Appendix 2

ChronologyCentral America declares its independence from Spain.U.S. troops intervene briefly in Nicaragua.Liberals and Conservatives finally agree to name Managua as the capital.In the first major U.S. intervention, the U.S. Navy bums down a Nicaraguan townfollowing an insult to millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt.In order to secure the rights to a canal for the United States, mercenary WilliamWalker hires an amiy, invades Nicaragua, and declares himself president.Walker reestablishes slavery in the country and is subsequently recognized byWashington.Walker is overthrown and constitutional rule reestablished.Under the Treaty of Managua, part of the Atlantic coast is declared a reserveunder British protection, although Nicaraguan sovereignty over the region isrecognized.Nationalist Jose Santos Zelaya comes to power.U.S. troops intervene four times in the next five years.The Atlantic coast is "reincorporated" and the British pull out.The British relinquish all claims to the Mosquito coast in theHarrison-Altamirano Treaty, granting certain protections to Miskito andCreole populations.U.S. troops intervene.United States places Nicaragua under customs receivership, controlling thecountry's revenues for the next 38 years.U.S. Marines begin 20 years of repeated occupation of Nicaragua.Bryan-Chamorro Treaty confirms status as U.S. protectorate.Conservative Emiliano Chamorro elected president.U.S. Marines land and occupy the country almost continuously until 1933,mounting what would become Central America's first counterinsurgency waragainst a peasant army, led by Augusto C. Sandino, the "General of Free Men."On June 16, U.S. planes launched the first aerial bombardment of a civilianpopulation in history as part of effort to defeat Sandino and his supporters.More than 300 res idents o f Ocota l lose the i r l i ves .

Liberal Juan Bautista Sacasa elected president.After failing to defeat Sandino's guerrilla amiy, the Marines withdraw, havingestablished the .Nicaraguan National Guard with Anastasio Somoza Garcia as

2 1 2 N I C A R A G U A : A C O U N T R Y G U I D E

S a n d i n o i s m u r d e r e d .Sacasa removed by Somoza's forces; presidential election won by Somoza.Somoza reelected; new constitution promulgated.Somoza assassinated; National Assembly selects his son Luis to complete thet e r m i n o f fi c e .

Luis Somoza elected president.Carlos Fonseca, Tomas Borge, and Silvio Mayorga form the FSLN.Somoza associate Rene Schick elected president.With the National Guard as the centerpiece, the United States sponsors theformation of CONDECA to coordinate Central American military actionagainst "internal subversion."Luis Somoza dies; his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle elected president.Congress dissolves itself, abrogates the constitution, and transfers executivepower to President Somoza pending new constitution.Earthquake devastates Managua; Somoza named chairman of NationalEmergency Committee and declares martial law.S o m o z a r e e l e c t e d .

FSLN raid in Managua.M a r t i a l l a w l i f t e d .

Formation of Group of 12 (Los Doce), prominent Nicaraguan political figuresand intellectuals opposed to the regime.Major FSLN offensive.Pedro Joaqum Chamorro, editor of La Prensa and leading opposition figure, isa s s a s s i n a t e d .

N a t i o n a l G u a r d s e n t i n t o b r e a k n a t i o n a l s t r i k e .

Formation of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN).Formation of the Broad Opposition Front (FAQ).F S L N c o m m a n d o s s e i z e N a t i o n a l P a l a c e .

FSLN-led insurrection takes Masaya, Leon, Chinandega, and Estelf for severaldays.

Formation of the National Patriotic Front (FPN).FSLN units take Leon and Matagalpa, and begin march on Managua.The FSLN triumphantly enters Managua and installs a revolutionary government.

Revolutionary government launches massive National Literacy Crusade whichreduces illiteracy from more than 50 percent to 13 percent in five months.Inauguration of the Council of State.U.S. Congress approves $75 million economic-aid package for Nicaragua.

Health care campaigns reduce infant mortality rate 40 percent in relation topre-revolutionaiy figures.Promulgation of the Agrarian Reform Law.United States cuts off $9.8 million in food aid to Nicaragua.Washington suspends all bilateral aid to Nicaragua, but continues support toprivate sector and Catholic church.

C H R O N O L O G Y 2 1 3

Reagan administration authorizes $19 million to destabilize Nicaraguangovernment, giving the CIA a green light to organize ex-National Guardsmeninto a counterrevolutionary army based in Honduras.

In the wake of increasing contra activity on the Atlantic coast, the governmentdecides to relocate Miskito communities from the Rib Coco further inland atthe Tasba Pri resettlement. Some 10,000 Miskitos flee to Honduras.Following contra destruction of two bridges in the north, the governmentdeclares a state of emergency.U.S. Congress approves $5.1 million in economic assistance for the Nicaraguanprivate sector.Standard Fruit violates its agreement to administer banana industiy until 1985when it announces its immediate withdrawal from Nicaragua, leaving 3500unemployed.U.S. Congress approves $24 million in covert aid to the contras.

The Contadora Group, formed by Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama,declares an avoidance of the outbreak of war between Nicaragua and Hondurasto be the initial focus of its negotiating mission.More than 5,000 U.S. and Honduran troops take part in the Big Pine militarymaneuvers near the Nicaraguan border.First large-scale invasion of contras from Honduran territory. In the UnitedNations Nicaragua denounces U.S. support for the contras; only El Salvador,Honduras, and the United States vote against the Nicaraguan motion.Pope John Paul II visits Nicaragua.Washington reduces Nicaragua's sugar import quota by 90 percent.U.S. Treasury Department announces official policy of opposing all multilateralloans to Nicaragua.Patriotic Military Service (draft) instituted.The contras launch their "Black September" offensive, including sea- andair-based attacks against petroleum installations and key economicinfrastructure, and ground attacks against the principal entry points on thecountry's northern and southern borders.CONDECA is reestablished with the ex-plicit goal of pressuring Nicaragua, andthe FDN immediately solicits CONDECA's support in its contra war.Contra offensive deepens with heavy fighting in the north and south, eight aerialattacks, and sabotage actions against the ports of Corinto and Sandino.Government implements an amnesty program for contras who lay down their

CIA and Navy units assist the contras in the mining of Nicaraguan harbors ingross violation of international law. Seven ships are damaged by the mines.Diverse sectors of the international community condemn the U.S. mining ofNicaraguan ports.More than 35,000 U.S. troops surround Nicaragua as the Pentagonsimultaneously stages maneuvers off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and inH o n d u r a s .

2 1 4 N I C A R A G U A : A C O U N T R Y G U I D E

May The International Court of Justice orders the United States to suspend supportfor the contras and the mining of Nicaraguan ports.

Sep. Two members of Civilian Military Assistance, a rightwing U.S. group aiding thecontras, are shot down in a helicopter flying over Nicaragua.Nicaragua agrees to proposed Contadora Peace Plan; Reagan administration asksHonduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica to demand changes in the plan.

Nov. Nicaragua holds first free elections in history. The FSLN's candidate DanielOrtega is elected to a six-year presidential term with 67 percent of the voteagainst six opposition parties. Reagan denounces the elections as a sham.

1 9 8 5

Feb. Economic stabilization package implemented.May White House declares trade e.mbargo against Nicaragua.June U.S. Congress approves $27 million in "humanitarian" aid to the contras.

1 9 8 6

June $100 million contra aid package approved by U.S. Congress.Oct. U.S. mercenary Eugene Hasenfus shot down and captured during a contra

resupply mission.Nov. I ran-Contra scandal breaks in Washington.

1 9 8 7

Jan. New constitution signed.Aug. Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua sign

the Esquipulas II Peace Accords.Nicaragua becomes the first signatory to the Esquipulas accords to form aN a t i o n a l R e c o n c i l i a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n .

Sep. National Assembly approves the Autonomy Statute for the Atlantic region.La Prensa is allowed to resume publication after a one-year suspension; thechurch hierarchy's Radio Catolica is permitted to resume broadcasting. Thegovernment announces an end to all prior censorship of the media.President Ortega announces a unilateral suspension of offensive militaryoperations for the month of October to cover three zones totaling 1,450 squarek i l o m e t e r s .

Nov. Following several meetings with House Speaker Jim Wright, President Ortegaannounces a new 11-point proposal for achieving a cease-fire, disarmament,amnesty, and the integration of the contras into civilian life. Nicaragua alsoagrees to name Cardinal Obando y Bravo as mediator between the governmenta n d t h e c o n t r a s .

Nicaragua releases 985 political prisoners, 200 of whom are ex-NationalG u a r d s m e n .

Dec. The first in a series of indirect meetings is held between the contras and theNicaraguan government in Santo Domingo under the mediation of Obando.Among other things, the contras demand a general amnesty, an end to themilitary draft, the creation of new police and military forces, and thedismantling of "military" cooperatives.

1 9 8 8

J a n . Nicaragua announces its willingness to enter into direct talks with the contras andlifts the five-year state of emergency.

C H R O N O L O G Y 2 1 5

Economic reform measures decreed, spearheaded by a currency change.Provisional government-contra cease-fire signed in Sapoa.After another round of dialogue with the government, the contras break offpeace talks.Hurricane Joan passes through Nicaragua, leaving an estimated $800 million indamages.

llie Costa del Sol summit of Central American presidents calls for theelaboration of a plan to disband the contra army.

Following a pardon granted by the National Assembly, 1,894 e.\-NationalGuardsmen are freed from prison.U.S. Congressional Bipartisan Accord results in the approval of $49.75 million innon-lethal aid to keep the contras intact.In compliance with the Costa del Sol accords, Nicaragua's media and electorall a w s a r e m o d i fi e d .

President Ortega and representatives from 20 opposition parties sign an accordfurther modifying the electoral law and procedures, suspending the draft duringthe campaign period, and calling on the Central American presidents toapprove a contra demobilization plan.The Central American presidents approve a plan to have a United Nations forceoversee contra demobilization, to be completed by December 5th.National Opposition Union (UNO) selects La Prensa's Violeta Chamorro andthe Independent Liberal Party's (PLI) Virgilio Godoy to lead the oppositionticket in the 1990 presidential elections.U.S. Congress appiDves overt aid to support the "election process." In reality theaid is used to back the UNO campaign.Following a sharp escalation in contra attacks against civilians, the governmentsuspends its unilateral cease fire and launches an offensive.Representatives from the government and contras meet face to face for the firsttime in over a year to work out a plan for contra demobilization. After 12 daysof meetings, the talks are suspended.UNO campaign rally in Masatepe degenerates into riot. An FSLN activist isk i l l e d .

U.S.-based polling firm announces that its latest surveys have increased theFSLN's probable margin of victory for February's elections. The latest pollshows Daniel Ortega with 51 percent of respondents' preference and VioletaChamorro with 24 percent.UNO's closing campaign rally draws an estimated 60,000 people, by far the largestopposition rally since 1979. Three days later an estimated 400,000 attend theFSLN's closing rally.UNO's electoral upset gives Violeta Chamorro 54.7 percent of the vote to DanielOrtega's 40.8 percent, margins which were closely maintained in races forlegislative seats.Contra forces transfer en masse from their base camps in Honduras into theNicaraguan countryside to avoid demobilization.Washington formally lifts the five-year trade embargo against Nicaragua.

2 1 6 N I C A R A G U A : A C O U N T R Y G U I D E

FSLN and UNO negotiators sign a Transition Protocol stipulating the basicconditions for the transfer of power on April 25. The document calls for strictadherence to the existing legal order and constitution, including respect for the"structural integrity" of the security forces.Violeta Chaniorro assumes the presidency and names her cabinet. GeneralHumberto Ortega remains as head of the Armed Forces.After several days of talks, contra leader Israel Galeano signs an agreementpromising to begin disarming his troops on May 8 in order to conclude by thepreviously agreed upon date of June 10. The accord promises a series ofincentives for the contras, including the establishment of semi-autonomous"development poles."A nationwide public-sector strike drags on for five days before ending with anegotiated accord.President Chaniorro sends reform proposals to the legislature on the UniversityAutonomy Law, the Civil Service Law, and the Labor Code, and issues twodecrees calling for the rollback of Sandinista agrarian reform.Congress approves an aid package for Nicaragua totaling more than over $300m i l l i o n .

Contra demobilization officially ends. 19,613 armed and unarmed contras weredemobilized and became eligible for international and Nicaraguan governmentassistance programs.The army initiates a plan to cut its ranks in half, to 41,000 troops, by the end of they e a r .A nationwide general strike, called by the pro-Sandinista National WorkersFederation (FNT) paralyzes the country. The compromise accord signed byunion representatives and the government is systematically violated by thelatter in the following days and weeks.

A p r .

May

J u n e

July

J

Sources: Gerald Greenfield and Sheldon Maran, eds.. Labor Organizations in LatinAmerica (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987); "Chronology of Key Events in theAtlantic Coast, 1979-89," Envio, April 1989, p. 30; "For the Record: Chronolo^ofNicaragua's Compliance," Central America Bulletin, June 1988, pp. 8-9; Conflict inCentral America (London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1987), pp.68-70; Tom Barryand Debra Preusch, The Central America Fact Book (New York: Grove Press, 1986),pp.312-318.

Appendix 3

Abbrev ia t i onsA D R A

A I D

A I F L D

A M N L A E

A N C

A N D E N

A N P D H

A P P

a r d eA T C

C A U S

C A V

C D C

C D S

C D S

C E F O J

C E N I D HC E P A D

C E P R O D E CC E P S

C G T

C G T - I

C I A M

C I A V

C I D C A

C L T

C M A

C N E S

C N P E N

C N P P D H

C O N A P R O

C O R D E N I C

Nicaraguan Association of Biologists and EcologistsAdventist Development Relief AgencyU.S. Agency for International DevelopmentAmerican Institute for Free Labor DevelopmentNicaraguan Women's AssociationConservative National ActionNational Educators Association

Nicaraguan Human Rights AssociationArea of Peoples PropertyDemocratic Revolutionary AllianceR u r a l W o r k e r s A s s o c i a t i o n

Trade Union Action and Unity ConfederationA n t o n i o Va l d i v i e s o E c u m e n i c a l C e n t e r

C i v i l i a n D e f e n s e C o m m i t t e e

Nicaraguan Democratic CoordinatorS a n d i n i s t a D e f e n s e C o m m i t t e e

Youth Training CenterNicaraguan Human Rights CenterEvangelical Committee for Aid to DevelopmentCenter for the Promotion of Community DevelopmentCenter for Health StudiesGeneral Confederation of Workers

Independent General Confederation of WorkersCenter for Research and Action for Women's RightsCommission for Support and VerificationCenter for Research and Documentation on the Atlantic CoastWorkers Struggle CommitteeCivilian Material AssistanceNational Council for Higher EducationNational Council of Evangelical Pastoi-s of NicaraguaNational Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Human RightNational Confederation of ProfessionalsCommission for the Reconstruction and Development of Nicaragua