chapter no. 2 literature review -...

CHAPTER NO. 2

Literature Review

2.1 Batteries in Electrical Vehicles

2.1.1 Fundamentals of battery technology

2.1.2 Battery Chemistry

2.1.3 Review on Electrical Vehicles and its Batteries

2.1.4 Battery models

2.1.4.1 Simple battery model

2.1.4.2 Modified battery model

2.1.4.3 Simplified Lead acid battery model

2.1.4.4 Thevenin battery model

2.1.4.5 Linear battery model

2.1.4.6 Battery equivalent Circuit

2.1.5 Comparison of different battery models

2.2 Electrical Vehicle Performance Parameters

2.3 Review on Modeling and Simulation of Battery

2.4 Review on Hardware in the Loop

Bibliography

Chapter: 2 Literature Review

Modeling & Simulation of BPP for Efficient Electrical Vehicles ……. Page 11

2.1 Batteries in Electrical Vehicles

The purpose of this chapter is to undertake a review of literature on battery technolo-

gy and battery powered electrical vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and advances in

the hardware in loop. The nature of research carried out by earlier researcher and

scientist has helped to set up direction for further research work in this area. Under-

standing the significance of the battery in automobile field, an overview of battery

technology and battery management systems has been studied. In this chapter, an

account of various topics of battery i.e. battery chemistry, batteries for electrical car,

power backup calculations, etc. has been taken. The literature review has provided a

foundation for secondary data to validate the results obtained during the initial

experimentation. The major challenges in the electrical vehicles are also studied with

special reference to battery performance parameters. A recent trend of Electrical

Vehicles and Hybrid Electric Vehicles are also studied and undertaken survey. This

chapter also describes various battery models like electrochemical model, equivalent

circuit model, simple battery model, superior simple model etc. for better manage-

ment of performance parameters. This chapter provides sound background for

studying battery performance parameters, its management for optimum utilization

and batteries used for electrical vehicles.

2.1.1 Fundamentals of Battery Technology

A cell is an electrochemical unit, while a battery is consists of two or more cells

connected in series or parallel combination to accomplish particular operating

ratings. For example, the BP5-12 battery has a nominal voltage of 12 volts, consist-

ing of 6 cells connected in series. Since this configuration does not provide access to

the internal anode and cathode terminals of each cell in the series string, it is difficult



to determine much about the electrochemical status of individual cells from the

available battery terminal measurements of voltage and current.

An electrochemical cell contains the basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte,

and separator. In the electrochemical processes of the cell, an anode is the electrode

where the oxidation reaction occurs, meaning that it releases electrons to the external

circuit. A cathode is correspondingly the location where the reduction occurs, collect-

ing the electrons from the anode through the external circuit. For a battery cell, the

positive electrode becomes cathode during discharge and behaves as anode during

charge, while the negative electrode becomes an anode during discharge and behaves

as cathode during charge [1]. In the common literature, however, the convention is to

adopt the terminal name designations that are appropriate during discharge operation.

The electrolyte is the medium that conducts the ions between the cathode and anode

of a cell. The separator is a nonconductive layer that is permeable to ions, yet capable

of preventing a galvanic short circuit between the cathode and anode terminals.

The accepting of battery technology and knowing battery parameter performance is

an important sector for battery powered instrumentation or devices. However, in

almost all belongings the battery behaves as key component with highest cost, weight

and volume. Some of the electrical specifications of electronic instrument are also

decided by the battery.

A battery is a device which converts chemical energy in to electrical energy. It is

nothing but collection of cells. The cell consists of two different electrodes i.e.

copper and zinc and electrolyte i.e. citric acid. The electrodes are immersed in an

electrolyte as shown in figure 2.1. There are two types of cells which are used

frequently used in different applications i.e. Primary cells and Secondary cells.



Fig. 2.1: Construction of Electrochemical Cell

The primary cells are designed for single time use and can be disposed with some

industrial process. Common applications of primary cells are cameras, torches, wrist

watches, etc. The secondary cells are used for multi-time and are rechargeable.

Secondary cells are uninterrupted power supply, automobile, standalone instruments,

mobile phone battery, etc. In case of rechargeable batteries, the chemical reactions

are reversed to return charged state of the battery. The output voltage and energy

depends on numbers and types of the cell. Battery uses different materials like lead,

nickel, acid, lithium and alkaline. A battery comes with different sizes and shapes

from compact electrochemical cells to big size battery. Even after the removal of

these materials from consumer batteries many of these substances inside a battery are

toxic to some extent and some are very toxic. Electrochemical cell consisting of two

different plates i.e. zinc and copper and citric acid as an electrolyte as shown in

electrochemical cell figure 2.2.

In order to produce the voltage in the electrochemical cell, first it has to receive a

charge voltage of 2.1 volts per cell from a cell charger. The Lead acid (LA) batteries

or any types of batteries don‟t generate voltage by their own. They only store a

Positive Electrode

Negative Electrode

Electrolyte

Separator

(Insulating Material)

Battery Case



charge hence LA batteries are sometimes called as storage batteries. The size of the

electrodes or plates and quantity of electrolyte decides storage of amount of charge.

Fig. 2.2: Fundamentals of Electrochemical Cell

The storage capacity of the battery is referred as the Amp Hour (AH) ratings. A

typical 12-volt battery with rating 125 AH, which considers as battery can supply 1 A

current for 125 hours or 10 A current for 12.5 hours or 20-A of current for a period of

6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can be connected in parallel to increase the total AH

capacity.

Working Principle and Construction:

The battery comprises of two or more than two electrochemical cells combined

together. For lead acid battery, electrochemical cell consisting of two different lead

plates. These plates are positive and negative plates. The positive plate of the elec-

trode covered with a paste of lead dioxide whereas the negative plate made from

sponge lead, along with an insulating material. This insulating material between

plates are called as separator as shown in figure 2.3. These positive and negative

plates are enclosed in a plastic battery case. This plastic case is then submersed into

an electrolyte of the battery. The electrolyte consists of sulfuric acid and water. One



of the electrodes i.e. lead dioxide loses electrons and it becomes positive electrode

whereas other electrode i.e. sponge lead gains the electron becomes negative elec-

trode [1].

Fig. 2.3: Current flow diagram of Electrochemical Cell

The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electro-

lyte. During electrolysis process the positively charged ions are gets attracted

towards negative electrode and negatively charged ions gets attracted towards

positive electrode and chemical reaction occurs. The chemical reaction between

positive and negative electrodes along with battery electrolyte generates DC electrici-

ty.

2.1.2 Battery Chemistry

Knowing battery electrochemistry is extremely much significant because chemistry is

the driving force behind the science of the batteries. A battery is a package of one or

more electrochemical units or galvanic cells which are used in production and

Electron Flow

Spongy Lead Lead dioxide

Negative Electrode

Positive Electrode

Electrolyte

Separator



storage of electric energy in the form of chemical way. An electrochemical cell

consists of two half cells, known as a reduction cell and an oxidation cell it is shown

in figure 2.3. Chemical reactions of these two half cells provides the energy for the

electrochemical cell. Each of the half cells consists of an electrode and an electrolyte

solution. Faraday‟s law gives quantitative relationships and based on electrochemical

reactions occurred within the cell.

Faraday’s First Law:

“The mass of the substance altered at the electrode during electrolysis directly

proportional to the quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode”

Equation of Faraday‟s first Law [2]

𝑚 =1

96485(𝐶.𝑚𝑜𝑙−1)×𝑄𝑀

𝑛 (1)

Where,

‘m’ is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode i.e.in grams

‘n’ is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution i.e. electrons per

ion

‘Q’ is the total electric charge that passed through the solution i.e. in coulombs

‘M’ is the molar mass of the substance i.e.in grams per mole.

Faraday’s Second Law:

“For a given quantity of DC electricity the mass of an element material altered at an

electrode is directly proportional to the elements equivalent weight” [2, 3]. The

quantity of electricity required to produce one equivalent of chemical action is

known as one faraday i.e. 1 Faraday = 96494 ampere sec or coulomb.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29



In a cell, reactions essentially take place at two areas or sites in the device. These

reactions sites are the electrode interfaces. In generalized terms, the reaction at one

electrode (reduction in forward direction) can be represented by

𝑎𝐴 + 𝑛𝑒 ⇋ 𝑐𝐶 (2)

where a molecules of A take up n electrons e to form c molecules of C. At the other

electrode, the reaction (oxidation in forward direction) can be represented by

𝑏𝐵 − 𝑛𝑒 ⇋ 𝑑𝐷 (3)

The overall reaction in the cell is given by addition of these two half-cell reactions

𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ⇋ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷 (4)

The change in the standard free energy ∆G0

of this reaction is expressed as

∆G0 = − 𝑛𝐹𝐸0 (5)

Where F is constant known as the Faraday (96,487 coulombs) and E0 is standard

electromotive force [1]

When conditions are other than in the standard state, the voltage E of a cell is given

by the Nernst equation [3],

𝐸 = 𝐸0 −𝑅𝑇

𝑛𝐹𝐿𝑛

𝑎𝐶𝑐

𝑎𝐴𝑎

𝑎𝐷𝑑

𝑎𝐵𝑏 (6)

Where, R is gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and ai is the activity of

relevant species. The change in the standard free energy ∆G0 of a cell reaction is the

driving force which enables a battery to deliver electrical energy to an external

circuit. The measurement of emf of the battery depends on free energy, entropies and

enthalpies along with activity coefficients, constants and solubility. Generally

solution contains ions which are derived from the electrode using oxidation and

reduction. These spontaneous reactions gives energy there combination of two half



cell and electrolyte form an electrolytic cell [3]. Loss of the electrons called as

oxidation whereas gain of electrons called as reduction. They have to appear simulta-

neously in the chemical reaction therefore oxidation and reduction cannot be carried

out separately [1]. Thus oxidation and reduction reactions are called as redox reac-

tions. In redox reactions, a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent form a redox

couple and prone to undergo the chemical reaction. An oxidant is an oxidizing

reagent, and a reluctant is a reducing agent. Following are the some chemical reac-

tion given for different batteries i.e. Lead Acid, Nickel Cadmium, and Nickel Zinc

etc.

1. Lead Acid (Pb & H2SO4): Pb+PbO2+2H2SO4 ↔2PbSO4+2H2O

2. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd): Cd+2NiO (OH) +2H2O ↔Cd (OH)2+2Ni

(OH)2

3. Nickel Zinc (Ni-Zn): Zn+2NiO (OH) +2H2O ↔Zn (OH)2+2Ni(OH)2

4. Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH): MH+ NiO (OH) ↔M+Ni (OH)2

5. Sodium Sulphur (Na & S): 2Na+ XS ↔Na2Sx

6. Sodium Nickel Chloride (Na & NiCl2): 2Na+ NiCl2 ↔Ni+2NaCl

7. Lithium Ion (Li-Ion): LixC+ LizMyOz ↔C+LiMyOz

From the manufacturer part the battery can be considered as an unknown black box

which has range of performance characteristics. These characteristics may consisting

of energy density, specific power, typical voltages, specific energy, amp-hour

efficiency, operating temperature, self discharge rate, cost, availability, number of

life cycles and recharge rate [4]. However, basic understanding of the battery chemi-

stry is important, or else the performance and maintenance requirement of the



different types, life cycle, self discharge, and efficiency will find difficult to under-

stand [2,4]

The most common material used for electrodes in batteries is lead, nickel and li-

thium. Each battery system requires its own charging algorithm. Most of the lead-

acid batteries are prepared using positive electrode i.e. anode .This positive electrode

is made from a lead-antimony alloy with lead (IV) oxide pressed into it, although

batteries designed for maximum life use a lead-calcium alloy[6]. The negative

electrode i.e. cathode is made from pure lead and both electrodes are immersed in

sulfuric acid. When battery starts charging, Lead oxide is deposited or formed at the

anode, pure lead is formed at the cathode and sulfuric acid is liberated into the

electrolyte causing the specific gravity to increase [5,6]. When the battery is dis-

charged, the amount of water is produced, prone to dilute the acid and therefore

specific gravity reduces. On charging of the battery the amount of sulfuric acid is

formed and specific gravity increases in the electrolyte.

The change of specific gravity can be measured using an acidic hydrometer. The

value of specific gravity is about 1.250 for a fully charged cell and 1.170 for a fully

discharged cell [6].

These mentioned values of specific gravity will vary and also depending on the

manufacturer and capacity of the battery. The chemical reaction that occurs in the

battery during charging and discharging are shown in figures 2.4 and figure 2.5

respectively.



Fig. 2.4: Battery charging chemistry

When lead acid battery starts discharging with some external load then Lead sulfate

is formed at positive and negative electrodes and sulfuric acid is removed from the

electrolyte. This chemical process causes reduction of specific gravity in electrolyte.

The specific gravity of the electrolyte also depends on the electrolyte temperature or

battery temperature.

Specific gravity is defined as:

Specific Gravity =Mass of a specific volume of electrolyte

Mass of the same volume of pure water (7)

If lead-acid batteries are discharged beyond its limit or left for prolonged periods

leads to harden the lead sulfate coats on electrodes then lead sulfate will not be



removed during recharging. Such build-ups process reduces the efficiency of the

battery and life of batteries. Over charging of battery may cause electrolyte to escape

as explosive gases. Different chemical reactions are occurring at positive and nega-

tive electrode of the battery during charging and discharging of the battery.

Fig. 2.5: Battery discharging chemistry

2.1.3 Review on Electrical Vehicles and its Batteries

Environmental issues are the major deciding factor in the adoption of electric vehi-

cles in town and cities. Leaded petrol is already banned in different countries because

of its ability to pollute air and generates toxic material. Therefore, there have been

attempts in some cities to force zero emission vehicles. The fairly complex nature of



the regulations in the country may increase to interesting development in the fuel

cell, battery based vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles [4].

The electric vehicle has entered in to the twenty first century as a commercially

available product and it has been very successful, outlasting many other technical

ideas that have come and gone. However electric vehicles that normally have much

longer range and are very easy to refuel. Today‟s concern about the environment ,

particularly noise and exhaust emission, coupled to new development in batteries and

fuel cells may swing the balance back in favor of electric vehicles, the relevant

technological and environmental issues are thoroughly understood.

First electric vehicle with non-rechargeable batteries was demonstrated in the 1830.

The first commercial electric car was appeared in the year of 1880. The Electric

vehicles were admired in the end of 19th

century and beginning of 20th

century [7].

The commercial vehicles used large rechargeable batteries and hence electrical

vehicles became fairly worldwide. The first electric car was to exceed „mile a

minute‟ or speed 60 mph. Then after development in performance of the car and

battery, the speed and many other parameters of the car changed gradually. In 1920s

many electric vehicles had been produced by different car manufacturers and used as

cars, vans, taxis, delivery vehicles and buses. An electric car is propelled by electric

motor, using electrical energy. This electrical energy is given to the motor by high

density battery. The electrical energy is stored in batteries or another energy storage

device. Electric motor gives instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration

to the electric car. Different electric vehicle examples are given to understand the

name of vehicle and when such vehicles are commercially available in the market.



The examples of electric vehicles are given along with manufacturing year for classic

electric car and electric powered wheel chair.

First commercial electrical was available at New York, U.S.A. was the taxi cab and

using Lead acid battery in 1991. This vehicle had limited mileage hence not popular

that time and also less number of vehicles sold in the market. Then in the year of

1999, the commercial market was seen fuel cell based Necar 4 fuel cell car. Mahin-

dra Reva (2001),Toyota prius, Honda FCX (2002), Citario fuel cell powered bus

(2003), Smart Electric Drive(2007), Mitsubishi I MiEV (2009), Mercedes-Benz SLS

AMG coupe Electric Drive(2010), Ford Focus EV(2011), Renault Twizy (2012),

Tesla Model S (2012), Mahindra e2o (2013), Chevrolet Spark EV (2013), BMW

i3(2013), Nissan Leaf (2013) and Honda Fit EV(2014) seen in the succeeding years

with advanced battery technology [11].These electric vehicles use different capacity

of the battery and different types of batteries to propel the electric motor. The BMW

i3 was considered as the first complete electric car from BMW Company built

electric from the ground up. This car is a part of BMW‟s “born electric” i series. Its

cost put it somewhat in the center of the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model electric

cars. Despite of looking a bit bulky, the BMW i3 is the lightest electric car available

in the world‟s car market. While the selection of hybrid power train is growing every

year, it is seen that Toyota Prius as has top priority because of its low price as

compare to other electric vehicles in the market. The redesigned the Fusion Hybrid is

slightly larger, sportier and more upscale-looking with advance facility than previous

version. This luxurious car has a well-furnished cabin, features and high tech loads

[12]. Second low price category of hybrid electric car is the Chevrolet Volt, this

hybrid car offers an all-electric range of 60km and then fires up its four-cylinder gas

http://www.bmwusa.com/standard/content/vehicles/2014/bmwi/bmwi.aspx





engine [13]. The Nissan Leaf vehicle proves to be a highly refined and affordable all-

electric car as compare to others. Nissan promises a range of 150 km in city per

210km on highway, but EPA tests put the real-world range at 110km, depending on

conditions and driving style [13].

The Ford C-Max Energi is another outstanding gas sipper to consider. This plug-in

electric hybrid wagon, the first from Ford, delivers an impressive 750km of driving

range between fill-ups, plus lively handling [13]. The lithium-ion battery pack

recharges from a standard 120 volt electric outlet. In 2013, Tesla Model S EV came

in the market with its aluminum body, five passengers interior and powerful battery

pack. The electric drive system, the Tesla simply has no competition at that time

[13]. It‟s only down side is that as a battery-electric car it has limited range, although

it goes a lot farther per charge than other EVs. Tesla also offers two upsized battery

options with estimated range of 240 km to an EPA-certified 390km [13]. In Euro-

peans country, one of the best top end scales model is the Mercedes-Benz S400

Hybrid with its matchless interior design, plenty of safety and technology features,

and sleek sedan body [13].

In India 2013, Mahindra Company has launched e2o electric vehicle and which is

advanced versions than earlier vehicles. This company has launched Reva i in 2001

and considered as first electric car on road in India. The rising prices of petrol, diesel

and gases increased awareness to protest environmental issues and stress on maneu-

verability have made many people seriously considering this option. Even this car is

not that much comparable with earlier vehicle with range, facility and battery tech-

nology.



It has been observed that use of lithium ion battery pack extends range of the vehicle

because energy densities of the lithium ion batteries are higher than lead acid battery.

Mahindra company used Lead acid battery as well as lithium ion battery pack in their

different versions of electrical cars.

Table 2.1 shows name of Electrical Vehicles and its batteries. Some of the typical

batteries are specially designed for the particular electrical vehicle and hybrid electric

vehicles [11, 14].

Table 2.1.: Electrical vehicles and its battery

Sr. No. Year Name of Electric Vehicle Name of Batteries

1. 1901 New York taxi cab Lead-Acid Batteries

2. 1966 Electrovair II (General Motors) Silver-Zinc Batteries

3. 1999 Necar 4 fuel cell car Fuel Cell

4. 2001 Reva i [13] Lead-Acid Batteries

5. 2002 Honda FCX Lithium-ion Batteries

6. 2003 Citario fuel cell powered bus Fuel Cell

7. 2005 Volvo 3CC (Volvo) Lithium-ion Batteries

8. 2007 Chevy Volt (General Motors) Lithium-ion Batteries

9. 2007 Nissan Mixim (Nissan) Lithium-ion Batteries

10. 2007 Smart Electric Drive Sodium nickel chloride

and Zebra battery

11. 2007 Truck,Van,Bus,

Taxicab and Trailers

Zebra battery

12. 2008 Continental DC

(Bentley Motors)

Lead-Acid Batteries

13. 2008 Subaru Stella (Subaru) Lithium-ion Batteries

14. 2008 Nissan Denki Cube (Nissan) Lithium-ion Batteries

15. 2008 Tesla Roaster [11] Lithium-ion Batteries

16. 2009 Reva NXR/NXG Lithium-ion Batteries



Sr. No. Year Name of Electric Vehicle Name of Batteries

17. 2009 Mitsubishi I MiEV Lithium-ion Batteries

18. 2010 Mira EV Lithium-ion Batteries

19. 2010 Mercedes-Benz

SLS AMG coupe

Electric Drive

liquid-cooled 400 V

Lithium-ion battery

20. 2011 Ford Focus EV liquid-cooled

Lithium-ion battery pack

21. 2011 Chevrolet Volt [11] Lithium-ion Batteries

22. 2011 Reva L-ion [13] Lithium-ion Batteries

23. 2012 Renault Twizy Lithium-ion Batteries

24. 2012 Tesla Model S Lithium-ion Batteries

25. 2013 Chevrolet Spark EV Lithium-ion Batteries

26. 2013 Nissan Leaf Nissan LEAF®

Lithium-ion Batteries

27. 2013 Mahindra e2o Lithium-ion Batteries

28. 2013 BMW i3 Lithium-ion Batteries

29. 2014 Honda Fit EV Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used rechargeable batteries for EV/HEV,

because of high energy density, more cell voltages and lower weight to volume

ratios. Therefore Lithium-ion batteries are also preferred in industrial, transportation

and power-storage applications. Hence uses of such batteries are helping in im-

provement of electrical vehicle performance in terms of mileage, weight and vehicle

weight.

An electric car is propelled by electric motor, using batteries or another energy

storage device. Electric motor gives instant torque and smooth acceleration to the

electric vehicles. Portable devices or instruments are often relying on battery for its

operation.




The electric vehicles or hybrid electric vehicles are propelled by the battery pack.

Hence understanding technology of battery is necessary. Mileage of the EV/ HEV

majorly depends upon capacity of the battery pack. The energy stored in battery pack

is also limited. So, it is important to use this energy as efficiently as possible, to

extend the battery lifetime. Generally the batteries are classified into two categories.

Primary batteries are non-rechargeable and are commonly found in different con-

sumer electronic products all over the world. Commonly primary batteries are zinc-

carbon, zinc-alkaline-MnO2, zinc-air, and lithium batteries. Secondary batteries are

distinguished by their ability to recharge. The Examples of secondary batteries

include Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Lead-acid, Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH), and

Lithium-ion (Li-ion). For electric vehicle or vehicular applications, secondary

batteries are the preferred candidates for power source or load-leveling devices.

There are other possible options for the batteries include fuel cells and ultra capaci-

tors. The energy density and power density of secondary battery along with cost are

major factors for suitability for a particular application [4] [8]. Many commercial

secondary batteries are manufactured with a series of cells packaged in a container.

In general, a battery manufacturer provides the rated capacity of the battery in their

datasheet or sometimes written on the body of battery. The rated capacity, expressed

in Amp-Hours (AHs), is specified for discharging under a stated set of operating

conditions. A common discharging condition is to discharge at the rate 𝐶

20 A, where C

is the rated capacity in Ahs until the specified cut-off voltage is reached.



Fig. 2.6: Energy density ranges of different batteries

Meanwhile, the energy density of a battery is often expressed in Watt-hours per liter

Wh

l and the power density in Watts per liter

W

l. Figure 2.6 shows relation between

different types of batteries and energy density. The energy density of the battery is

the amount of energy stored per unit volume or mass. Later on energy density term

more accurately called as specific energy. The above graph figure2.6 shows that

capacitor type of batteries have very low energy density as compare to other batteries

but this battery has very short recharge time hence it can be used for specific applica-

tions. So recharge time of the battery is also important parameter to decide refuel

time of the battery.



The pictorial comparisons of the batteries are given for high power and high capacity

Ni-MH batteries. In many applications these batteries are used according to the

application need and specification. As far as the electric vehicles and hybrid electric

vehicles are concerned higher energy density and short energy recharge time batteries

is the requirement hence scientist and researcher are working on new Li-ion Batte-

ries.

The physical design of the batteries heavily influences their battery performance

capabilities.

In addition to the components for the electrochemical processes, nonreactive compo-

nents such as the current collectors, separator, and electrolyte are needed to comprise

a functional cell. These components add to the weight of the battery without adding

to the energy density.



Fig. 2.7: Applications wise energy density and batteries

The figure 2.7 shows the range of energy density and energy recharge time for

various applications of battery in vehicular sector. Transportation and some hybrid

electrical vehicles smaller energy density moderated energy recharge time is pre-

ferred.

Whereas electrical vehicles of e bike needs higher energy density and longer energy

recharge time. Inverters, Electric vehicles and electric bicycle vehicles or e-bikes

uses different type of batteries according to their specifications, cost, weight and

expected mileage. Hence for high end applications in electrical car or hybrid car high

energy density and lower energy recharge time is needed in future hence need to be

work on this range of application batteries. The different batteries along with their

applications are given in the following table 2.2.



Table 2. 2: Comparison of batteries according to applications [7, 11, 14]

Sr. No. Battery Types Applications

1. Flooded lead acid Battery Automobiles, Forklifts and UPS

2. Unflooded or Sealed lead

acid battery (SLA)

UPS, Biomedical instruments, Wheelchairs

and emergency lights

3. Valve regulated lead acid

battery (VRLA)

Cellular repeater towers, internet hub, banks,

hospitals, airport and military installments

4. Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Battery

This battery withstands severe shock and

vibration. Cells will not leak even if the case is

cracked. So it can be used in Military applica-

tions

5. Lead Antimony Batteries Electrical Vehicles and deep discharge applica-

tions

6. Lead Calcium Batteries Higher Cold Cranking Amp ratings applica-

tions

7. SLI Batteries

(Lead Acid Battery)

Starting , Lightning and ignition applications

i.e. Cars, trucks, buses, lawn mowers, wheel

chairs, robots

8. Lithium Ion Laptop, Mobile phones, EV, HEV

9. Zinc mercury oxide Hearing aids

10. Silver Zinc , Zink air Aeronautical application

11. Alkaline Batteries Digital cameras, CD players, MP3 players,

pagers, toys, lights, and radios

12. Ni-Cd Digital cameras, CD players, MP3 players,

pagers, toys, lights, and radios

13. LiFePO4 E-Bike (36V/10AH)



Sr. No. Battery Types Applications

14. Nickel Metal Hydride

(Ni-MH )

EVs, HEVs, PHEVs, fork lift trucks, milk

floats, locomotives (Ni-MH and Lithium) Ni-

MH RAV4EVs (Vehicle traction Batteries)

15. Sodium or Zebra batteries

molten chloroaluminate

(NaAlCl4) sodium

Electric Vehicles ( EV) and Hybrid Electric

Vehicles( HEV)

2.1.4 Battery models

Battery modeling is useful for understanding behavior of the battery system for its

dependence on various parameters. In case of battery model, the effect on viscosity

of electrolyte used in battery can be predicted to understand battery performance

parameters. Such models could be used in battery operated vehicles to predict its

performance. There are different kinds of batteries used for electrical vehicles and

many factors affect on battery performance parameters. For the estimation of battery

performance various mathematical models plays a significant role. The battery

performance parameters are state of charge (SOC), battery storage capacity, rate of

charge or rate of discharge, temperature, battery age or shelf life etc [5,15]. The

battery performance depends on the measurable quantities like temperature and

performance characteristics. However, battery performance also depends on parame-

ter such as battery age, the way battery handling, manufacturing defects or tolerances

and variations of cells within the battery. The lead-acid battery represents a funda-

mental and main element in the renewable energy systems and in the hybrid vehicles.

Therefore, it is necessary to study the modeling and simulation of lead acid battery.



The many underwater vehicles are driven by lead acid batteries because of its lower

cost of production, diversity, easy to charging and discharging operation and effi-

ciency [9]. The lead acid batteries have an appropriate cell voltage i.e. 2V per cell

and correspondingly high energy efficiency. These batteries are charged and dis-

charged with high current [9]. Lead acid battery technology has been successfully

serving for different energy needs that vary from the requirements from traditional

automobile applications tom the modern plug in hybrid electric vehicles. The lead

acid battery generally used in starting, lightning and ignition in automobile indus-

tries. Hence these batteries are called as SLI batteries [10].

For the modeling of the battery, a modified model explained in figure 2.9 is used. In

most of the research work modeling of the battery were done using variable voltage

source and fixed resistance. The experimental results and manufacturing data are

presented and shown that battery resistance is not constant but the change in battery

resistance is small and it can be assumed as a constant [9]. Literature surveys of

different battery models are undertaken and some of them are studied and described.

The described models consider battery storage capacity, self-discharge, over and

under voltage, battery internal resistance and ambient temperature. Described battery

models have advantages and disadvantage over each other. A comparison between

the model and experimental results are reported in the battery evaluation test system

is used for verification. These battery models can be used to study accurately to

evaluate battery performance in different electrical systems.

\



Rbat

Vbat ~Voc Ein

2.1.4.1 Simple battery model

The simplest electrical battery-model is shown in figure 2.8. This battery model

consists of an ideal voltage source i.e. Ein, constant internal resistance i.e. Rbat and the

terminal voltage i.e. Vbat. This model consists of an ideal battery with open-circuit

voltage Ein and a constant internal resistance Rbat or Equivalent Series Resistance.

Fig. 2.8: Simple battery model

This model consists of an ideal battery with open-circuit voltage Ein and a constant

internal resistance i.e. Rbat or Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR). The terminal

voltage is given by Vbat which can be determined from open-circuit measurement.

The equivalent series resistance can be determined from open-circuit measurements

and extra measurement with load connected [12]. The simple battery model has

several drawback and disadvantage for modeling the battery. This simple model does

not take into account of varying internal resistance because of varying state of

charge, electrolyte concentration and sulfate formation [5]. The basic assumption of

this model is limitless battery and model does not depend on state of charge of

battery. It means that dynamic behaviors of the battery parameters are not consi-

dered. This information clearly indicates that it is approximate model and cannot be

considered for battery monitoring in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV).

𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 =𝑑𝑞

𝑑𝑡 (8)



𝑆𝑂𝐶 = 100𝑞

𝑄 (9)

𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸0 − 𝐾 𝑄

𝑄−𝑞 + 𝐴𝑒−𝐵𝑞 (10)

In these above equations E0, K, Q, A and B are constants depends on the types of

battery. „q‟ be the static battery voltage and battery current is Ibatt. Ein and Vbat are

internal battery voltage and Terminal voltage respectively. The integral of current

determines the charges with the number between lower limit zero and upper limit

determined by the battery capacitance (Q) [9].

The terminal voltage equation of the simple model is

𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝑅𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 (11)

However, the internal resistance of the battery is different under discharge and charge

conditions. This model does not consider the internal dynamics of the battery, in

particular the effect of the diffusion of the electrolytic chemicals between the battery

plates [16, 17].

2.1.4.2 Modified battery model

The modified battery model is written from the simplest battery model. It is neces-

sary to modify the simplest battery model into advanced model which will consider

the dynamic behavior of the battery like state of charge and internal resistance of the

battery [19]. The simplest circuit of battery model is modified and given in figure

2.9.This model gives non linear effects due to diodes in the charging and discharging

paths [5]. This modified battery model consists of different charging and discharging

resistances along with capacitance. The different resistance values are considered in

this modified model of battery under charge and discharge conditions i.e. Rc and Rd.



Rb

Rd

Rc

Vo Ein C

I4

I3

I1

I I2 I2 Ri

Cs

R1

Vo Rsd Cb

The diodes are also shown in figure2.9 has no physical significance in the battery so

these diodes are included only because of modeling purposes.

Fig. 2.9: Battery model with charging and discharging resistance and polarization

capacitance

In order to model the cell diffusion of the electrolytic through the battery and its

resultant effect of causing transient currents in the battery, a capacitor C is added to

the model [18].

2.1.4.3 Simplified Lead Acid Battery Model

Now a day‟s lead acid batteries are also used in electrical vehicles and power backup

applications rigorously due its availability of any ampere hour rating range. Hence

dynamic model of lead acid battery is presented in the figure 2.10, which is simpli-

fied proposed equivalent circuit. [12,20]

Fig. 2.10: Simplified equivalent circuit of a lead acid battery



This modified model of lead acid battery consists of surface capacitor and polarized

resistance connected in parallel and in series with internal resistance or lumped

resistance. This model is also called as third order lead acid battery model [5].

The cell voltage is represented by VO, and Rint is a lumped internal resistance due to

cell interconnections. The double layer of capacitance Cs surface-capacitor is shown

in parallel with the charge transfer polarization represented by Rt. This double layer

capacitor is the results of charge separation at the electrolyte/electrode interface.

The bulk capacitor Cb models the cell‟s open circuit voltage, and Rsd is included to

represent the self-discharge of the cell. Voltages and currents are describing the

characteristics of the model shown in figure. 2.10 are given by equations

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅𝐼 × 𝐼2 + 𝑉𝐶𝑆 + 𝑉𝑐𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠𝑑 × 𝐼1 (12)

𝑉𝑐𝑠 =1

𝐶 𝐼4 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡 × 𝐼3 (13)

𝑉𝐶𝑏 =1

𝐶 𝐼2 𝑑𝑡 (14)

𝐼1 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 & 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 15

Where VCb and VCs denote the voltages across the bulk- and surface-capacitors,

respectively taking as state variables the voltages VO, VCs, VCb and assuming that

𝑑𝐼2

𝑑𝑡≈ 0

The rate of change of terminal current per sampling interval is very small and neglig-

ible when implemented digitally. The complete state variable description i.e. the state

model of battery is obtained:



𝑉0

𝑉𝑐𝑠𝑉𝑐𝑏

=

−

1

𝑅𝑠𝑑

1

𝐶𝑠+

1

𝐶𝑏 −

1

𝑅𝑡𝐶𝑠 0

−1

𝑅𝑠𝑑𝐶𝑠 −

1

𝑅𝑡𝐶𝑠 0

−1

𝑅𝑠𝑑𝐶𝑠 0 0

× 𝑉0

𝑉𝑐𝑠𝑉𝑐𝑏

=

1

𝐶𝑠+

1

𝐶𝑏

−1

𝐶𝑠

−1

𝐶𝑏

× 𝐼

𝑦 = 𝑉0 = 1 0 0 𝑉0 𝑉𝑐𝑠 𝑉𝑐𝑠 𝑇 (16)

The control strategies of the batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles are based on

SOC knowledge. The batteries dynamic behavior can be modeled with different

electrical circuit structures and different linear or nonlinear mathematical models.

The different estimation methods can be used for the batteries parameters calculation.

The estimated parameters could be battery SOC calculation and this is very much

important in the hybrid and electrical vehicles [18]. SOC calculates the left energy of

the battery and can be used to predict distance that can be covered is possible.

2.1.4.4 Thevenin Battery Model

The battery voltage is related to the sum of the reduction and oxidation potentials.

Electrical energy is produced when the chemicals in the battery react with one

another [19].The rate of the chemical reaction varies with the state of charge, battery

storage capacity, rate of charge and discharge, environmental temperature and age or

shelf life [5]. There have been many proposed lead acid battery models [19]. One of

the proposed models for lead acid battery is Thevenin equivalent circuit, shown in

following figure 2.11, which is a simple way of demonstrating the behavior of battery

voltage i.e. Vth. It contains the electrical values of no-load voltage (VOC), internal

resistance (R1) and overvoltage i.e. parallel combination of C and R2 [18,19].This



R2 R1

C Ein

Voc ~Vth

Ib

capacitance represents capacitance of parallel plates and R2 means nonlinear resis-

tance contributed by contact resistance of plate to the electrolyte.

Fig. 2.11: Thevenin Battery Model

This model is not accurate because these values are not constants as modeled but in

fact are functions of the various battery conditions stated above [19,21]. The first

order battery model is much closer to the approximation than the zero order models

to true battery voltage response. As we know that, the first order model contained

one resistor and capacitor pair in addition to the elements contained in the zero order

battery models.

𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝐼𝑅𝐼 (17)

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝐶,𝑇 (18)

𝑅𝐼 = 𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝐶,𝑇, 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐼 (19)

This resistor capacitor pair added two extra parameters to the battery system, a

resistance and a capacitance, and resulted in a much better representation of true

battery voltage response. The added resistance and capacitance were both dependent

on current direction i.e. charging and discharging, SoC, and battery temperature, but

the same assumptions are also made for internal resistance before were applied to

both parameters.



Voc

nm(t) IP

RP Vb

Ib R2 R3

C3 C1 R1 C2

Cb

Ein

2.1.4.5 Linear Electrical Battery Model

Fig. 2.12: Linear Electrical Battery Model

The added resistor and capacitor pair was responsible for adding first order dynamics

to the system. The main disadvante of this model is all elements asumed in this

model are constant but in actual battery these elements are the functions of battery

conditions [21].An improvement upon the Thevenin model is a linear electrical

battery model, shown in figure 2.12 [19]. This model shows linear components to

account for self discharge (R p ) and various over voltages. This model is assumed as

more accurate than other battery models; however this model does not considers

temperature dependence factor and uses dissimilar sets of element values to model

the battery [5,19]. Therefore a continuous battery evaluation becomes difficult and

robust.

This linear battery model was verified experimentally in the University of Lowell

battery evaluation test system [19]. This second order battery model, describes the

battery with a battery voltage source, internal resistance, and two parallel polarization

circuits as shown in figure 2.12. The battery parameters of this battery model are

estimated and can validate with the aid of them with simulation modeling [16].



I

R2

C

E

R1 External

Load V

Use of battery with more efficiency, it is important that battery response for various

operating condition has to understood precisely. The energy stored in any battery is a

chemical energy that is translated into electrical energy [19].

2.1.4.6 Battery Equivalent Circuit

The purpose of battery simulation is to predict the battery performance and could be

interpreted for electrical vehicles, in terms of range, acceleration, speed and many

more. Simulation of any electrical system requires its equivalent circuit. This equiva-

lent circuit consists of circuit elements and each one has precisely predictable

behavior. It is necessary to understand that the values of circuit parameters are not

constant i.e. E and R. The open circuit voltage (Voc) changes with state of charge

(SOC). In case of lead acid battery, open circuit voltage is directly proportional to the

state of charge of the battery. Figure 2.13 is highly useful even though it does not

explain dynamic behavior of the battery.

Fig.2. 13: Equivalent Circuit Model of Battery.

The electric charge that a battery can supply is an important parameter. The capacity

of the batteries used in electric vehicles is usually quoted for some hours discharge.



The electric cells have nominal voltages E, which gives approximate voltage when

cell delivers electrical power. The internal resistance i.e. R1, the current I is flowing

out of the battery.

2.1.5 Comparison of different battery models

Various battery models are studied and explained in the previous section. Each and

every battery model has an advantages and disadvantage over each other. Therefore

these battery models are compared in this section. Brief comparison summary of

battery models along with their merits and demerit has been given systematically in

tabular format as shown in table 2.3. At a glance applications and appropriate type of

battery model is given to understand significance of battery model for various

applications.

Table 2.3: Comparison of different battery models

Sr. No

Battery Model

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Simple Model Battery simple model is an

approximate model.

The basic assumption of this

model is limitless battery.

This model does not consider the

internal dynamic properties of the

battery, in particular the effect of

the diffusion of the electrolytic

chemicals between the battery

plates.

This model does not depend on

state of charge of battery.

This model cannot be considered

for battery monitoring in Hybrid

Electric Vehicles.

2. Modified

battery model

This is modified model of

simple battery model.

This modified battery model

consists of charging and

discharging resistances along

with capacitance.

Effect of causing transient

currents is considered by

This advanced model considers

the dynamic behavior of the

battery like state of charge and

internal resistance of the battery.

The diodes used in model have no

physical significance in the battery

model and these diodes are

included only because of model-



adding capacitor C in the

model.

ing purposes.

3. Simplified

equivalent

circuit

This is a dynamical lead-acid

battery model.

This is a modified model with

surface capacitor and polarized

resistance.

The double layer capacitor in a

model used for charge separa-

tion at the electrolyte/electrode

interface.

The bulk capacitor Cb models

open circuit voltage of the

battery cell whereas Rsd

represents the self-discharge.

The batteries dynamic beha-

vior can be modeled with

electrical circuit structures and

linear or nonlinear mathemati-

cal models.

This model gives complete

state variable solution for

terminal voltage Vo , Vcb and

Vcs

The SOC estimation can be

done in this battery model.

4. Thevenin

battery Model

This is modified model and

describes dynamic behavior of

the battery for charging and

discharging, battery storage

capacity, temperature and shelf

life.

This model is not considered as an

accurate because parameter values

are not constants as modeled but

in fact are functions of the various

battery conditions stated above.

5. Linear

Electrical

Model

This model is modified version

of Thevenin battery model and

works as linear battery model.

This model is more accurate

than Thevenin model and

which considers self discharge

and over voltages also.

This model does not considers

temperature dependence parame-

ter

2.2 Electrical Vehicle Performance Parameters

For development of any dedicated advanced system for electrical cars, one has to

understand each function of the devices, quality of parts and electrical models. For

these reasons, it has become necessary to devote a lot more time to select right parts



for electric car. The right parts will ensure that car works as a functional unit and that

do not have misaligned components. An electric car is supposed to bring a lot of

savings to the motorist. In any electrical car, various electric loads are installed and

controlled by controllers or conventional electronics. These loads are of active load

such that they get constant current through battery. If active load consumes more

power then battery will not hold charge long time means it will discharge. Hence

loads and controlling techniques or control strategy algorithm can be though rigo-

rously so that battery will hold charge for long time. Therefore, there is a need to

study battery performance parameters. Modeling and simulation plays important role

in estimating the performance parameters. Developing a hardware setup for verifying

these parameters will give boost to the research in electrical vehicles. Further esti-

mating this parameter in HIL set up for on line monitoring leads to dynamic

measurement of performance parameters.

The CitiCar (1970) was the earliest vehicle and ran on as little as 24 volts and up to

48 volts of lead acid battery. These lead acid batteries supported a three horsepower

electric motor and radio as one of the option in the car. The ComutaCar vehicle was

upgraded to the electric CitiCar as electrical vehicle with a six horsepower motor

with forced air cooling system, easier to open doors with rear flip up rear glass and

three different axle configurations. In the same time Zipper was a three wheeler

electric designed specifically to be towed by recreational vehicles with similar

category electric vehicle. The vehicle performance depends on battery technology

and electric motor and other facilities. The vehicle performance improves with

advance battery technology and low power high torque electric motor. The vehicle

performance is also depends on the driving style, regular maintenance and add-on



facilities. Lithium-ion batteries are used EV/HEV, due to high energy densities,

relatively high cell voltages etc .hence these batteries are also preferred in industrial,

transportation applications. Hence uses of such batteries are helps in improving EV

performance in terms of mileage and vehicle weight.

The special batteries are designed to allow EV drivers to reach their destination

without unnecessary stops to recharge the electric vehicles. However, this additional

battery capacity pack would affect the vehicle‟s space, weight and cost. In view of

these issues in terms of limitations, integrating EVs with the vision of Intelligent

Transportation Systems (ITS) is explained and proposed predictive intelligent battery

management system. This Predictive Intelligent Battery Management System

(PIBMS), will increase the taken as a whole performance of Electric Vehicles

including energy consumption and emissions using the ITS infrastructure [22]. The

advancement in battery technology and charging technologies has allowed the

Electric Vehicle (EV) to be considered as the next generation of automotive transport

[22].

Apart from the issues of increasing efficiency and reducing cost and wastage, rechar-

geable battery are the key enabling technology for solving energy problems of future.

Finally battery health management will also play important role in electrical vehicles

that will be dependent on an accurate gauge for remaining charge and trade offs in

long term durability.

2.3 Review on Modeling and simulation of battery

In early stages of the design process modeling and simulations tools are used before

the availability of hardware. Iterative modeling and simulation can improve the

quality of the system design, thereby reducing the number of errors in the design



process. The software components of any model or system driven by mathematical

input and output relationships then that designed model can be simulated under

various conditions to validate the system. The modeling and simulations are impor-

tant in electrical system for capacity determination and optimum component

selection. The life of the battery imposes stringent constraints on its operation with

active loads. During the discharge cycle of battery, the battery voltage decreases up

to certain cutoff voltage. The discharge capacity and delivered energy by battery is

determined with the help of empirical model. Modeling is the process of producing a

model. The one of the purpose of a model is to enable the analyst to predict the effect

of changes to the system. The model should be a close approximation to the real

system and incorporate most of its salient features. It should not be so complex that it

is impossible to understand and experiment with it. A good model is a well judged

tradeoff between realism and simplicity [23].

Battery modeling and simulation makes it possible to analyze operating conditions,

design optimization, design of automatic control, and design parameters for electro-

chemical systems [15, 24]. By developing battery equivalent models and its

performance simulations, helps designer to understand the possible limitations and

battery related information. From the battery manufacturer context, modeling and

simulations improve the design of cells and modules i.e. identifying limitations in the

suggested model helps in next battery design process. With simulated results in the

intuition for a system that is required for making vital improvements. For instance,

the designer can study the influence on battery geometries, electrode materials, pore-

distribution, electrolyte composition, and other fundamental parameters [24].



Accuracy in battery modeling helps in characterizes its real world performance in

different industrial complex system modeling. Correctness of the battery model

depends on the number of parameters considered which affect the performance of the

battery [25]. Therefore battery parameter identification and its performance is

important and useful in battery modeling technique.

A simple, fast, and effective equivalent circuit battery model structure for lead-acid

batteries was implemented to facilitate the battery model part of the system model

[15]. This developed equivalent circuit model has been described in detail in that

research paper. The additional tools and processes for estimating the battery parame-

ters from laboratory data were implemented in the same work. After estimating

battery parameters from laboratory secondary data, the parameterized battery model

was used for electrical system simulation. This developed battery model is capable of

providing accurate simulation results and very fast simulation speed [15].

Modeling and simulation also allows for the analysis of an almost unlimited number

of design parameters and operating conditions to a relatively small cost. Experimen-

tal observations of the battery system serve as the necessary verification and

validation of the designed battery model [24]. To understand simulated results

processes in state-of-the-art models, electrodes, electrolyte and battery pack needs to

be notice properly. The different implications of design parameters and operating

conditions have been discussed with respect to experimental observations of battery

performance, ageing, and battery safety in the said research work. The battery

manufacturing company eventually uses these models to optimize the battery design

with respect to these parameters. This paper also comments on electrolyte salt

concentration (mol/m3) profiles at various times during the cycle during the dis-



charge. The electrolyte the salt concentration increases in the negative electrode and

decreases in the positive electrode. Similarly temperature distribution in a cylindrical

battery during a discharge has been simulated and presented. The temperature

difference between the core and the outer regions increases when the cell is dis-

charged with higher C-rates is also given and explained with simulated graphs. The

life of the battery imposes stringent constraints on its operation with active loads.

During the discharging of battery, the battery voltage decreases up to certain cutoff

voltage level. The discharge capacity and delivered energy by battery is determined

with the help of empirical model. The battery model is a representation of the con-

struction and working of some system of interest. A model is similar to but simpler

than the system it represents. The main purpose of battery model is to enable the

analyst to predict the effect of changes to the system. The model should be a close

approximation to the real system and incorporate most of its salient features [26].

A mathematical model classification includes deterministic, stochastic, static and

dynamic types of models. The input and output variables are fixed values in determi-

nistic model whereas in stochastic at least one of the input or output variables is

probabilistic.

In static model the time term is not taken into account where as in dynamic model

time-varying interactions among variables are taken into account. Typically, simula-

tion models are stochastic and dynamic models. The purpose and scope of the model

has to be properly understood or defined in the research context. In this research

work,it is planned to study the above process of development and application of

model. Herre, different battery models are to be studied and simulate it in MATLAB

and Simplorer software to understand behaviour of the battery. The model



development consists of formulation of conceptual model,analysis,data acquire and

building detailed model. Whereas in applying model includes simulation, result

analysis, redefining, model optimisation and verification and validation. The

mathematical formulation is needed for the planed system so that dependant and

independent parameters could be identified and used in software system. After

analysis the specific model is represented and used for simulation experimentation,

the simulation is executed and genrerated results are again analysed. In case the

simulated results are not validated with reality system in optimization or redefination

then model mdification is necessary and required otherwise no modification in the

prescribed model. With the help of MATLAB or SIMPLORER researcher can build

mathematical models for forecasting and optimizing the behavior of complex sys-

tems. For model developments following steps are to be considered.

Develop models using data fitting and first principle modeling techniques

Identify parameters that optimize system performance

Simulate models and develop custom post processing routines

Generate reports that document model derivation and simulation results

Share the developed models

2.4 Reviews on Hardware in the Loop

The main initiative of Hardware in Simulation Loop (HIL) is to test the hardware

device on a simulator before implementation on the real system process. Hardware in

the loop is generally used in development and testing of sophisticated and dedicated

real time embedded systems. The real time test bench simulation enables the drive

cycle testing and fault injection capability in the electrical vehicle system through

hardware in the loop platform. In the present time the HIL testing has shown signifi-



cant contribution for comprehensive rapid prototyping and automated testing plat-

form for advanced electrical systems [18, 27]. In HIL testing physical models of the

systems are replaced by mathematical model that completely describes the important

dynamics of the physical model. Validation of hardware in the loop test platform for

variable speed drive controller of electric vehicle has been described and imple-

mented. This work of HIL enables the testing of closed loop device under test

controllers under realistic operating conditions without need to interface with high

power system HIL tools enables i.e. accelerated testing and validation, testing time

reduction, simulation of all operating points and scenarios which are difficult to

recreate with real system, fault injection capacity and real time access to all signals

[28, 29].

The HIL system comprises of real time platform and electrical emulation of sensors

and actuators to read, process, monitor, control and stores the acquired data for

analysis. This system monitors motor simulated parameters and battery important

parameters.

In recent scenario, HIL simulation becomes an inescapable means of performing real

time experimentation, testing in decisive conditions of the system and validation of

models and prototypes. This HIL simulation technique provides test platform for the

control system. Automotive industries have started using HIL simulation for testing

electronic control units and vehicle performance [26].

HIL is useful to test a controller function with a simulated process before the control-

ler applied to the real process. If the mathematical model used in the simulator then

it might be an accurate representation of the real process, and one can even tune the

controller parameters. This is useful for the process operator and learns to know



working of the system using hardware-in-the-loop simulation. An additional benefit

of Hardware-In-the-Loop is that testing can be done without damaging electric

equipments. Modelica and Dymola are the object oriented modeling language tools

and used effectively to design hardware in the loop setup for hybrid electrical ve-

hicles using micro hybrid architecture. This HIL work is done for start- stop system

along with brake energy regeneration. This concept is having fuel saving potential

and this has been demonstrated effectively in the research paper of HIL simulation of

hybrid electric vehicle using Modelica and Dymola tools. This paper is elaborated on

the control strategy of brake energy regeneration to charge the battery using sensitivi-

ty function. [30].

The design procedure of HIL for electric vehicle power train system modeling and

simulation has been explained and presented in some of research work. For these

works MATLAB and SIMULINK tools were used for simulation of various compo-

nents of electric vehicle. The battery management system (BMS),Motor control unit

(MCU) and Vehicle management system (VMS) is build on the dSPACE with

MATLAB /SIMULINK along with real time workshop tool box (RTW tool box).

Through this developed system electric vehicle control strategy is simulated and

validated. The offline simulated results and laboratory prototype are presented in the

said work of hardware in the loop [31].

The HIL systems are used to test electrical vehicles before final deployment. The

above electrical vehicle system consists of various electrical sections and devices.

The main component of the system is high voltage battery pack and battery manage-

ment system.



The offline simulations were used within the early phases of the development process

are often called Model-in-the-Loop simulations. In software development phases

module test and system test are accompanied by MIL or Software-in-the-Loop (SIL)

simulations. These established simulation method increases the overall test coverage.

In the SIL simulation the functional model of an electronic control unit is replaced by

LabVIEW code. But in order to use the HIL simulation, real-time capable simulation

models is needed. After the software tests are successfully passed the calibration of

the ECUs can be done on the test-bench of the vehicle.

Therefore in this Literature review the evaluation of various battery technologies,

battery chemistry, diverse battery models and its comparisons are explained. The

review of the electrical vehicles, its performance with Hardware in the loop is studied

and explained.



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