomeandtotheprocess.Lookingattheprocessitselfandtheiterativestepscouldalsoserveasactiontoconnectandsynchronizethepractitionerwiththeprocessandfightthenegativeeffectsofambiguity.Furthermore,providingexamplesthatcanlinktheprocesstotherealworldwereformostpractitionersaveryeffectivesourceofconfidenceandmotivation.Thetimespanoftheprojectaffectedhowsomepractitionersexperiencedtheprocess,somefeltthatcertainstepswereforcedandrushed.Thisledtotheprocessnotfeelingorganicornatural,inturncausingagap.Allofthepractitionersinterviewedsawthevalueofdesignthinkingintheend.Thereweredifferencesastowhichpartsandtoolsweremorevaluableandinwhichscenarios,butallinall,noneofthepractitionersfailedtoseeanyvalueatall.Formostofthepractitioners,therealizationofthevaluefromtheprocessoccurredtowardstheend,whentheprocessstartedtoconvergetowardstheendresult.Itisimportanttohighlightthefactthatthereareseveralfactorsaffectingthepractitionerinadesignthinkingprocessandthatnotallofthem


wereintendedtobecoveredinthisstudy.Wehavenottakenintoaccountthevarietyofwaysyoucansetupandalsoteachtheprocess.Thedifferentcircumstancesandteamcompositionsareafewofthem.Forfurtherworkonthistopic,itwouldbeinterestingtoexploretheteamandtheroleitplaysinadesignthinkingcontextmoreclosely.Itcouldalsobeofvaluetofurtherexploretheproblemspresentedinthisstudy,astherearesourcesoferrorthatcanpotentiallyberemovedforamoreaccurateresult.REFERENCES [1]Ries,E.(2011),TheLeanStartup:HowConstant

InnovationCreatesRadicallySuccessfulBusinesses

[2]Blank,S.(2007),TheFourStepstotheEpiphany:

SuccessfulStrategiesforProductsThatWin[3]Osterwalder,A.,PigneurY.(2010),BusinessModel

Generation:AHandbookforVisionaries;GameChangers;andChallengers

[4]Carlgren,L.Elmquist,M.andRauth,I.(2014),

DesignThinking:ExploringValuesandEffectsfromanInnovationCapabilityPerspective

[5]Brown,T.(2009),Changebydesign:HowDesign

ThinkingTransformsOrganizationsandInspiresInnovation.

[6]Rauth,I.,Köppen,E.,Jobst,B.andMeinel,C.

(2010),DesignThinking:AnEducationalModeltowardsCreativeConfidence

[7]AnintroductiontoDesignThinkingPROCESSGUIDE

https://dschool.stanford.edu/sandbox/groups/designresources/wiki/36873/attachments/74b3d/ModeGuideBOOTCAMP2010L.pdf?sessionID=c2bb722c7c1ad51462291013c0eeb6c47f33e564

[8]Herbert,S.(1969),TheSciencesoftheArtificial.

Cambridge:MITPress.[9]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDCA

[10]http://www.forbes.com/sites/reuvencohen/2014/

03/31/design-thinking-a-unified-framework-for-innovation/

[11]Faste,R.(1994),“AmbidextrousThinking”,

InnovationsinMechanicalEngineeringCurriculaforthe1990s,AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,November1994

[12]Meinel,C.,Leifer,L.andPlattner,H.(2010),

DesignThinking:UnderstandImproveApply,pagexv

[13]Razzouk,R.andShute,V.(2012),WhatisDesign

ThinkingandWhyIsItImportant?

[14]Ho,C-H.(2001).Somephenomenaofproblemdecompositionstrategyfordesignthinking:Differencesbetweennovicesandexperts.DesignStudies,22,27–45

[15]Dorner,D.(1999).Approachingdesignthinkingresearch.DesignStudies,20,407–415

[16Nigel,C.(2004).Expertiseindesign:Anoverview.DesignStudies,25,427–441

[17]Suwa,M.,Gero,J.,&Purcell,T.(2000).Unexpecteddiscoveriesands-inventionofdesignrequirements:Importantvehiclesforadesignprocess.DesignStudies,21,539–567

[18]Mumford,M.D.(2003).Wherehavewebeen,wherearewegoing?Takingstockincreativityresearch.CreativityResearchJournal,15,107-120.

[19]Torrance,Paul.“VerbalTests.FormsAandB-

figuralTests,FormsAandB.”.TheTorranceTestsofCreativeThinking–Norms–TechnicalManualResearchEdition.Princeton,NewJersey:PersonnelPress.P.6.

[20]Dyer,J.,Gregersen,H.andChristensen,C.M.

(2014),TheInnovator’sDNA:MasteringtheFiveSkillsofDisruptiveInnovators

[21]Reznikoff,M.,Domino,G.,Bridges,C.and

Honeyman,M.(1973),Creativeabilitiesinidenticalandfraternaltwins


[22]http://www.forbes.com/sites/ericaswallow/2012/04/19/innovators-dna-hal-gregersen-interview/published:April19.2012

[23]CitedinAdams,K.(2005,September).Thesourcesofinnovationandcreativity.PapercommissionedbytheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomyfortheNewCommissionontheSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforce.Washington,DC:NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy,page4

[24]Pink,D.H.(2006),AWholeNewMind:WhyRight-

BrainersWillRuletheFuture[25]http://www.fastcompany.com/3017054/leadershi

p-now/how-albert-einstein-steve-jobs-and-maria-popova-get-more-creative,published:September10,2013

[26]Joyce,C.K.(2009),TheBlankPage:Effectsof

ContrantonCreativity[27]http://www.fastcompany.com/3027379/work-

smart/the-psychology-of-limitations-how-and-why-constraints-can-make-you-more-creative,publishedMarch10,2014

[28]https://hbr.org/1998/09/how-to-kill-

creativity/ar/1),publishedSeptember1998[29]http://ecorner.stanford.edu/authorMaterialInfo.h

tml?mid=2358,publishedJanuary20,2010[30]http://zurb.com/article/788/designers-are-weak-

without-marketing-r-d-,publishedSeptember14,2011

[31]Sarasvathy,S.D.(2008),WhatMakes

EntrepreneursEntrepreneurial?[32]https://hbr.org/2013/01/what-is-

entrepreneurship,publishedJanuary10,2013[33]Kahneman,D.(2013),Thinking,FastandSlow[34http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/11559

28/Relying-intuition---always-trust-gut-feelings,publishedNovember1,2012

[35]Klein,G.,Calderwood,R.andClinton-Cirocco,A.(1986),RapidDecisionMakingontheFireGround

[36]Sadler-Smith,E.(2009),TheIntuitiveMind:

ProfitingfromthePowerofYourSixthSense[37]Chase,W.G.andSimon,H.A.(1973),Perceptionin

Chess[38]Gladwell,M.(2008),Outliers:Thestoryofsuccess[39]Csikszentmihaly,M.(1990).FLOW:The

PsychologyofOptimalExperience[40]Isles,Nick(2010).TheGoodWorkGuide:Howto

MakeOrganizationsFairerandMoreEffective.[41]Kelley,T.andKelley,D.(2008),Creative

Confidence:UnleashingtheCreativePotentialWithinUsAll

[42]Rauth,I.,KöppenE.,Jobst,B.andMeinel,C.

(2010),DesignThinking:AnEducationalModeltowardsCreativeConfidence

[43]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence,latest

revision:October9,2015[44]Dweck,C.(2007),Mindset:TheNewPsychology

ofSuccess[45]Morgan,P.J.andCleave-Hogg,D.(2002),

Comparisonbetweenmedicalstudents’experience,confidenceandcompetence

[46]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy),last

editedOctober12,2015[47]Hoffman,M.L.(2000).Empathyandmoral

development:Implicationsforcaringandjustice.

[48]Gall,M.D.,Gall,J.P.andBorg,W.R.(2003).

Educationalreseach,anintroduction,page222[49]http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching-

resources/classroom-practice/teaching-techniques-strategies/creativity/elements-of-creativity/


[50]http://www.effectuation.org/learn/effectuation-101[51]http://www.quirks.com/articles/2014/2014

0111.aspx[52]http://blogs.ancientfaith.com/orthogals

/2015/03/09/mindset-fixed-or-growth/[53]http://www.designthinkingforeducators.com

confidence and motivation in design thinking

Documents