chapters 6 and 7 copyright © 2009 pearson education, inc., publishing as pearson benjamin cummings...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapters 6 and 7
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Skeletal System Lab
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An Introduction to the Axial Skeleton
Structures of Bones
ArticulationsContacts with other bones
Landmarks (Bone Markings; Marks)Areas of muscle and ligament attachment
ForaminaOpenings for nerves and blood vessels
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Classification of BonesBones are classified by
Shape
Internal tissue organization
Bone markings (surface features; marks)
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Classification of Bones
Figure 6–1 A Classification of Bones by Shape.
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Classification of BonesBone Shapes
Long bonesAre long and thinAre found in arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, and toes
Flat bonesAre thin with parallel surfacesAre found in the skull, sternum, ribs, and scapulae
Sutural bonesAre small, irregular bonesAre found between the flat bones of the skull
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Classification of BonesBone Shapes
Irregular bonesHave complex shapes Examples: spinal vertebrae, pelvic bones
Short bonesAre small and thickExamples: ankle and wrist bones
Sesamoid bonesAre small and flatDevelop inside tendons near joints of knees, hands, and
feet
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Classification of BonesBone Markings
Depressions or groovesAlong bone surface
ProjectionsWhere tendons and ligaments attach
At articulations with other bones
TunnelsWhere blood and nerves enter bone
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Classification of Bones
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Classification of Bones
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Classification of BonesStructure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis The shaft A heavy wall of compact bone, or dense boneA central space called medullary (marrow) cavity
Epiphysis Wide part at each endArticulation with other bonesMostly spongy (cancellous) bone Covered with compact bone (cortex)
Metaphysis Where diaphysis and epiphysis meet
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Classification of Bones
Figure 6–2 Bone Structure.
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Classification of BonesStructure of a Flat Bone
The parietal bone of the skull
Resembles a sandwich of spongy bone
Between two layers of compact bone
Within the cranium, the layer of spongy bone
between the compact bone is called the diploë
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Classification of Bones
Figure 6–2 Bone Structure.
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Compact and Spongy BoneThe Structure of Compact Bone
Osteon is the basic unit Osteocytes are arranged in concentric lamellae
Around a central canal containing blood vessels
Perforating Canals:
perpendicular to the central canal
carry blood vessels into bone and marrow
Circumferential LamellaeLamellae wrapped around the long bone
Bind osteons together
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–4 The Histology of Compact Bone.
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–5a The Structure of Compact Bone.
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Compact and Spongy BoneThe Structure of Spongy Bone
Does not have osteonsThe matrix forms an open network of
trabeculaeTrabeculae have no blood vesselsThe space between trabeculae is filled with red
bone marrow:Which has blood vesselsForms red blood cellsAnd supplies nutrients to osteocytes
Yellow marrowIn some bones, spongy bone holds yellow bone marrowIs yellow because it stores fat
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–6 The Structure of Spongy Bone.
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Compact and Spongy BoneWeight-Bearing Bones
The femur transfers weight from hip joint to
knee joint
Causing tension on the lateral side of the shaft
And compression on the medial side
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–7 The Distribution of Forces on a Long Bone.
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Compact and Spongy BoneCompact bone is covered with a
membranePeriosteum on the outside
Covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsulesIs made up of an outer, fibrous layer and an inner,
cellular layerPerforating fibers: collagen fibers of the periosteum:
connect with collagen fibers in boneand with fibers of joint capsules; attach
tendons, and ligaments
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–8a The Periosteum.
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Compact and Spongy BoneFunctions of Periosteum
Isolates bone from surrounding tissues
Provides a route for circulatory and nervous
supply
Participates in bone growth and repair
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Compact and Spongy BoneCompact bone is covered with a
membrane:Endosteum on the inside
An incomplete cellular layer:
lines the medullary (marrow) cavitycovers trabeculae of spongy bonelines central canalscontains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells,
and osteoclastsis active in bone growth and repair
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Compact and Spongy Bone
Figure 6–8b The Endosteum.
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The Axial SkeletonThe axial skeleton
Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
Has 80 bonesThe skull:
8 cranial bones
14 facial bones
Bones associated with the skull: 6 auditory ossicles
the hyoid bone
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The Axial SkeletonThe axial skeleton
The vertebral column 24 vertebrae (singular = vertebra) The sacrum The coccyx
The thoracic cage 24 ribs The sternum
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The Axial Skeleton
Figure 7–1 The Axial Skeleton.
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The Axial Skeleton
Figure 7–1 The Axial Skeleton.
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The Axial SkeletonFunctions of the Axial Skeleton
Supports and protects organs in body cavities
Attaches to muscles of
Head, neck, and trunk
Respiration
Appendicular skeleton
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The SkullThe skull protects
The brainEntrances to respiratory systemEntrance to digestive system
The skull contains 22 bones8 cranial bones:
Form the braincase or cranium 14 facial bones:
Protect and support entrances to digestive and respiratory tracts
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The Skull
Figure 7–2 Cranial and Facial Subdivisions of the Skull.
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The SkullSinuses
Cavities that decrease the weight of the skull Lined with mucous membranesProtect the entrances of the respiratory system
SuturesThe immovable joints of the skull The four major sutures
Lambdoid sutureCoronal sutureSagittal sutureSquamous suture
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The Cranial BonesOccipital bone
Parietal bones
Frontal bone
Temporal bones
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The Occipital BoneForamen MagnumOccipital CondylesExternal Occipital Protuberance
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–5a The Occipital and Parietal Bones.
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The Parietal Bone
Figure 7–5b The Parietal Bone.
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The Frontal boneFrontal squama (forehead)Supra-orbital margin (protects eye)Lacrimal fossa (for tear ducts)Frontal sinuses
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–6 The Frontal Bone.
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The Temporal BonesSquamous part: borders the squamous suture
Mandibular fossa: articulates with the
mandible
Zygomatic processInferior to the squamous portion
Articulates with temporal process of zygomatic bone
Forms zygomatic arch (cheekbone)Mastoid process
For muscle attachmentContains mastoid air cells connected to middle ear
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Styloid process
To attach tendons and ligaments of the hyoid, tongue, and
pharynx
Petrous part
Encloses structures of the inner ear
Auditory ossicles
Three tiny bones in tympanic cavity (middle ear)
Transfer sound from tympanic membrane (eardrum) to inner earExternal acoustic meatus (canal): ends at tympanic membraneInternal acoustic meatus (canal)
For blood vessels and nerves of the inner earFacial nerve
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–7 The Temporal Bones.
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
The SphenoidSphenoid body
At the central axis of the sphenoid
Sella turcicaSaddle-shaped enclosureOn the superior surface of the body
Hypophyseal fossaA depression within the sella turcicaHolds the pituitary gland
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Marks of the SphenoidSphenoidal sinuses
On either side of the bodyInferior to the sella turcica
Lesser wingsAnterior to the sella turcica
Greater wingsForm part of the cranial floorSphenoidal spinePosterior wall of the orbit
Pterygoid processesForm pterygoid platesTo attach muscles of the lower jaw and soft palate
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Foramina of the Sphenoid Optic canals: for optic nervesSuperior orbital fissure: for blood vessels and
nerves of the orbitForamen rotundum: for blood vessels and
nerves of the faceForamen ovale: for blood vessels and nerves
of the faceForamen spinosum: for blood vessels and
nerves of the jaws
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–8 The Sphenoid.
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Three Parts of the EthmoidThe cribriform plate
Floor of the craniumRoof of the nasal cavity Contains the crista galli
The two lateral massesEthmoidal labyrinth (ethmoidal air cells)Superior nasal conchae Middle nasal conchae
The perpendicular platePart of the nasal septum
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Foramina of the Ethmoid
Olfactory foramina
In the cribriform plate
For olfactory nerves
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The Cranial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–9 The Ethmoid.
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The Facial Bones of the SkullThe Facial Bones
Maxillae (maxillary bones)Palatine bonesNasal bonesVomerInferior nasal conchaeZygomatic bonesLacrimal bonesMandible
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The Facial Bones of the SkullMarks of the Maxillae
Orbital rim:protects eye and orbitAlveolar processes: borders the mouth and
supports upper teethPalatine processes: form the hard palate (roof
of mouth)Maxillary sinuses: to lighten bone
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–10a The Maxillae.
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The Facial Bones of the SkullPalatine Bones
Horizontal plate: posterior part of hard palate
Perpendicular plate: from horizontal plate to
orbital process of orbit floor
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–10c The Palatine Bones.
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The Facial Bones of the SkullZygomatic Bones
Temporal process
Meets the zygomatic process of the temporal bone
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The Facial Bones of the SkullThe Lacrimal Bones
Lacrimal sulcus:
location of the lacrimal sac
leads to the nasolacrimal canal (between orbit and
nasal cavity)
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The Facial Bones of the SkullThe Nasal Bones
The VomerInferior Nasal Conchae
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–11 The Smaller Bones of the Face.
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The Facial Bones of the Skull The Mandible
Body of the mandible: horizontal portion
Alveolar processes: support the lower teeth
Mental protuberance: attaches facial muscles
Ramus: ascending from the mandibular angle on either side
Condylar process: articulates with temporal bone at
temporomandibular joint
Coronoid process: insertion point for temporalis muscle
(closes the jaws)
Mandibular notch: separates condylar and coronoid
processes
Mental foramina:for sensory nerves of lips and chin
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–12a The Mandible and Hyoid Bone.
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–12b The Mandible and Hyoid Bone.
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The Facial Bones of the SkullThe Hyoid Bone
Functions of the hyoid boneSupports the larynx
Attaches muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and tongue
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The Facial Bones of the Skull
Figure 7–12c The Hyoid Bone.
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The Orbital ComplexForms the eye sockets (orbits)
Frontal bone (roof)
Maxilla (floor)
Maxillary, lacrimal, and ethmoid bones (orbital
rim and medial wall)
Sphenoid and palatine bones
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The Orbital Complex
Figure 7–13 The Orbital Complex.
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The Nasal ComplexBones of the nasal cavities and paranasal
sinusesFrontal bone, sphenoid, and ethmoid
Superior wall of nasal cavities
Maxillae, lacrimal bones, ethmoid, and inferior nasal conchaeLateral walls of nasal cavities
Maxillae and nasal bonesBridge of nose
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The Nasal Complex
Figure 7–14a The Nasal Complex.
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The Nasal Complex
Figure 7–14b The Nasal Complex.
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The Nasal ComplexParanasal Sinuses
Air-filled chambers connected to the nasal
cavities
Lighten skull bones
Provide mucous epithelium (flushes nasal cavities)
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FontanellesThe Infant Skull
Grows rapidly
Is large compared to the body
Has many ossification centers
Fusion is not complete at birth
Two frontal bones
Four occipital bones
Several sphenoidal and temporal elements
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FontanellesFontanelles (sometimes spelled fontanels)
Are areas of fibrous connective tissue (soft spots)
Cover unfused sutures in the infant skull Allow the skull to flex during birth
Anterior fontanelle: frontal, sagittal, and coronal sutures
Occipital fontanelle: lambdoid and sagittal sutures
Sphenoidal fontanelles: squamous and coronal sutures
Mastoid fontanelles: squamous and lambdoid sutures
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Fontanelles
Figure 7–15a The Skull of an Infant.
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Fontanelles
Figure 7–15b The Skull of an Infant.
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The Vertebral ColumnThe spine or vertebral column
Protects the spinal cord
Supports the head and body
26 bones 24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–16 The Vertebral Column.
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The Vertebral ColumnVertebrae
The neckSeven cervical vertebrae
The upper back12 thoracic vertebrae
Each articulates with one or more pair of ribs
The lower backFive lumbar vertebrae
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The Vertebral ColumnThe Sacrum and Coccyx
The fifth lumbar vertebra articulates with the
sacrum
The sacrum articulates with the coccyx
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The Vertebral ColumnFour Curvatures of the Vertebral Column
Cervical curve
Thoracic curve
Lumbar curve
Sacral curve
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The Vertebral ColumnThoracic and sacral curves
Are called primary curves (present during fetal
development)
Or accommodation curves (accommodate
internal organs)
Lumbar and cervical curvesAre called secondary curves (appear after
birth)
Or compensation curves (shift body weight
for upright posture)
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–17 Abnormal Curvatures of the Spine.
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The Vertebral ColumnStructure of a Vertebra
The vertebral body (centrum)Transfers weight along the spine
The vertebral archPosterior margin of vertebral foramen
The articular processesLateral projections between laminae and pedicles
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–18a Vertebral Anatomy.
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–18c Vertebral Anatomy.
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The Vertebral ColumnStructure of a Vertebra
The vertebral archPedicles:
walls of the vertebral arch
Laminae:
roof of the vertebral arch
Spinous process:
projection where vertebral laminae fuse
Transverse process:
projection where laminae join pedicles
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The Vertebral ColumnStructure of a Vertebra
The articular processes
Superior articular process
Inferior articular process:
have articular facets on articular faces
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–18 Vertebral Anatomy.
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The Vertebral ColumnVertebral Foramina
Intervertebral foramina Gaps between pedicles of adjacent vertebraeFor nerve connections to spinal cord
Vertebral canal Formed by vertebral foraminaEncloses the spinal cord
Intervertebral DiscsAre pads of fibrous cartilage Separate the vertebral bodies Absorb shocks
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The Vertebral Column
Figure 7–18 Vertebral Anatomy.
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Vertebral RegionsVertebral Regions
Vertebrae are numbered
By region, from top (superior) to bottom(inferior)
C1 articulates with skull, L5 with sacrum
Vertebrae of each region
Have characteristics determined by functions
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Vertebral RegionsRegions of the Vertebral Column
Cervical (C)
Thoracic (T)
Lumbar (L)
Sacral (S)
Coccygeal (Co)
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Vertebral RegionsThe Cervical Vertebrae
Small body (support only head)Large vertebral foramen (largest part of spinal
cord)Concave superior surfaceSlopes posterior to anteriorC1 (atlas) has no spinous process
All others have short spinous processestip of each spinous process is notched (bifid)
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–19 The Cervical Vertebrae.
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Vertebral RegionsThe Cervical Vertebrae
Transverse processestransverse foramina (protect arteries and veins)
Atlas (C1)Articulates with occipital condyles of skullHas no body or spinous process
Axis (C2)Supports the atlasHas heavy spinous processTo attach muscles of head and neck
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–19 The Cervical Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–19 The Cervical Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Thoracic vertebrae (T1–T12)
Have heart-shaped bodies
Larger bodies than in C1–C7
Smaller vertebral foramen than in C1–C7
Long, slender spinous processes
Articulate with ribs
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–20a The Thoracic Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–20b The Thoracic Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–20c The Thoracic Vertebrae.
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Vertebral RegionsLumbar vertebrae (L1–L5)
Largest vertebraeOval-shaped bodiesThicker bodies than T1–T12
Triangular vertebral foramenSpinous process:
Short, heavy For attachment of lower back muscles
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–21a The Lumbar Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–21b The Lumbar Vertebrae.
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–21c The Lumbar Vertebrae.
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Vertebral RegionsThe sacrum
Is curved, more in males than in females
Protects reproductive, urinary, and digestive
organs
The adult sacrumConsists of five fused sacral vertebrae
Fuses between puberty and ages 25–30
Leaving transverse lines
Sacral foramina - holes for nerves
Auricular Surface - articular surface for sacroiliac joint
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Vertebral RegionsThe coccyx
Attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus
Mature coccyxConsists of three to five fused coccygeal vertebrae
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Vertebral Regions
Figure 7–22 The Sacrum and Coccyx.
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The Thoracic CageThe skeleton of the chest
Supports the thoracic cavityConsists of:
thoracic vertebrae
ribs
sternum (breastbone)
The Rib CageFormed of ribs and sternum
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The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7–23a The Thoracic Cage.
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The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7–23b The Thoracic Cage.
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The Thoracic CageRibs 1–7 (true ribs)
Vertebrosternal ribsConnected to the sternum by costal cartilages
Ribs 8–12 (false ribs) Do not attach directly to the sternumVertebrochondral ribs (ribs 8–10)
Fuse together Merge with cartilage before reaching the sternum
Floating or vertebral ribs (ribs 11–12)Connect only to the vertebrae and back musclesHave no connection with the sternum
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The Thoracic CageStructures of the Ribs
The head (capitulum)
At the vertebral end of the rib
The neck
The short area between the head and the tubercle
The tubercle (tuberculum)
The body (shaft)
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The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7–24a The Ribs.
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The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7–24b The Ribs.
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The Thoracic CageThe sternum
A flat bone
In the midline of the thoracic wall
Three parts of the sternumThe manubrium
The sternal body
The xiphoid process
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The Thoracic CageManubrium
The superior portion of sternum
Broad, triangular shape
Articulates with clavicles (collarbones)
Articulates with cartilages of first rib pair
Has a jugular notch, a shallow indentation
between clavicular articulations
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The Thoracic CageThe sternal body
Is tongue-shaped
Attaches to the manubrium
Attaches to costal cartilages of ribs 2–7
The xiphoid processIs the smallest part of the sternum
Attaches to the sternal body
Attaches to diaphragm and rectus abdominis
muscles
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The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7–23 The Thoracic Cage.