compendium of forest hydrology and … management handbook 2010 compendium of forest hydrology and...

L A N D M A N A G E M E N T H A N D B O O K

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Compendium of Forest Hydrology and Geomorphology in British ColumbiaVolume 1 of 2

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Ministry of Forests and Range Forest Science Program

The Best Place on Earth

Compendium of Forest Hydrology and Geomorphology in British ColumbiaVolume 1 of 2

Robin G. Pike, Todd E. Redding, R.D. (Dan) Moore, Rita D. Winkler, and Kevin D. Bladon (editors)

Ministry of Forests and Range Forest Science Program

�e Best Place on Earth

CitationPike, R.G., T.E. Redding, R.D. Moore, R.D. Winker and K.D. Bladon (editors). 2010. Compendium of forest hydrology and geomorphology in British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. and FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural Resources, Kamloops, B.C. Land Manag. Handb. 66. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh66.htm

Prepared by

The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement or approval by the Government of British Columbia of any product or service to the exclusion of any others that may also be suitable. Contents of this report are presented as information only. Funding assistance does not imply endorsement of any statements or information con-tained herein by the Government of British Columbia. Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), addresses, and contact information contained in this document are current at the time of printing unless otherwise noted.

Robin PikeWatershed Research HydrologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeVictoria, B.C.

Todd ReddingWatershed Management Extension Specialist, FORREXNanaimo, B.C.

Dan MooreProfessor, Department of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C

Rita WinklerResearch HydrologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeKamloops, B.C

Kevin BladonAssistant ProfessorDept. of Natural Resource ScienceThompson Rivers UniversityKamloops, B.C.

Prepared forB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeResearch BranchVictoria, B.C.

© 2010 Province of British Columbia

Copies of this report can be obtained from:Government Publications ServicesPO Box 9452 Stn Prov GovtVictoria, B.C. v8w 9v7 1-800-663-6105 (toll free)www.publications.gov.bc.ca

For more information on Forest Science Program publications, visit our web site at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/scripts/hfd/pubs/hfdcatalog/index.asp

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Compendium of forest hydrology and geomorphology in British Columbia / Robin G. Pike ... [et al.] (editors).

Available also on the Internet.Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7726-6331-3 (Print version)ISBN 978-0-7726-6332-0 (PDF)

1. Forest hydrology--British Columbia. 2. Watershed hydrology-- British Columbia. 3. Geomorphology--British Columbia. 4. Water quality-- British Columbia. 5. Riparian ecology--British Columbia. 6. Stream ecology--British Columbia. 7. Watershed management--British Columbia. I. Pike, R. G II. British Columbia. Ministry of Forests and Range

GB708 B7 C65 2010 551.48 C2010-905739-2

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh66.htm

http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/scripts/hfd/pubs/hfdcatalog/index.asp

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Preface

Over the last two decades, hydrologists and geo-morphologists have often discussed the need to document the history, scientific discoveries, and field expertise gained in watershed management in British Columbia. Several years ago, a group of watershed scientists from academia, government, and the private sector gathered at the University of British Columbia to discuss the idea of a provincially relevant summary of hydrology, geomorphology, and watershed management. Their main objectives were to bridge the sometimes disparate views in water-shed science with an integrated understanding of forest hydrology and geomorphology and to create a “go-to” reference for this information. Through this meeting, the Compendium of Forest Hydrology and Geomorphology was born.

As a synthesis document, the Compendium consolidates our current scientific knowledge and operational experience into 19 chapters organized around six themes: the regional context, watershed hydrology, watershed geomorphology, water quality, stream and riparian ecology, and watershed man-agement decision support. These chapters sum-marize the basic scientific information necessary to manage water resources in forested environments, explaining watershed processes and the effects of disturbances across different regions of the province. Some chapters incorporate case studies highlighting pertinent examples that move discussions from the abstract and theoretical to the applied and practical. Each chapter also presents a comprehensive list of references, many of which are electronically linked for reader convenience. In short, the Compendium is about British Columbia and is primarily intended for

a British Columbian audience, giving it a uniquely regional focus compared to other hydrology texts.

To ensure that the Compendium presented reli-able, relevant, and scientifically sound information, chapters underwent extensive peer review employing the standard double-blind protocol common to most scholarly journals. Each chapter was reviewed by three to five peers, several steering committee mem-bers, an English editor, and executive reviewers from the B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range and FORREX. With 67 authors and 84 peer reviewers, the Compen-dium embodies the spirit of partnerships—strength-ening connections among colleagues, agencies, and disciplines. Although the Compendium focusses on British Columbia, its genesis and development involved hydrologists, geomorphologists, and related professionals from across Canada, the United States, and around the world. The “Authors” section (page v) lists all authors and their affiliations, and the “Peer Reviewers” section (page x) provides a record of all peer reviewers.

At over 800 pages, the Compendium showcases the rich history of forest hydrology, geomorphology, and aquatic ecology research and practice in British Columbia and sets the foundation for the future by showing us how much more we have yet to learn. We hope it will become a valuable resource for students, water resource professionals, and anyone else inter-ested in water in British Columbia.

Robin G. Pike, Todd E. Redding, R. Dan Moore, Rita D. Winkler, and Kevin D. BladonJune 2010.

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acknowledgements

This Compendium could not have been produced without the significant efforts of numerous indi-viduals and organizations. We extend our sincerest appreciation and thanks to all who contributed to this project.

FORREX staff provided leadership throughout the project’s life. Their commitments to extension and project management ensured that the Compendium made that important leap from an idea to a reality. Christine Hollstedt (CEO), Julie Schooling (publi-cations), and Shelley Church (publications) were instrumental in all aspects of the Compendium’s development. The Steering Committee also played a crucial role in shaping the Compendium by provid-ing the technical direction necessary to keep the project focussed on its objectives. Past steering committee members included Dave Toews, Eugene Hetherington, Doug Golding, and Rob Scherer.

Undoubtedly, the largest contribution was from the Compendium’s 67 volunteer authors (see Au-thors). Words cannot express our deep appreciation of them and their organizations in the development of this project. In addition, 84 provincial, national, and international technical specialists from govern-ment, industry, and academia voluntarily peer re-viewed all Compendium chapters to ensure that high standards were maintained (see “Peer Reviewers”).

Several other professionals contributed ancillary information, such as figures or data, that was essen-tial to chapter development, including Anne McCar-thy (Environment Canada), Anne Berland (Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium), Joe Alcock (Summit Environmental Consultants Ltd.), David Gluns (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range), Matt Sakals (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range), and Dave Toews (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range). We also thank the following individuals for contributing images to this publication: Dave Gluns (cover), Todd Redding (chapters 1, 12, 15, 16, 17), Dave Polster (chapter 2), Dave Spittlehouse (chapter 3), Robin Pike (chapters 4, 5, 10, 14, 18, 19), Bonnie Pike (chapter 6), Rita Win-

kler (chapter 7), Marten Geertsema (chapter 8), Peter Jordan (chapter 9), Dave Campbell (chapter 11), and Ian Ricketson (chapter 13).

Paul Nystedt (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range) and Rick Scharf (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range) assisted with publication co-ordination, contributing their wealth of production experience to the project. The multi-step publication process involved many specialists, including English editors Susan Bannerman, Tracey Hooper, Kathy Hagen, Ros Penty, and Susan Thorne, typesetter Donna Lin-denberg, indexer Judith Brand, and proofreader Ste-ven Justin Smith. The involvement of each of these professionals greatly improved the final product. Our gratitude is also extended to Dave Maloney, who performed the executive management implications review of all 19 chapters.

The initial funding for the Compendium’s de-velopment was provided by the Province of Brit-ish Columbia through the Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management. Throughout the project’s life, we have been fortunate to access funding support from the Forest Investment Account–Forest Science Program; for its completion, funding was received through a grant from the Future Forest Ecosystem Science Council (FFESC) and from the FORREX Ecosystem Legacy Fund. Significant in-kind support has also been provided by the respective organiza-tions of the authors, reviewers, project managers, and editors.

We wish to formally thank our colleagues, em-ployers, and funding agencies for their help, support, and patience throughout the Compendium’s evolu-tion from concept to completion. We also thank the early hydrologists and geomorphologists who first formulated the idea of a comprehensive document to share their knowledge.

Robin G. Pike, Todd E. Redding, R. Dan Moore, Rita D. Winker, and Kevin D. BladonJune 2010

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authors

Leisbet Beaudry ConsultantP. Beaudry and Associates Ltd. Prince George, B.C.

Pierre Beaudry ConsultantP. Beaudry and Associates Ltd. Prince George, B.C.

Jos Beckers Senior Technical SpecialistWorleyParsons Canada (I&E B.C. Division)Burnaby, B.C.

Dennis Bendickson Senior InstructorDepartment of Forest Resource ManagementUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Katrina Bennett HydrologistPacific Climate Impacts ConsortiumVictoria, B.C.

Kevin Bladon Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Natural Resource ScienceThompson Rivers UniversityKamloops, B.C.

Dave Campbell Research Hydrologist-Geomorphologist B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeNanaimo, B.C.

Darryl Carlyle-Moses Assistant ProfessorDepartment of GeographyThompson Rivers UniversityKamloops, B.C.

Martin Carver ConsultantAqua Environmental AssociatesNelson, B.C.

Michael Church Professor (Emeritus)Department of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Denis Collins Regional Staff ManagerB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeNanaimo, B.C.

Nicholas Coops ProfessorDepartment of Forest Resources ManagementUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

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Davide Cuzner Extensionist – Forest DynamicsFORREXVictoria, B.C.

Brett Eaton Assistant ProfessorDepartment of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Michael Feller Professor (Emeritus)Department of Forest SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Vanessa Foord Research ClimatologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangePrince George, B.C.

Marten Geertsema Research GeomorphologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangePrince George, B.C.

Paul Griffiths ConsultantKarstCare™Campbell River, B.C.

Stuart Hamilton Senior HydrologistAquatic Informatics Inc.Vancouver, B.C.

Kirsten Hannam Consultant, Soil ScientistNanaimo, B.C.

Gordon Hartman Fisheries Biologist (Retired)Department of Fisheries and OceansNanaimo, B.C.

Eugene Hetherington Hydrologist (Retired)Canadian Forestry ServiceVictoria, B.C.

Dan Hogan Head, Hydrology Program and StandardsB.C. Ministry of EnvironmentVancouver, B.C.

Glynnis Horel Consultant, Geological EngineerG.M. Horel Engineering Ltd.Nanaimo, B.C.

Dave Hutchinson Hydrologic Applications SpecialistEnvironment CanadaVancouver, B.C.

George Ice Principal ScientistNational Council for Air and Stream ImprovementCorvallis, Oregon

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Peter Jordan Research GeomorphologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeNelson, B.C.

Georg Jost Research AssociateDepartment of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Hamish Kimmins Professor (Emeritus)Department of Forest SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Jason Leach Graduate StudentDepartment of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Dave Luzi Graduate StudentDepartment of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Erland MacIsaac Research BiologistDepartment of Fisheries and OceansVancouver, B.C.

Paul Marquis Section HeadB.C. Ministry of EnvironmentNanaimo, B.C.

Jennifer McConnachie Environmental OfficerNorthgate Minerals Corp.Smithers, B.C.

Mike Miles ConsultantM. Miles and Associates Ltd.Victoria, B.C.

Tom Millard Research GeomorphologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeNanaimo, B.C.

Dan Moore ProfessorDepartment of GeographyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Trevor Murdock Climate Scientist Pacific Climate Impacts ConsortiumVictoria, B.C.

Doug Nicol Consultant, Geotechnical Engineer D.R. Nicol Geotech Engineering Ltd. Nelson, B.C.

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Robin Pike Watershed Research HydrologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeVictoria, B.C.

Dave Polster ConsultantPolster Environmental ServicesDuncan, B.C.

Ed Quilty President and CEOAquatic Informatics Inc.Vancouver, B.C.

Carol Ramsey ConsultantKarstCare™Campbell River, B.C.

Todd Redding Watershed Management Extension SpecialistFORREXNanaimo, B.C.

Maryanne Reiter HydrologistWeyerhaeuser Timberlands TechnologySpringfield, Oregon

John Richardson ProfessorDepartment of Forest SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, B.C.

Kevin Rieberger Water Quality Science SpecialistB.C. Ministry of EnvironmentVictoria, B.C.

Terrence P. Rollerson ConsultantGolder Associates Ltd.Gabriola Island, B.C.

June M. Ryder Consultant (Retired)J.M. Ryder and Assoc., Terrain Analysis Inc.Vancouver, B.C.

James W. Schwab Research Geomorphologist (Retired)B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeSmithers, B.C.

David Scott Associate ProfessorEarth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of British Columbia – OkanaganKelowna, B.C.

Brian Smerdon Research ScientistCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization – Land and WaterAdelaide, Australia

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Dave Spittlehouse Research ClimatologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeVictoria, B.C.

Kerstin Stahl Research AssociateInstitute of Hydrology Freiburg, Germany

John D. Stednick ProfessorColorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado

Tim Stokes ProfessorDepartment of Earth SciencesVancouver Island UniversityNanaimo, B.C.

Pat Teti Research Hydrologist (Retired)B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range Williams Lake, B.C.

Dave Toews Research Hydrologist (Retired)B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range Nelson, B.C.

Peter Tschaplinski Manager/Research ScientistWatershed Research ProgramB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeVictoria, B.C.

Lars Uunila ConsultantPolar Geoscience Ltd.Squamish, B.C.

Alan Vyse Adjunct ProfessorThompson Rivers UniversityKamloops, B.C.

Markus Weiler ProfessorInstitute of Hydrology Freiburg, Germany

Arelia Werner HydrologistPacific Climate Impacts ConsortiumVictoria, B.C.

Paul Whitfield Head, Science DivisionMeteorological Service of CanadaEnvironment CanadaVancouver, B.C.

Dave Wilford Research Forest Hydrologist B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeSmithers, B.C.

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Rita Winkler Research HydrologistB.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeKamloops, B.C.

Russ Wong Senior Geoscientist Golder Associates Ltd.Vancouver, B.C.

Peer reviewers

Ralph Adams B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentJames Baichtal U.S. Forest ServiceTim Beechie National Oceanographic and Atmospheric AdministrationKevin Bladon Thompson Rivers UniversitySarah Boon University of LethbridgeMike Bovis (Emeritus) University of British ColumbiaPeter Bradford B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeTom Brown Fisheries and Oceans CanadaSandra Brown University of British ColumbiaJohn Buffington U.S. Forest ServiceGeorge Butcher B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentDavid Campbell B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeBrian Carson Carson Land Resource Management Ltd.Martin Carver Aqua Environmental AssociatesAllan Chatterton (Retired) TimberWest Forest Corp.Michael Church (Emeritus) University of British ColumbiaCraig Coburn University of LethbridgeDavide Cuzner FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural ResourcesRob D’Eon ConsultantJim Dunkley B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeMichael Feller (Emeritus) University of British ColumbiaSean Fleming BC HydroRob Fleming Canadian Forest ServiceRobert Fulton (Retired) Geological Survey of CanadaTim Giles B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeDoug Golding (Retired) University of British ColumbiaRick Guthrie B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentEvelyn Hamilton (Retired) B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeStuart Hamilton Aquatic Informatics Inc.Gordon Hartman (Retired) Fisheries and Oceans CanadaDave Heller U.S. Forest ServiceEugene Hetherington (Retired) Canadian Forest ServiceDan Hogan B.C. Ministry of Environment

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Rob Hudson University of British ColumbiaDave Hutchinson Environment CanadaPeter Jordan B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeKevin Kiernan University of TasmaniaPeter Kiffney National Oceanographic and Atmospheric AdministrationJason Leach University of British ColumbiaVic Levson B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum ResourcesLee MacDonald Colorado State UniversityDave Maloney B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangePaul Marquis B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentShawn Marshall University of CalgaryCindy Meays B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentTom Millard B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeDan Moore University of British ColumbiaTrevor Murdock Pacific Climate Impacts ConsortiumMarc Nelitz ESSA TechnologiesGordon Nigh B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangePhil Owens University of Northern British ColumbiaJohn Parminter B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeEllen Petticrew University of Northern British ColumbiaBarrie Phillips B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeJeff Phillips Skagit CooperativeRobin Pike B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeVince Poulin V.A. Poulin and Associates Ltd. Ed Proteau FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural ResourcesTodd Redding FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural ResourcesJohn Rex B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeKevin Rieberger B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentRichard Rothwell Watertight Solutions Ltd.Ian Saunders University of British Columbia – OkanaganRob Scherer Okanagan CollegeStephen Schoenholtz Virginia Tech UniversityJulie Schooling FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural ResourcesJames Schwab (Retired) B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeGabe Sentlinger Aquarius R&DIan Sharpe B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentJ. Siebert University of ZurichUldis Silins University of AlbertaChris Spence Environment CanadaDave Spittlehouse B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeJohn D. Stednick Colorado State UniversityGerry Still (Retired) B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range

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Kate Sullivan Pacific Lumber CompanyKathie Swift FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural ResourcesEric Taylor B.C. Ministry of Healthy Living and SportBill Taylor (Retired) B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentPat Teti (Retired) B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeBruce Thompson (Retired) B.C. Ministry of EnvironmentPeter Tschaplinski B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeWarren Warttig InterforGordon Weetman (Emeritus) University of British ColumbiaMarkus Weiler Institute of Hydrology, Freiburg GermanyJoanne White Canadian Forest ServiceDave Wilford B.C. Ministry of Forests and RangeRita Winkler B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range

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contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iiiAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ivAuthors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vPeer Reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x1. Forest Hydrology in British Columbia: Context and History D. Toews and E. Hetherington . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1History of Watershed Management in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2The 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2The 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6The 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2. Physiography of British Columbia M. Church and J.M. Ryder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Tectonic Setting and Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Tectonic History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Glaciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Glacial History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Glacial Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Holocene Epoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Holocene History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35The Contemporary Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Soil Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Human Influence in the Contemporary Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3. Weather and Climate R.D. Moore, D. Spittlehouse, P. Whitfield, and K. Stahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Atmospheric Circulation Patterns Influencing British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Regional Climates of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Climatic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Seasonal Climatic Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Influence of Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Influence of Synoptic-scale Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Influence of Sea Surface Temperatures and Large-scale Atmospheric Circulation Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

El Niño–Southern Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Pacific Decadal Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Pacific North American Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Arctic Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Extreme Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Climatic Variability and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Climatic Variability and Change: Nature and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Past Climatic Variability and Change in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Future Climate Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

xiv

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824. Regional Hydrology B. Eaton and R.D. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Classification and Characteristics of Seasonal Streamflow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86Temporal Variations in Seasonal Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Geographic Variations in Seasonal Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Southern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Central British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Northern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Peak Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Regional Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Peak Flow Timing and Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Streamflow Sensitivity to Climatic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5. Forest Practices A. Vyse, D. Bendickson, K. Hannam, D. Cuzner, and K. Bladon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Forest Practices Influencing Water and the Hydrological Regime of the Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Forest Cover Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112Regenerating Forest Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Transporting Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

A Very Short History of British Columbia Forest Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6. Hydrologic Processes and Watershed Response R. Winkler, R.D. Moore, T. Redding, D. Spittlehouse, D. Carlyle-Moses, and B. Smerdon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Surface Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Net Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Water Storage and Movement on Hillslopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Subsurface Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Hydrologic Properties of Soils and Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154Lateral and Vertical Flow from Hillslopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Groundwater Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159The Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Extreme Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Hydrologic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7. The Effects of Forest Disturbance on Hydrologic Processes and Watershed Response R. Winkler, R.D. Moore, T. REdding, D. Spittlehouse, B. Smerdon, and D. Carlyle-Moses . . . 179

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179Stand- and Hillslope-scale Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Surface Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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Hillslope Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Watershed-scale Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191Annual Water Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Peak Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Low Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Hydrologic Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8. Hillslope Processes M. Geertsema, J. Schwab, P. Jordan, T. Millard, and T. Rollerson . . . . . . . 213Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214What Is a Landslide? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Material Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214Movement Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

What Causes Landslides? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218Landslide Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219The Influence of Climate on Slope Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Common Landslide Types in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224Debris Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224Debris Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227Flows and Spreads in Sensitive Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233Large Earth Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Rock Avalanches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Complex Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241Landslide-generated Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245Types of Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Gully Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248Fire-generated Erosion and Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Reading and Interpreting the Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256Indicators of Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Aerial Photograph Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256Field Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Dating Hillslope Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259Human Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259Natural Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259Radiocarbon Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Lichenometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Simple Comparative and Observational Dating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264


9. Forest Management Effects on Hillslope Processes P. Jordan, T. Millard, D. Campbell, J. Schwab, D. Wilford, D. Nicol, and D. Collins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275Historic Landslide Rates: Inventories and Terrain Attribute Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278Harvesting-caused Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Road-caused Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Gentle-over-steep Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

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Case Study: Belgo Creek Debris Avalanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291Case Study: Donna Creek Washout Debris Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293Case Study: Hummingbird Creek Debris Avalanche and Debris Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Surface Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Gullies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Alluvial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Planning and Practices to Reduce Forestry Effects on Hillslope Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Terrain Stability Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305Terrain Stability Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Landslide Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308Practices to Avoid Harvesting-related Landslides and Sediment Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310Practices to Avoid Landslides and Sediment Production from Forest Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Forest Management and Alluvial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312Forest Management and Snow Avalanches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313Remote Sensing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

10. Channel Geomorphology: Fluvial Forms, Processes, and Forest Management Effects D. Hogan and D. Luzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331Factors Controlling Channel Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332Channel Types, Morphology, and Indicators of Disturbance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333Streams of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342Forest Management Influences on Channel Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

References Related to Fish–Forestry Interaction Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37111. Karst Geomorphology, Hydrology, and Management T. Stokes, P. Griffiths, and C. Ramsey . . . 373

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373Karst Landscapes as Functioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377Identifying Karst Landscapes Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378Karst Aquifers, Catchments, and Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383Karst Landscape Units: Two Case Studies from Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386Impacts of Forestry Activities on Karst Landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

Karst Inventories in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Karst Management and Best Management Practices for Forestry Activities on Karst Landscapes . . . 391Case Studies of Karst Management Practices on Forested Cutblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392


12. Water Quality and Forest Management R. Pike, M. Feller, J. Stednick, K. Rieberger, and M. Carver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401Water Quality in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401Guidelines, Objectives, and Parameters in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Water Quality Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Water Quality Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Water Quality Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Forest Management and Disturbance Effects on Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

xvii

Forest Management Effects on Sediment and Water Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413Forest Management Effects on Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416Forest Management and Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Wildfire, Prescribed Fire, and Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Fire Retardants and Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422Insects, Tree Diseases, and Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423Herbicides and Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424Fertilizer and Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

13. Stream and Riparian Ecology J. Richardson and R.D. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441Influence of Channel Type on Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Hyporheic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443Water Chemistry and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

Riparian Zones and Their Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Functions of Riparian Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Hydrology of the Riparian Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447Bank Stability and Windthrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Organic Matter Dynamics in Stream-Riparian Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448Autochthonous Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448Allochthonous Inputs to Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448Cross-ecosystem Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

The Biota of Streams and Their Riparian Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449Terrestrial Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449Vascular Plants, Mosses, Algae, and Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450Stream Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

Ecological Functions of Streams in Watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452Longitudinal and Lateral Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452Conceptual Models of Stream Ecosystem Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453Spatial and Temporal Dynamics: Disturbance Regimes, Nutrient Spiralling, and

Serial Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

14. Salmonids and the Hydrologic and Geomorphic Features of Their Spawning Streams in British Columbia E. Macisaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

The Salmonid Landscape of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462Scope of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

Streamflow and Spawner Migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463Redds and the Egg Incubation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

Scouring Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

xviii

Low Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467Salmonids as Geomorphic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469Alevins and Fry Emergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

15. Riparian Management and Effects on Function P. Tschaplinski and R. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479Introduction: Riparian Management in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Riparian Ecotones: Functions and Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479Legislation and Regulations in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Riparian Management Objectives and Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481Objectives, Values, and Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481Classification of Streams, Lakes, and Wetlands in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482Fisheries-sensitive and Marine-sensitive Zones or Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486Achieving Riparian Management Area Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

Riparian Management Systems in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488Forest Practices Code Approach to Riparian Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489Site- and Watershed-level Approaches under the Forest and Range Practices Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491Forest Stewardship Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492Landscape-level Riparian Management Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495Other Riparian Management Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496Comparison of British Columbia’s Riparian Management Standards with Other Jurisdictions . . . . . . 498

Forestry-related Effects on Riparian Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504Physical Habitat Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505Trophic Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507Riparian Management and Stream Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

Riparian Assessments in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

16. Detecting and Predicting Changes in Watersheds R. Pike, T. Redding, D. Wilford, R.D. Moore, G. Ice, M. Reiter, and D. toews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527General Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

Sample-scale Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530Plot-scale Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530Watershed-scale Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530Time-series and Spatial-comparison Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531Research Approach Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532Establishing a Baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534Selection of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534General Limitations of Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536Structure of Hydrologic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536Types of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536Hydrologic Modelling Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Watershed Assessment Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539Watershed Assessment in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539United States Watershed Assessment Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541Challenges of Watershed Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

xix


17. Watershed Measurement Methods and Data Limitations Various authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553Introduction – Measurement Methods and Limitations M. Weiler, D. Spittlehouse, and R. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553Measurement Methods and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553Measurement Scale and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

Measurement Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554Data Recording and Accuracy of Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555Weather – Temperature, Humidity, Wind, Radiation, and Precipitation Measurement D. Spittlehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557Air Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

Air Temperature Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558Temperature Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559Humidity Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559Humidity Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560Wind Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561Radiation Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562Radiation Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563Integration over a Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564Precipitation Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564Precipitation Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565Weather – Snow Measurement R. Winkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568Snow Accumulation and Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

Snow Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568Snow Water Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569Snow Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570Snowmelt and Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570Snow Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571Snow Survey Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573Weather – Throughfall and Interception of Rain and Snow D. Carlyle-Moses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575Throughfall and Interception of Rain and Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Rainfall Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575Snow Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579Weather – Evaporation and Transpiration G. Jost and M. Weiler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581Evaporation and Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

Lysimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582Catchment Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583Soil Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583Evaporimeter (Class-A Pan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583Sap Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584Bowen Ratio/Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

xx

Eddy Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585Water Quantity – Streamflow D. Hutchinson and S. Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

Gauging Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587Measuring Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588Measuring Water Surface Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590Establishing a Stage–Discharge Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594Soils – Soil Moisture M. Weiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596Soil Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

Soil Moisture Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596Limitations, Applications, and Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598Soils – Soil Thermal Regime D. Spittlehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599Soil Thermal Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

Measuring Soil Temperature and Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599Soil Temperature and Heat Flux Data Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600Physical Water Quality – Suspended Sediment P. Marquis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601Suspended Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

Collection of Suspended Sediment Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602Turbidity as a Proxy for Suspended Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602Laboratory Analysis of Sediment Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604Physical Water Quality – Stream Temperature E. Quilty and R.D. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606Stream Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

Stream Temperature Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606Technologies for Measuring Stream Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608Calibration of Temperature Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608Verification and Correction of Stream Temperature Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609Recommendations for Monitoring Stream Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611Biological Water Quality – Biological Measures J. Richardson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613Biological Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

Biological Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613Limitations, Applications, and Interpretations of Biological Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615Biological Water Quality – Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates J. Richardson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616Limitations, Applications, and Interpretations of Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate

Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618Geomorphology – Sediment Source Mapping P. Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619Sediment Source Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619Forest Road Erosion Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

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Geomorphology – Channel Measures D. Hogan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623Channel Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Common Limitations of Channel Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626Spatial Measures – Vegetation Cover P. Teti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628Vegetation Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Crown Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628Shade and Transmitted Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630Leaf Area per Unit of Ground Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630Canopy Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631Spatial Measures – Remote Sensing N. Coops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633Remote Sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633

Hydrological Applications of Remote Sensing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635Future Perspectives in Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63618. Stream, Riparian, and Watershed Restoration D. Polster, G. Horel, R. Pike, M. Miles, H. Kimmins, L. Uunila, D. Scott, G. Hartman, and R. Wong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

History of Watershed Restoration in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639Historic Forest Development Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639Evolution of British Columbia Forest Practices and Watershed Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642

Watershed Restoration Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644Restoration Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644Restoration Prioritization and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645Rehabilitation Measures and Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Hillslope and Road Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649Road Rehabilitation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650Hillslope Rehabilitation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

Riparian and Floodplain Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663Riparian and Floodplain Function and Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663Riparian and Floodplain Rehabilitation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

Stream Channel Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673Channel Bank Erosion Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675Instream and Off-channel Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678

Monitoring and Effectiveness Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685Emerging Topics in Watershed Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686

Alien Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686Rehabilitation of Areas Affected by Wildfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687Rehabilitation of Areas Affected by the Mountain Pine Beetle Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687Long-term Site Nutrient Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691


19. Climate Change Effects on Watershed Processes in British Columbia R. PIke, K. Bennett, T. Redding, A. Werner, D. Spittlehouse, R.D. Moore, T. Murdock, J. Beckers, B. Smerdon K. Bladon, V. Foord, D. Campbell, and P. Tschaplinski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

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tables 2.1 Annual sediment mobilization and yield from hillside slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.1 1961–1990 climate normals for zones of the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification system . . . . . . . . . 52 3.2 One standard deviation on mean values of 1961–1990 climate normals for zones of the

biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification system presented in Table 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3 Reference evaporation and climatic moisture deficit for selected locations and the

biogeoclimatic ecological classification zone in which they occur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.4 Averages for 1970–2005 of annual values for weather stations listed in Table 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.5 Evaporative demand, climatic moisture deficit, mean annual temperature, and precipitation

at four elevations on the east coast of Vancouver Island near Campbell River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.6 Climate change scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Historical Trends in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700Historical Trends in Air Temperature and Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700Historical Trends in Snow, Seasonal Ice Cover, Permafrost, and Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703Historical Trends in Landslides and Other Geomorphic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703Historical Trends in Groundwater Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704Historical Trends in Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705

Projections of Future Temperature and Precipitation Regimes in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710British Columbia Projections by Emissions Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7102050s Projections for British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711Regional 2050s Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

Watershed Processes Affected by a Changing Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712Atmospheric Evaporative Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713Vegetation Composition Affecting Evaporation and Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713Snow Accumulation and Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713Permafrost, Lake Ice, and River Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716Glacier Mass Balance Adjustments and Streamflow Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716Altered Groundwater Storage and Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717Streamflow: Peaks, Lows, and Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718Changes in Geomorphic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726Changes in Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728

Modelling Requirements for Climate Change Applications at the Forest Management Scale . . . . . . . . . . 731Downscaling for Watershed Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732Global Climate Model Selection for Watershed Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732Modelling Atmospheric Evaporative Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733Modelling Future Evaporation and Precipitation Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733Modelling Future Snow Accumulation and Accelerated Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734Modelling Soil Freezing, Permafrost, Lake Ice, and River Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734Modelling Glacier Mass Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734Modelling Future Stream Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735Modelling the Future Frequency or Magnitude of Forest Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735Modelling Future Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736


appendices 1 Glossary of Hydrologic and Geomorphic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 2 Acronyms, Initialisms, Symbols, and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 3 Watershed Data and Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775

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3.7 Climate change scenarios for five locations in British Columbia based on the Canadian global climate model simulations for the A2 emission scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.1 Water Survey of Canada gauging sites related to each transect in Figure 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6.1 Throughfall, stemflow, and maximum storm interception percentages of season-long rainfall

in various forest types in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.2 Total annual streamflow volume and water yield per unit area from selected research

watersheds throughout British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.1 Percent reduction in maximum snow water equivalent and average ablation rate in the

forest relative to the open and the number of days difference in timing of snow disappearance in stands affected by mountain pine beetle in the British Columbia Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

7.2 Effects of forest harvesting on water-table position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 7.3 Effects of forest harvesting on groundwater recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 7.4 Watershed experiments that quantify forest cover effects on streamflow in coastal, northern

interior, and southern interior regions of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.5 Watershed experiments that quantify forest cover effects on streamflow in hydrologic

regimes similar to those in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 9.1 Landslide characteristics in the Arrow and Kootenay Lake forest districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 9.2 Example of a simple qualitative risk matrix for partial risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 9.3 Forest cover and climate factors affecting snow stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 9.4 Satellites that provide commercially available imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 9.5 Descriptive statistics for a slope magnitude digital landform model differenced grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 9.6 Descriptive statistics for a slope magnitude digital landform model slope magnitude grid . . . . . . . . . . 321 10.1 Channel types and associated characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 10.2 Watershed types reclassified and summarized according to connectivity of hillslope and

channel sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 10.3 Factors governing channel morphology according to the potential of forest management

activities to influence channel conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 10.4 Morphological channel conditions observed in the field during 1992 and 2007 (Donna Creek) . . . . . . . 362 10.5 Summary of logjam characteristics on the Yakoun River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 11.1 Common surface karst features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 12.1 Forest water quality parameters and example measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 12.2 Water quality sampling literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 12.3 Summary of surface water pH guidelines in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 12.4 Summary of British Columbia water quality guidelines for nitrate and nitrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 12.5 Components of water quality potentially affected by forest management activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 12.6 Peak nitrate-N and total ammonia-N concentrations from British Columbia case studies . . . . . . . . . . 427 12.7 Peak urea-N concentrations from British Columbia case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 12.8 Peak soluble reactive phosphorus concentrations from British Columbia case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 15.1 Riparian management area standards for streams under the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 15.2 Riparian management area standards for lakes under the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 15.3 Riparian management area standards for wetlands under the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 15.4 Riparian management zone tree retention requirements by percent basal area

for minor tenure holders under the Forest and Range Practices Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 15.5 Comparison of Forest Stewardship Council riparian standards for streams with those of the

FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

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15.6 Comparison of Forest Stewardship Council riparian standards for wetlands with those of the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

15.7 Comparison of Forest Stewardship Council riparian standards for lakes with those of the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

15.8 Minimum budgets to be applied for the Forest Stewardship Council’s assessment-based riparian management option for streams and by average equivalent riparian reserve and management zone widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

15.9 Hypothetical example of a landscape-level approach for riparian management based on a landscape unit of 4000 ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

15.10 Summary of riparian standards and management practices in northwestern United States for small streams with fish and (or) used for domestic water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

15.11 Summary of riparian standards and management practices in northwestern United States for small streams without fish and (or) not used for domestic water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

15.12 Effect of timber harvesting on water temperature increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 15.13 Riparian, stream, and aquatic habitat indicators used for the routine-level assessment of

riparian management effectiveness evaluations in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 15.14 Fifteen main assessment questions that correspond to the 15 indicators of stream riparian

function as given in Table 15.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 15.15 Mean number of indicator failures per riparian class of stream attributable to

forestry-related and non-forestry-related causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 16.1 Selected statistical reference material for further review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 16.2 Monitoring reference resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 16.3 Watershed assessment approaches in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 17.1 Accuracy and reporting increment of typical environmental sensors monitored with data loggers . . . 556 17.2 References for throughfall/interception methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 17.3 Methods for direct or indirect measurement of evaporation or components of evaporation with

approximate representative spatial scale and the highest meaningful resolution time scale for each method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

17.4 Summary of methods for streamflow measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 17.5 Diagnostics and commonly used treatments for stage-discharge related uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 17.6 Volumetric water content measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 17.7 Biological measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 17.8 Fish and aquatic invertebrate measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 17.9 Classification of road surface erosion used in southeastern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 17.10 Channel measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 17.11 Relationship between scale and spatial resolution in satellite-based land cover mapping programs . . 633 18.1 Riparian restoration references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 18.2 Stream restoration references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 18.3 Stream restoration web resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 18.4 References for monitoring and effectiveness evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 18.5 Probability of exceeding design criteria as a function of project lifespan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69019.1 Historical trends in 30-, 50-, and 100-year periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 19.2 Water Survey of Canada gauging station information for various streamflow

regimes in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706

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figures 1.1 Carnation Creek tributary C weir, December 1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Logging on the Carnation Creek floodplain, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3 Carnation Creek weather station N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Example of the effects of pre-1980s harvesting and road-building practices in

unstable/erodible terrain, coastal British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.5 Debris from landslide in Carnation Creek, 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.6 Demonstration of salt dilution gauging to measure streamflow in Fishtrap Creek,

Friends of Forest Hydrology workshop, September 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.7 Measuring fork length of Coho salmon fry from Carnation Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.8 Demonstration of low-level aerial photography using helium-filled balloons

to quantify changes in stream channels at Carnation Creek, 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.9 Investigating the Donna Creek landslide, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.10 Logjam in the Similkameen River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.11 Assessing sediment source from channel erosion at Rembler Creek, October 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.12 Example of current riparian management practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.13 Bonaparte Plateau north of Kamloops showing evidence of mountain pine beetle

infestation on the landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.1 Physiographic regions of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2 Major geophysical features having physiographic expression in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.3 Tahltan Highland: view south along the east side of the Spectrum Range, with the

Little Iskut Valley to the left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4 Generalized geology of British Columbia: lithostratigraphical units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.5 Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.6 Plateau edge along Taseko River, showing the Tertiary Plateau basalts forming a lava flow

escarpment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.7 The Alberta Plateau, view near Pink Mountain settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.8 Seven Sisters Mountain, Bulkley Range of the Hazelton Ranges on the south side of the

Skeena Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.9 A deep, glacial trough cut through the Coast Mountains, Pacific Ranges, near Bute Inlet:

valley of Orford River, view southwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.10 Bishop Glacier, central Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.11 Principal glacial features in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.12 Correlation chart of Fraser Glaciation history in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.13 View north from Idaho Peak in the Selkirk Mountains above New Denver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.14 Glacially overridden ridge crests in the southern Cascade Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.15 Generalized glacial deposits in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.16 View toward the Muskwa Ranges near Liard Hot Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.17 Quaternary sediments in Coquitlam Valley near Vancouver: interbedded outwash

gravels and sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.18 View upstream in Thompson Valley from Elephant Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

19.3 Changes in seasonal and annual air temperature and precipitation by the 2050s for regions in British Columbia for the ensemble of 30 GCM projections described above in “2050s Projections for British Columbia” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

19.4 Climate change hydrologic model components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

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2.19 The Rocky Mountains in the Continental Ranges near Elko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.20 (a) Vertical zonation of hydrologic and geomorphic processes in the British Columbia landscape . . . 38 (b) Geomorphic process domains and the distribution of topography in slope-area space . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.21 Regional sediment yield pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.22 Generalized map of Soil Groups for British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.1 Composites of sea-level pressure patterns associated with the 13 synoptic types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.2 Mean frequencies of synoptic types by month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.3 Latitudinal cross-section through southern British Columbia illustrating physiographic diversity

and resulting climatic regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4 Biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.5 Mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation for the 1961–1990 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.6 Mean October to April and mean May to September precipitation for the 1961–1990 period . . . . . . . . 53 3.7 Mean January minimum and mean July maximum air temperature for the 1961–1990 period . . . . . . . 53 3.8 Climate diagrams for Nanaimo, Prince Rupert, Penticton, Upper Penticton Creek,

Prince George, and Dease Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.9 May to September reference evaporation, climatic moisture deficit, and total precipitation

for Victoria Airport 1970 to 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.10 May to October climatic moisture deficit for Campbell River Airport for 1901–2005;

between-year variation in CMD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.11 Winter surface climate anomalies associated with selected synoptic types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.12 Sea surface temperature and surface wind stress anomalies during El Niño and La Niña conditions . 61 3.13 Winter temperature and precipitation anomalies associated with ENSO cool, neutral, and

warm phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.14 Sea surface temperature and surface wind stress anomalies during positive and

negative phases of the PDO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.15 Winter temperature and precipitation anomalies associated with PDO cool, neutral, and

warm phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.16 Depictions of the October 2003 “pineapple express” event that caused widespread flooding and

mass-wasting events throughout coastal British Columbia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.17 Time series of large-scale climatic indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.18 Trends in daily minimum air temperature for the period 1900–2003 for western Canada . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.19 Trends in precipitation totals for the period 1900–2003 for western Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.20 Trends in daily maximum air temperature for the period 1900–2003 for western Canada . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.21 Trends in four temperature metrics at climate stations within British Columbia for the

period 1950–2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.22 Trends in six precipitation metrics at climate stations within British Columbia for the

period 1950–2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.23 A range of future climate projections for three emission scenarios and a number of global

climate models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.24 Mean annual temperature for British Columbia for current climate and that predicted for

British Columbia in 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s for the A2 scenario from Canadian Global Climate Model version 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.25 Mean maximum July temperature for British Columbia for current climate and that predicted for British Columbia in 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s for the A2 scenario from Canadian Global Climate Model version 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

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3.26 Mean minimum January temperature for British Columbia for current climate and that predicted for British Columbia in 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s for the A2 scenario from Canadian Global Climate Model version 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.27 Mean May to September precipitation for British Columbia for current climate and the percentage change predicted for British Columbia in 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s for the A2 scenario from Canadian Global Climate Model version 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.28 Mean October to April precipitation for British Columbia for current climate and the percentage change predicted for British Columbia in 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s for the A2 scenario from Canadian Global Climate Model version 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.1 Examples of long-term average streamflow regimes drawn from southern British Columbia . . . . . . . 87 4.2 Mean monthly discharge for Carnation Creek in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.3 Mean monthly discharge for Fishtrap Creek in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.4 Mean monthly discharge for Redfish Creek in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.5 Mean monthly discharge for Capilano River in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.6 Mean monthly discharge for Coquihalla River in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.7 Mean monthly discharge for Lillooet River in 1977, and 1981–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.8 Hydrometric stations in British Columbia used to illustrate the general spatial

variations in monthly and peak flow characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.9 Examples of average annual hydrographs for a transect of drainage basins across

southern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.10 Examples of average annual hydrographs for transects of drainage basins across central

and northern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.11 Map of k factors, representing the pattern of mean annual peak flows over British Columbia . . . . . . . 104 4.12 Temporal distribution of annual peak flows for a selection of British Columbia drainage basins. . . . . 105 4.13 Daily data for various hydrometric stations illustrating the range of possible flood-generating

mechanisms throughout interior British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.1 Schematics of various silvicultural systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.2 Long-term timber harvesting and regeneration for British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.3 Skid road with log “skids” laid perpendicular to the direction of haul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.4 Log drives on Kootenay rivers: the Slocan River near Passmore, and Bull River near Cranbrook . . . . 117 5.5 River transportation of logs on the Adams River: the Adams River splash dam, Brennan Creek

flume, and Adams Lake sorting pond filled with logs to be driven down the Adams River . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.6 “Old Curly” on Thurlow Island in 1894 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.7 Solid-rubber-tire truck in 1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.8 Excavating deep organic soils and hauling ballast for roads could be prohibitively

expensive compared to building plank roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.9 Wood-burning steam shovel near Cowichan Lake in 1935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.10 Road construction with a line shovel in 1936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.11 Bulldozers became popular in the 1940s, but their ability to sort materials on subgrade

construction was not a strong feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.12 Moving water is an inconvenience to road construction because it requires some form

of a special structure to span it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.13 The hydraulic excavator brought significant change to the quality of constructed roads . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.14 Because of span limitations for log-stringer bridges, the footing structures often intruded into

the wetted perimeter of the creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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5.15 The bridge over the lower Klinaklini River illustrates a “glulam” bridge with simple spans and a longer inverted truss span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.16 The use of steel girders has allowed for longer spans without obstructions to water flow . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.1 The hillslope hydrologic cycle and stand water balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 6.2 Interception loss as a function of the amount of rainfall in an individual rainstorm for a

mature coastal hemlock forest at Carnation Creek on the west coast of Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.3 Interception loss as a function of the amount of rainfall in an individual rainstorm for

lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir forests at Upper Penticton Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.4 Interception loss as a function of the amount of rainfall in an individual rainstorm for a young

coastal Sitka spruce forest at Carnation Creek on the west coast of Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.5 Changes in snow water equivalent and snow density in a clearcut at Mayson Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.6 Changes in maximum and minimum air temperature, snow depth, and daily mean snow

temperature under a forest during winter 2005/06 at Upper Penticton Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.7 Transpiration rates of old lodgepole pine trees at Upper Penticton Creek and daily maximum

vapour pressure deficit on days when the soil was moist and dry or night-time temperatures were below zero, and on days with rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

6.8 Average daily evaporation of intercepted water, tree transpiration, and below-canopy evaporation at Upper Penticton Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6.9 Water retention curves for sand, loam, and clay soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.10 Hypothetical example of relative infiltration rates in unfrozen, frozen, and hydrophobic soils. . . . . . . 155 6.11 Groundwater flow systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 6.12 Hypothetical example of expanding variable source areas within a headwater watershed

during a runoff event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.13 Typical hydrographs for coastal and interior watersheds in British Columbia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 6.14 Components of the hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.15 Flow duration curves for Fishtrap Creek, with arithmetic scale and logarithmic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 6.16 Annual flood frequency plot for Fishtrap Creek for pre-fire years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 7.1 Measured root zone soil water storage and daily precipitation for a lodgepole pine forest, a

clearcut, and a regenerating 10-year-old lodgepole pine stand at Upper Penticton Creek . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.2 Daily evaporation averaged over 10- to 20-day periods for a lodgepole pine forest, a clearcut,

and a regenerating 10-year-old lodgepole pine stand at Upper Penticton Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 7.3 Mean annual water balance for an old lodgepole pine forest, clearcut, and regenerating 5-,

10-, and 25-year-old lodgepole pine stands at Upper Penticton Creek from October 2002 to September 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

7.4 Locations of watershed experiments in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 8.1 Flexural topple in limestone in the Rocky Mountains northeast of Prince George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 8.2 Examples of rock fall, sand fall, and earth topple and fall near the British Columbia towns

of Prince Rupert, Williams Lake, and Terrace, respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 8.3 Slides, such as this earth slide near Fort St. John have discrete shear surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 8.4 Mud flows following a rainstorm in the Peace River area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 8.5 Rock avalanche near Chisca River west of Fort Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 8.6 Rock spread west of Fort Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 8.7 Illustrations showing various rock slide interactions upon impact with soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 8.8 Percent volume transported by debris slides, debris avalanches, and debris flows on

forested terrain at Rennell Sound and Pivot Mountain, Haida Gwaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 8.9 Percent cumulative deviation from mean precipitation at Terrace airport from 1953 to 2002 . . . . . . . . 222

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8.10 Small flows within a larger landslide along Prophet River shows partial reactivation of a landslide . . 223 8.11 Shallow debris slides near Prince Rupert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 8.12 Close-up of a moderately well-drained Folisol at a landslide head scarp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 8.13 Debris avalanche in a Folisol near Prince Rupert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 8.14 Debris flow initiated at a low slope angle in a poorly drained folic soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 8.15 Bouldery debris flow deposits at Lower Arrow Lake near Burton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 8.16 Steep debris flow fan at Salal Creek near Pemberton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 8.17 Channel stripped of vegetation and alluvial sediment by a large debris flow in the

Monashee Mountains near Edgewood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 8.18 Vehicle engulfed by slow-moving, distal deposit of a debris flow, which damaged a

logging camp at Meager Creek near Pemberton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 8.19 Aggrading alluvial fan formed by debris flows and fluvial sedimentation in the Monashee

Mountains near Edgewood; note former channel and avulsion caused by recent debris flow . . . . . . . . 230 8.20 Alluvial fan formed by frequent debris flows into the Ryan River near Pemberton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 8.21 Repeated debris flows have deposited sediments near the Zymoetz River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 8.22 Levees formed by debris flows originating in fractured sedimentary rocks at Fountain Ridge

near Lillooet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 8.23 Levee formed by debris flow originating in granitic rocks at the Upper Lillooet River near

Pemberton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 8.24 Debris flow deposit showing inverse grading and matrix support at Meager Creek near

Pemberton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 8.25 One of two destructive, sensitive clay landslides at Lakelse Lake, 1962 showing fluid mud in

the zone of depletion, debris accumulation in Lakelse Lake, and damage to vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 8.26 The Mink Creek earth flow spread illustrates a rapid failure on a nearly flat gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 8.27 Transverse ridges of spreading give portions of the Mink Creek landslide a ribbed appearance;

the central part of the slide experienced more complete liquefaction and became a flow . . . . . . . . . . . 235 8.28 Pavilion earth flow; note the transverse ridges in the zone of accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 8.29 Illustration showing the settings for rock avalanches in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 8.30 Rock fall from this cirque wall above the Kendall Glacier, 45 km northwest of McBride,

disintegrated and transformed into a rock avalanche with more than 1 km of run-out in July 1999 . . . 238 8.31 The Tetsa rock avalanche was triggered by disintegrating rock masses on dip slopes of

approximately 30° in the Rocky Mountain foothills; note the run-up on the valley wall opposite the landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

8.32 The 2002 Pink Mountain rock slide–debris avalanche was associated with mountain slope deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

8.33 Antislope scarp and ridges indicative of slope sagging near the Kitnayakwa River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 8.34 Old landslides and transverse sackungen ridges at the Kitnayakwa River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 8.35 Muskwa rock slide–earth flow, west of Fort Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 8.36 A complex landslide at Harold Price Creek, near Smithers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 8.37 Illustration showing subaqueous landslide associated with fan-delta collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 8.38 The 2007 Chehalis rock slide triggered a large displacement wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 8.39 Splash erosion: the raindrop is a few millimetres wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 8.40 Rill and gully erosion along the Chilcotin River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 8.41 Pipe exposed on a bank of the Chilcotin River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 8.42 Development of catastrophic seepage-face erosion concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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8.43 Evidence of flooding and mass movement events following the 2003 Cedar Hills fire, near Falkland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

8.44 Evidence of debris flows following the 2003 Mt. Ingersoll fire, near Burton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 8.45 View over Kuskonook and Jansen Creek watersheds, burned in 2003 fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 8.46 Soil erosion caused by overland flow on burned soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 8.47 Gully erosion in headwaters of Kuskonook Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 8.48 Debris flow deposit on Kuskonook Creek fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 8.49 The wetting angle between a droplet of water and a solid surface is an indication of the

degree of hydrophobicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 8.50 Upturned rotational landslide toe exposed in Kiskatinaw River, near Dawson Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 8.51 Balsam poplars buried in debris-flow deposits near Chetwynd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 8.52 Severely abraded log entrained in the 2002 Zymoetz rock slide–debris flow, near Terrace . . . . . . . . . . 258 8.53 Rafted red alder in the Khyex landslide near Prince Rupert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 8.54 Trees displaying variable responses to mass movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 8.55 Trees can lean for reasons other than slope instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 8.56 Tree scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 8.57 Landslides often dam rivers, inundating their floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 8.58 Wiggle matching improves the precision of radiocarbon dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 8.59 (a) Lichen-covered rubble in a bedrock spread southeast of Tumbler Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 (b) Close-up of Rhizocarpon sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 9.1 Orthophoto prepared from 1995 air photos, showing part of the Norrish Creek watershed

near Mission in the lower Fraser Valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 9.2 Numerous landslides caused by road-fill failure and harvesting effects in an area that was

heavily logged in the 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 9.3 Results from terrain attribute studies in the southeastern interior of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 9.4 An unusual clearcut-caused debris slide/avalanche complex at Gorman Creek near Golden,

in the Interior of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 9.5 Debris slides that initiated within a helicopter-yarded cutblock a few years after harvesting at

Indian Arm in the Chilliwack Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 9.6 Headscarp area of a typical harvesting-related debris slide, Klanawa River,

South Island Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 9.7 Transport zone of debris slide shown in Figure 9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 9.8 Slopes in north Clayoquot Sound after a 4-day storm event in 1996 resulted in 273 landslides . . . . . . . 283 9.9 Another view of Clayoquot Sound after the 1996 storm event, showing a mix of harvesting and

road-related landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 9.10 Debris avalanches caused by road-fill failures and drainage diversions on slopes logged in the

1970s at Airy Creek in the Arrow Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 9.11 Road-fill failure in the Kid Creek area of the Kootenay Lake Forest District, 2007; failure was caused

by drainage diversion that saturated the road fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 9.12 Debris slide that progressed to a large debris flow below a culvert in the Blueberry Creek area

of the Arrow Forest District, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 9.13 Debris slide/avalanche that progressed to a large debris flow below a culvert in the Fortynine

Creek area of the Kootenay Lake Forest District, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 9.14 Debris slides at Wahleach Lake, Chilliwack Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 9.15 Debris slide/avalanche that involved a fill failure of a mainline Forest Service road near

Giveout Creek in the Kootenay Lake Forest District, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

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9.16 Two road-fill slope slides associated with uncontrolled road drainage in the San Juan watershed, South Island Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

9.17 Road surface and slide headscarp from Figure 9.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 9.18 “Gentle-over-steep” debris avalanche below road and ground-based harvesting near

Shaw Creek in the Kootenay Lake Forest District, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 9.19 “Gentle-over-steep” debris avalanche caused by drainage diversions on road and skid trails

near Ferguson Creek in the Arrow Forest District, about 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 9.20 “Gentle-over-steep” debris flow caused by road drainage diversion on Lower Arrow Lake

in the Arrow Forest District, 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 9.21 Sketch showing the typical effect of roads and culverts on slope hydrology for uniform

slopes with shallow soils and low drainage density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 9.22 Sketch showing the typical role of a road drainage diversion in triggering a

“gentle-over-steep” landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 9.23 Aerial view of the Belgo Creek debris avalanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 9.24 Natural flow pathways downslope are intersected by roads on the hillslope above Donna Creek . . . . 294 9.25 Insufficient cross-drainage resulted in the capture and routing of water along road ditches . . . . . . . . . 294 9.26 Water discharged onto a highly erodible terrace resulted in the catastrophic seepage face erosion . . . 295 9.27 Orthophoto prepared from air photos taken soon after the debris flow event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 9.28 Photographs of the initial landslide and the scoured channel upslope of the alluvial fan . . . . . . . . . . . 297 9.29 Surface erosion on a road near Redfish Creek in the Kootenay Lake Forest District in 1993,

caused by a plugged culvert and inadequate water bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 9.30 An extreme example of road erosion in the Lemon Creek drainage, Arrow Forest District,

caused by diversion of a small creek down an old road during spring runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 9.31 Gullies in the Gordon River watershed, South Island Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 9.32 Closely spaced gullies at MacMillan Creek, Haida Gwaii Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 9.33 Steep headwall area of gully in Rennell Sound, Haida Gwaii Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 9.34 Unstable gully sidewall area in Rennell Sound, Haida Gwaii Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 9.35 Small helicopter-yarded patch cuts, with a buffered gully, at Foley Creek watershed,

Chilliwack Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 9.36 Debris slides in a gully near the Klanawa River in the South Island Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 9.37 Debris flows that originate in gullies can present a significant hazard to public safety

and to property in populated areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 9.38 Example of a terrain map: air photo interpretation and completed terrain map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 9.39 Tension cracks, Tangiers River in the Columbia Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 9.40 Six steps in the decision-making framework for risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 9.41 Damage to a plantation caused by an avalanche that originated in a clearcut near

Shannon Creek in the Arrow Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 9.42 New avalanche track created by a large avalanche that originated in an 8-year-old clearcut and

caused damage to timber and a plantation near Nagle Creek in the Columbia Forest District, 1996 . . 315 9.43 Avalanches in these two cutblocks in 1988 created avalanche tracks that threaten the highway

below on Slocan Lake in the Arrow Forest District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 9.44 Bridge on Bull River in the Cranbrook Forest District destroyed in 1997 by a large avalanche

in an established track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 9.45 Close-up of the destroyed bridge on Bull River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 9.46 Different colour composite images for August 2006 imagery: Red/Green/Blue;

Near IR/Red/Green; and Principal Component Analysis 1/2/3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

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9.47 IKONOS stereo image-derived contours draped over IKONOS image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 9.48 Stereo IKONOS-derived contours; and corresponding TRIM contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 9.49 Spot heights and breakline points; and image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 9.50 Pre-slide grid in the middle and post-slide grid on the right; differenced grid: largest difference

is in the red area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 9.51 Slope magnitude digital landform model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 10.1 Governing conditions as independent landscape and watershed variables and the

dependent channel variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 10.2 Channel form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 10.3 Channel pattern classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 10.4 Channel bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 10.5 Channel islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 10.6 Lateral activity associated with a large channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 10.7 Channel morphological units: riffle-pool morphology; cascade-pool morphology; and step-pool

morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 10.8 Channel morphology matrix showing levels of disturbance: cascade-pool and riffle-pool

morphologies; and step-pool morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 10.9 Examples of watershed types from Holland (1976): type I watershed, type II watershed, type III

watershed, and type IV watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 10.10 Examples of channels in type IV watersheds: step-pool morphology near drainage outlet;

and pool-riffle channel near drainage divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 10.11 Hypothetical sediment budget for a first-order basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 10.12 Large woody material input mechanisms: landslides, windthrow, stream bank erosion,

tree mortality, and floatation from upstream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 10.13 Large woody debris input processes and maximum tree height for dominant tree species

in all the biogeoclimatic zones in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 10.14 A typical coastal basin, Government Creek, Haida Gwaii: view looking upstream to

watershed at the mouth of Government Creek; view looking downstream at the channel bed near the stream outlet; view looking upstream at the confluence of two tributaries; view looking upstream at one of the tributary streams; and view looking upstream near headwaters . . . . . 352

10.15 Morphological characteristics of an old-growth coastal stream, Government Creek, Haida Gwaii: large woody debris location map, planimetric map, and longitudinal profile; and photograph from site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

10.16 Morphological characteristics of a logged coastal stream, Mosquito Creek, Haida Gwaii; large woody debris location map, planimetric map, and longitudinal profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10.17 Historical landslide and precipitation records: landslide events occurring on Haida Gwaii 1810–1991; annual maximum 24-hr precipitation records for selected stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

10.18 Adjustment of channel morphology in response to large woody debris jam formation and deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

10.19 Large woody debris jam age distributions for forested and logged watershed streams on Haida Gwaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

10.20 Pathways of fluvial disturbance in a riparian area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 10.21 Carnation Creek watershed, showing study areas and cutblock locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 10.22 Carnation Creek morphometric maps of study area during summer low flows 1977–1991 . . . . . . . . . . . 360 10.23 Bankfull widths of selected cross-sections from Carnation Creek study area; logging in

study areas occurred during 1978–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

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10.24 The impact of a large landslide on Donna Creek, an intermediate-sized interior stream: view of Donna Creek upstream of 1992 landslide entry point; and view of Donna Creek at 1992 landslide entry point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

10.25 Erosion and deposition patterns in Donna Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 10.26 Planimetric maps for unlogged and logged channels in Fubar Creek 1989 and 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 11.1 Limestone: a soluble rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 11.2 Forested karst landscape system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 11.3 A forest-covered karst with small sinkhole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 11.4 The “carbon dioxide cascade” in the forested karst environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 11.5 Distribution of carbonate bedrock, potential karst lands, and known karst caves

within British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 11.6 Cave and karst parks of Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 11.7 Examples of karst fauna: a cricket commonly found in caves; and a cave-adapted crustacean . . . . . . . 378 11.8 Karst solutional grooves or karren on steeply sloping bedrock surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 11.9 Examples of karst features found in forested regions of coastal British Columbia: a sinking stream

at a vertical sink point; a series of small sinkholes; a karst spring; and a dry karst canyon . . . . . . . . . . 380 11.10 The linkage between epikarst and endokarst; note that exokarst is the surface of the karst

landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 11.11 Examples of the cave environment: an active underground stream; a sinking river and

large swallet; and viewing from within a cave passage towards a cave entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 11.12 Infiltration of water through soil and the epikarst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 11.13 Autogenic and allogenic recharge of karst aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 11.14 Karst catchment hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 11.15 Quadra Island karst unit, northern Gulf Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 11.16 Noomas Creek and Kinman Creek karst units, northern Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 11.17 Examples of past and potential disturbances to karst by forestry activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 11.18 Karst field assessment activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 11.19 The four-step karst vulnerability rating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 11.20 Framework for best management practices and karst vulnerability ratings for broader

karst landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 11.21 Case study 1: Cutblock with large sinkholes and small caves along access road and

potentially significant sinkholes within cutblock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 11.22 Case study 2: Cutblock between two major and significant drainage elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 11.23 Case study 3: Cutblock with clusters of sinkholes and development of retention areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 12.1 Forest ecosystems can retard chemical or nutrient movements to surface waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 12.2 Common flow–dilution relationship for a forested watershed in Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 12.3 Identification of streamflow sources based on the relationship between electrical

conductivity and stream discharge at Place Creek during the 2000 melt season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 12.4 In British Columbia, water quality in forested watersheds is regulated by both federal

and provincial governments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 12.5 Measuring stream temperature in a British Columbia coastal stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 12.6 Suspended sediment in streams can have many important implications for water quality . . . . . . . . . . 408 12.7 Measuring the turbidity of a water sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 12.8 Measuring electrical conductivity in a British Columbia coastal stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

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12.9 The production of sediment and movement to streams and lakes in British Columbia is caused by both natural and human-caused factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

12.10 The characteristics of forest harvesting, soil properties, and the rate of re-vegetation following harvesting can have a strong influence on chemical loading in a watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

12.11 The maintenance of streamside buffers is one strategy to help prevent changes in water quality following forest harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

12.12 Fires that consume more organic material generally have a greater effect on water quality . . . . . . . . . . 421 12.13 Both phosphate and sulphate fluxes in streams are often greater following fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 12.14 Insect infestations in British Columbia, such as the mountain pine beetle, can have an

important effect on water quantity and quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 13.1 A stream reach showing many of the elements and processes that link streams and

riparian areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 13.2 Small stream at the University of British Columbia’s Malcolm Knapp Research Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 13.3 Examples of two types of macroscopic, stream algae, one a red algae and the other a green algae . . . . 451 14.1 Spawner size is related to the maximum median particle size of the spawning gravels utilized

for redd construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 14.2 Schematic of intergravel water flow through a salmonid redd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 14.3 Egg burial depths for different salmonids measured from original streambed

level to top of first egg pocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 14.4 After hatching, sockeye salmon alevins from interior British Columbia streams can move

within the gravels and migrate downward to avoid ice formation in the surface gravels . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 14.5 Chinook salmon spawning “dunes” in the Harrison River, illustrating the effect chinook

spawners can have on streambed form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 14.6 Mosaic of submerged pool-riffle patches created by chinook redd construction in the South

Thompson River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 14.7 Sockeye salmon spawning area in the Lower Shuswap River, illustrating the scouring of

periphyton from the surface gravels and the amount of streambed disturbance caused by redd digging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

14.8 Sockeye salmon fry emigration from Gluskie Creek always coincided with increasing spring discharges and water temperatures, but not always with the timing of peak flow events . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

15.1 The riparian zone forms the key boundary that moderates all hydrological, geomorphological, and biological processes associated with interconnected fluvial corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

15.2 Riparian management area tree retention by basal area applied within 10 m of a small stream . . . . . . 482 15.3 Riparian management area for streams showing a management zone and a reserve zone

along the stream channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 15.4 Riparian classification key for lakes under the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 15.5 Riparian classification key for wetlands under the FPC and FRPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 15.6 Riparian management area windthrow on small stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 15.7 Provision of shade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 15.8 Smaller stream with full riparian area management retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 15.9 Near-stream practices: harvest of streambank tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 15.10 Class S4 stream with clearcut riparian management area; virtually all trees removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 15.11 The absolute magnitude of change in stream temperature is related to the amount of

shade reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 15.12 Stream in properly functioning condition with all riparian vegetation intact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

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15.13 Overall outcomes of riparian management effectiveness evaluations under the Forest and Range Evaluation Program for 1441 streams assessed between 2005 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

15.14 Overall outcomes of riparian management effectiveness evaluations by riparian stream class for the 1441 streams assessed under the Forest and Range Evaluation Program between 2005 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

15.15 Class S4 stream with full retention from the streambank up to the top of the gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 15.16 Overall outcomes of riparian management effectiveness evaluations by individual indicator

for all streams assessed under the Forest and Range Evaluation Program between 2005 and 2008 combined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

15.17 Clearcut riparian management area with second-growth vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 16.1 Classification of common watershed models based on level of process representation and

spatial discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 17.1 Random distribution of point throughfall gauges in a soft fruit orchard, Kamloops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 17.2 Long throughfall trough collector emptying into a tipping-bucket rain gauge, Upper

Pent icton Creek Watershed Experiment, near Penticton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 17.3 An example of a suspended sediment monitoring station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 17.4 Mean daily water temperatures for a coastal and an interior stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 17.5 Temperature patterns for three streams in the North Thompson drainage during summer 2004 . . . . . 607 17.6 Stream temperatures before, during, and following a dewatering event, which began August 16

and ended August 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 17.7 Polar co-ordinate representation of a hemispherical field of view centred on the zenith. . . . . . . . . . . . 629 17.8 Illustration of spatial resolution and subsequent information content of three common

image spatial resolutions: 30 × 30 m, 10 × 10 m, and 2.5 × 2.5 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 18.1 Historical air photos showing the changes associated with forest harvesting along Dewdney

Creek, a tributary to the Coquihalla River near Hope in 1948 and 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 18.2 In alluvial streams in natural coniferous forests, large woody debris stores sediment,

creates pools and channel structure, and provides habitat elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 18.3 Where large woody debris has been lost or removed from alluvial streams, channel structure

is lost, the channel bed becomes uniform, and the bed material coarsens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 18.4 Examples of landslides related to forestry development in two harvested areas on the west side

of Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 18.5 Misery Creek in the mid-Coast Mountains of British Columbia illustrates landslide and erosion

problems that can occur from road construction on steep, unstable terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 18.6 Example of road fill landslide, West Coast Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 18.7 Overview risk rating and trend for prioritizing watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 18.8 Overview of watershed restoration implementation sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 18.9 An example of landslides caused by logging road development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 18.10 A retaining basin was constructed to capture materials that will fail from the slope above . . . . . . . . . . 651 18.11 Soil bioengineering was used on this landslide to initiate the natural successional processes

that will maintain a vegetation cover on this slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 18.12 Fillslope instability has been substantially reduced by fill retrieval and endhaul; however, the

remaining road surface is narrower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 18.13 Low-level bridge on active mainline, designed to be overtopped during major floods or

debris flow events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 18.14 Debris rack upstream of culvert on unmaintained road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 18.15 Typical cross-ditch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

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18.16 Sketch illustrating full fill retrieval and contouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 18.17 Permanent deactivation and hillslope contouring on a road in south-central Vancouver Island . . . . . 655 18.18 Two excavators using a double-bench approach to deactivate a road with deep fills on

south-central Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 18.19 (a) Unstable fills and steep escarpments along a road section above Kennedy Lake on

Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 (b) Surface blast used to remove fill and trim landslide scarps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 18.20 The culvert was removed at this crossing and the drainage course restored with an

armoured swale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 18.21 This road section is undergoing full deconstruction by retrieving sidecast fill material and

placing it against the cut, removing drainage structures, and placing salvaged wood on the regraded slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

18.22 Modified brush layers have been developed to treat forest landslides and unstable slopes where normal tree planting would not provide effective stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660

18.23 Wattle fences can be used to treat steep slopes where surface ravelling is preventing plant growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

18.24 Live pole drain schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 18.25 Live gully breaks can slow flows down gullies and promote recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 18.26 Downed trees in streams act as flow deflectors and provide habitat features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 18.27 Root networks sustain undercut banks, which provide habitat features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 18.28 Even-aged thrifty conifer stands do not have the root network needed to control bank

erosion along large alluvial streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 18.29 Shallow-rooted alders are easily undercut in alluvial streambanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 18.30 The lower section of Elk River on Vancouver Island changed from a single-thread to a

multi-thread channel following valley flat forest harvesting and roading in the 1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 18.31 The pre-1957 Elk River channel plots near the upper limit of conditions for single-thread channels . . 668 18.32 On an active fan, the forest limits the spread of sediment and debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 18.33 The root network is critical in limiting bank erosion and channel avulsion on active fans . . . . . . . . . . 669 18.34 Live gravel bar staking can be used to initiate natural successional processes on gravel bars

that form from excess sediment accumulation associated with development-related landslides or erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

18.35 Live gravel bar staking on the San Juan River, March 12, 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 18.36 Live gravel bar staking starting to grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 18.37 Live gravel bar staking traps small woody debris, creating a flow disruption and allowing

sediment to collect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 18.38 A total of 80 cm of new sediment was deposited on this gravel bar on the San Juan River

during the first high flows following treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 18.39 The cuttings planted on this gravel bar on the San Juan River in 1998 continue to grow and

provide habitat for later successional species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 18.40 Live gravel bar staking on the San Juan River has resulted in the accumulation of substrate

on the gravel bar surface and a deepening of the river channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 18.41 Understorey on the San Juan River gravel bar that was staked in 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 18.42 Coquihalla River, 1984: these boulder structures were constructed along the Coquihalla River

using the largest rocks that could be moved with highway construction equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 18.43 Coquihalla River, 1991: Local scour associated with flood flows caused the boulders to sink

and become buried in the channel bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

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18.44 Hydraulically rough riprap formed of large rock and short spurs can be used to enhance fisheries habitat values along short sections of the riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

18.45 Habitat complexity was added to this channel by varying the alignment of the streamside face of the revetment and by anchoring large woody debris into the revetment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

18.46 Live bank protection can be used to support eroding streambanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 18.47 Cross-section of live bank protection showing normal backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 18.48 A series of engineered logjams placed to reduce flow velocities at the base of the

embankment allows vegetation to become established on the slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 18.49 Large woody debris accumulations deflect flow, which can create scour pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 18.50 This large woody debris structure was constructed to narrow and deepen a degraded

channel and provide fish habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 18.51 Large rocks and cables can be used to anchor large woody debris placed in channels

for habitat improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 18.52 An old crib has distorted and settled, creating a scour pool in front of the logs;

a gravel bar has developed on the downstream side of the collapsed crib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 18.53 Off-channel development has the benefit of providing useful habitat in areas with

some protection from flood damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 18.54 Off-channel habitat created in groundwater-fed gravel pit and connected to Taylor River,

south-central Vancouver Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 18.55 Channel excavated to connect gravel pit to Taylor River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 18.56 Diagrammatic representation of the concept of “ecological theatre” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 18.57 The major elements of production ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 19.1 Map of British Columbia regions used in Table 19.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 19.2 Mean of all trends across British Columbia for minimum temperature and maximum

temperature, and precipitation based on CANGRID gridded time series of historical climate . . . . . . . 702 19.3 Streamflow sequential 5-day average runoff trends for the long-term historical period 1959–2006

for five streams located in different regimes throughout British Columbia; and streamflow sequential 5-day average runoff trends for the recent historical period 1973–2006 for six streams located in different regimes throughout British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

19.4 Monthly average streamflow occurring during ENSO periods and PDO-cool for: Chemainus River, Similkameen River, Swift River, and Sikanni Chief River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709

19.5 Mean annual temperature anomalies for British Columbia using 1961–1990 baseline of the UVic ESCM over the 21st century for emission reduction scenarios compared to median of AR4 GCM projections for the A2, B1, and A1B SRES emissions scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710

19.6 Range of 2050s annual temperature and precipitation averaged over British Columbia from 140 GCM projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712

19.7 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting April 1st snow water equivalent change to the 2050s in the Fraser River, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

19.8 Simulated winter snow water equivalent in the mature lodgepole pine forest at the Upper Penticton Creek Experimental Watershed under typical winter temperature and precipitation conditions and three climate change scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715

19.9 Scatterplots of winter and summer precipitation versus temperature projections provided by the six GCM emissions scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721

19.10 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting annual temperature changes to the 2050s in the Fraser River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722

19.11 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting annual average precipitation changes to the 2050s in the Fraser River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

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19.12 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting annual average runoff changes to the 2050s for the Fraser River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724

19.13 Fraser River streamflow: future projections of Fraser River streamflow at Hope, with the 1961–1990 baseline period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

19.14 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting summer runoff changes to the 2050s for the Fraser River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

19.15 Six GCM emissions scenarios projecting winter runoff changes to the 2050s for the Fraser River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

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