18

Chapter - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The essential aspect of an investigation is the review of literature which

is a general retrospective survey of previous writings pertaining to one‟s

problem. Review of literature gives an insight about the problem. It is regarded

as the backbone of any research work and is a crucial aspect in planning of

study. In fact the researcher who undertakes the research project systematically

reviewing other studies related to the problems completes the research

successfully. Identification of the problem, development of research design and

determination of the size and scope of a problem, all depend to a great extent

on the care and intensity with which a researcher has examined the literature

related to the intended research.

Mira (2000) has rightly observed “the key to the vast store house of

published literature opens doors to the sources of significant problem and

provides helpful orientation for definition of problem, background for selection of

procedures and comparative data for interpreting results‟‟.

Before undertaking the study a survey of related literature based on

books and investigations, in order to become familiar with research work, which

has already been done by other investigator in this field was carried. An attempt

has been made to present the available literature relevant to the field under the

following headings and subheadings.

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2.1 STEPS OF MANUFACTURING GARMENTS FROM DELICATE FABRICS 2.1.1 PRE-SEWING OPERATION 2.1.1.1 Pattern preparation 2.1.1.2 Selection of incoming material 2.1.1.3 Fabric preparation: 2.1.1.4 Spreading 2.1.1.5 Marking 2.1.1.6 Cutting 2.1.1.7 Preparation for sewing 2.1.2 SEWING OPERATIONS 2.1.2.1 Stitching 2.1.2.2 Hem / edge finishing 2.1.3 POST SEWING OPERATION 2.1.3.1 Pressing and finishing 2.1.3.2 Wash and care 2.1.3.3 Storing and packaging

2.2 PROBLEMS FACED WHILE MANUFACTURING GARMENTS FROM DELICATE FABRICS 2.2.1 CONSTRUCTION RELATED PROBLEMS 2.2.1.1 SEAM PUCKERING 2.2.1.1.1 Studies done on seam pucker 2.2.1.1.2 Factors affecting seam puckering 2.2.1.1.3 Assessment of seam pucker 2.2.1.2 SEAM SLIPPAGE 2.2.1.2.1 Factors affecting seam slippage 2.2.2 HEALTH RELATED PROBLEMS 2.2.2.1 EFFECTS OF WORK ENVIRONMENT AND CONDITIONS 2.2.2.2 HEALTH RELATED ISSUES 2.2.2.2 1 Accidents and injuries 2.2.2.2.2 Illness and diseases 2.2.2.2.3 Musculoskeletal disorder 2.2.2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF BREAKS 2.2.2.4 TASK VARIATION 2.2.2.5 IMPACT OF POSTURES 2.2.2.6 EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 2.2.2.7 ROLE OF ERGONOMICS

20

2.1 STEPS OF MANUFACTURING GARMENTS FROM

DELICATE FABRICS

Bheda (2003) stated that the clothing industry manufactures a vast

variety of garments from sheer fabrics. They range from work cloths to ball

gowns. Garment manufacturing needs highly technical information especially in

case of delicate fabrics. This profession cannot be started successfully without

the formal training or practical experience. Success in this field is largely a

question of understanding properly the characteristics of delicate fabrics,

managing them properly, selecting and handling the equipments correctly and

controlling the related problems.

The garment construction process from sheer fabrics is classified in

three main levels namely: Pre-sewing, sewing and post-sewing.

2.1.1 PRE-SEWING OPERATION

2.1.1.1 PATTERN PREPARATION

While manufacturing garments, first step is the designing of sketch for

the dresses that have to be prepared from sheer fabrics. Lewis (1984)

suggested that patterns with minimum seams should be selected in case of

sheer fabrics. Soft sheers need designs that have loose fitting and over sized

silhouette. Details such as gathers, ruffles, shirring or draping are suitable for

soft sheers. Crisp sheers can be sewn from patterns with tailor-made details

(www.cauky.edu/fcs/FACTSHB/CTMMB.179pdf).

Beazley and Bond (2004) mentioned that the patterns can be prepared

by two means that is manual method or CAD/CAM method.

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2.1.1.2 SELECTION OF INCOMING MATERIALS

It is well acknowledged that the overall quality of garment is determined

by the characteristics of each of its components. The components include

selection of fabric and accessories.

2.1.1.2.1 Fabric

Mehta and Bhardwaj (2000) explained various fabric inspection systems

like 4 Point system, 10 Point system, Graniteville “78” system, Textile

distributors institute system, Dallas system and 4 Point system (revised) for

fabric inspection.

It is reported by Kawabata and Niwa (1991) that in the garment export

industry most of the manufacturers follow 4-Point system in case of delicate

fabrics. The 4–point system has received widest acceptance in the textile trade

because it is simple and easy to understand.

2.1.1.2.2 Accessories

Sproles (2004) stated that accessories play a vital role in appearance of

garment. They are a major source of value-addition in garments and contribute

to a great extent in quality of garments. Accessories can be grouped in two

categories that is those made of fibrous material and the non-fibrous

accessories. If the accessories are composed of fibrous material (like laces,

braids, zippers and thread) then in order to assess their quality they should be

checked for shrinkage, colorfastness, strength, crease recovery, abrasion

resistance, pilling and color matching. In non – fibrous accessories (like snaps,

fasteners, hooks and decorative details) the main requirements to be ensured

are strength and rust free surface which withstand normal day -to -day cleaning

process.

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Sewing thread - Prakash and Gaur (2000) stated that the thread used on a

garment goes a long way in determining the appearance of garment. The

suggested properties to be considered while selecting sewing thread for

delicate fabrics are color, count, strength, compatibility of thread with fabric and

with sewing machine.

Color of the thread should match the color of the fabric. Transparent

thread, which is often used to avoid mismatching of color but is of lower quality

and has a tendency to ravel, should not be used. Delicate fabrics must be sewn

with finest possible threads. The strength of sewing thread should be

proportionate to the strength of fabric. When selecting thread for sewing

delicate fabrics it is important to check its compatibility with the sewing machine

otherwise it will create problem while stitching. Threads of same fiber content as

of fabric to be sewn are most suitable because they have more or less same

properties.

Needle - Rao (2006) defines that the function of needle is to carry the thread

through the stitch making process. The size of needle ranges from fine to

coarse and are chosen with regard to interaction of yarns of the fabric and the

type and size of thread. Rao (2006) recommended fine set point needles to

stitch delicate woven fabrics.

Lining - Sheer fabrics being transparent need lining in order to give a proper

cover to the body of wearer. In order to ensure quality of garments made from

sheer fabrics, following points are suggested for selecting linings by Cooklin

(1999), Berk and Gioello (1986) -

The fabric used for the lining should be dense, opaque and should have

compatible care requirements similar to the fabric used for the actual

garment.

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Lining should conceal inner construction of garment without adding

excess bulk.

Color and care of lining fabric should be compatible with the delicate

fabric.

The lining should fit smoothly inside garment with seams aligned.

If the lining is upto hem level then in such cases it should have small

pleats for ease and if it is free hanging then it should be attached at

seams with French tack.

Interfacing - According to Baker and Young (1992) interfacings must be

equally sheer or they spoil the appearance of the garment by showing outside.

Interfacing should only add body and support without adding stiffness.

Interfacing should blend with the color and texture of the fabric.

Fasteners and closures - Turvey (2001) stated that fasteners have to be

chosen with great care otherwise they may distort the sheer fabrics. While

selecting fasteners following points are suggested by Turvey (2001) and

Cooklin (1999) –

For garments without lining press studs or hooks and eyes need to be

used.

Zip can be use with underlined garments.

Button holes if needed can be made using net or interfacing.

Horizontal buttonholes should be kept on sheer fabrics.

All fasteners should be properly placed and well aligned. They should

also be securely attached to the delicate fabrics.

In case of delicate fabrics, bulky fasteners should be avoided.

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In garments of delicate fabrics, fasteners should be placed at point of

strain or pressure.

The fasteners should be reinforced with interfacing.

The placket at which fastener is to be attached should be of appropriate

length and width.

The fiber content or material of fastener, lace and braids should be

compatible with the fabric of garment, otherwise it will create problem

during washing and ironing.

Labels - In most of the cases, garments made of delicate fabrics are high-

fashion garments. So it is advisable to use the labels which are woven and are

of narrow width with the necessary information woven into them as a jacquard

design. These labels normally contain the company„s name, size and other

important details of the garment. They should be sewn flat on facing or can be

inserted under the stitching of a superimposed seam (Cooklin, 1999).

Other decorative details - A few suggestions of Decosse (1988) related to

decorative details on delicate fabrics are given below-

All decorative details, including appliques and trims, should not be too

heavy in weight and should be securely attached. There should be no

sign of unraveling of threads. Sequins and beads should be firm to the

fabric and should not show any signs of pull. The thread holding beads

and sequins should be virtually invisible.

The decorative details of a garment should enhance the overall aesthetic

appeal of the garment. Improperly handled finishes adversely affect the

visual appeal of a garment.

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2.1.1.3 FABRIC PREPARATION

Preshrink – It is advisable to preshrink the washable fabrics, then drying

should be done. To prevent excessive fraying, stitching along cut edges of the

fabric is done before washing. According to manufacturers of delicate fabrics

the fabrics should be immersed in warm water until thoroughly wet. Then the

fabric should be wrapped in towel (do not wring) and placed on flat surface to

dry. Hanging the fabric on the cloth line should be avoided since it will pull fabric

out of shape.

Also preshrink for other fabrics, such as interfacings and linings are

suggested. As stated by Decosse (1998) even a tiny amount of shrinkage on

these inner fabrics will show up as puckers or bubbles on the thin lightweight

outer fabric.

Dyeing and printing- Parmar (2001) mentioned that for dyeing delicate fabrics,

deep – draught winch machine is most suitable. It is a kind of batch dyeing

machine.

Dewatering – The common technique of reducing the amount of water in textile

material are mangling, squeezing, vacuum extraction and centrifugation. Since,

vacuum slots cause less damage they are often used with delicate fabrics.

Pressing- The best approach to press sheer fabric is to work with fabric scraps

first. The optimum temperature setting on iron should begin with low setting.

Use of press cloth or soleplate cover to protect fragile fabric has been advised.

2.1.1.4 SPREADING

This is a preparatory operation for cutting and consists of lying plies of

cloth one on top of the other in a predetermined direction. Cooklin (1999) stated

26

that spreading itself can be a completely manual operation or can be performed

by powered machines of various levels of technology. To prevent the delicate

fabric from shifting or slipping, one can use pins, weights, clamps, cork pieces,

cardboard cutting mat and flannel side of a vinyl table cloth or by creating

vacuum (www.kwiksew.com/techinfo/tips/sheer.htm).

2.1.1.5 MARKING

As mentioned by Beverly and Gioells (1986), marking are the

construction symbols transferred from the pattern to the garment section.

Marking may be made on the face, inside or through garment sections.

Markings or tracing indicate the position of points of construction, design detail,

grain lines and centerlines. The various methods of tracing and transfer

markings used for sheer fabrics are chalked marking, chalked thread (Sewing

thread impregnated in with powdered chalk), Color coding (using different

colors threads), pins marking (lines of pins), tailors tack (temporary small

stitches of double through with loose ends), thread tracing (tacking with thread),

notches, perforated markers, spray marking and carbon markers. The method

adopted depend upon one of the factor like the type and weight of fabric, color

of fabric, placement of marking, method of construction, method of fitting and

method of production.

2.1.1.6 CUTTING

The main purpose of cutting is to separate fabric parts of a garment as

replicas of the pattern pieces in the marker plan. Selection of equipment

depends on cutting capacity needed, height of lay, type of fabric, density of

fabric, operation intended and production method employed.

Types of cutting tools as mentioned by Berk and Gioells (1986) are band

knife, die cutting press, rotary cutter, straight knife cutter, drill or thread marker,

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scissors, shears (ball point shears, bent handle, dress markers, pinking),

computerized cutting machine water jet cutting, laser cutting, ultrasonic cutting,

plasma cutting and notchers.

Mehta (2000) listed various defects found in delicate fabrics that may

arise due to cutting. They are frayed edges, single edge fusion, pattern

precision, too deep or shallow notches, fuzz or serrated edges, ply to ply fusion,

too large or small drilling holes. The fastest way to cut out fine fabrics is with a

rotary cutter but most popular one is dress marker shear.

2.1.1.7 PREPARATION FOR SEWING

According to Cooklin (1999), Bake & Young (1992) this group of

operations are concerned with preparing the cut components for sewing and

include the following -

Position marker- Drill marker used for marking pocket positions, dart

lengths, button holes.

Shade marker- This operation ensures that components cut from

different shades of the same color do not mixed up during the

assemble process. Every component of one garment is marked with a

unique number, usually printed on a small ticket which is stuck on the

component.

Bundle preparation and ticketing- Bundles of cut work are prepared

according to size, color and quantities.

Besides preparing the cut components for sewing, adjustment of sewing

machine like upper and lower threading, upper, lower tension adjustments,

selection of thread, pressure adjustments and needle is also important. A

perfect stitch can be obtained only when the machine adjustments are done

according to the properties of fabrics.

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2.1.2 SEWING OPERATIONS

2.1.2.1 STITCHING

Laing & Webster (1998) defined a seam as the application of a series of

stitches to one or several thickness of material. Carr and Latham (2004)

describes that correct selection of various factors of stitch, seams, feed system,

needle and thread together determine seam appearance and performance.

Lewis (1984) & Decosse (1988) gave certain suggestions while joining pieces of

sheer fabrics -

Stay stitch especially on curved areas could prevent stretching.

Since stitches in the inside of a sheer garments show from outside, whether

revealed clearly or as mere shadow details, they must be neat and narrow to

appear as well made. Thus french seam, mock french seam, self bound

seam and double stitched seam with short stitch length (8 -12 Stitches/inch)

would bring desired results.

Puckering could be avoided by loosen the needle tension slightly.

It is advisable to hold the fabric tight in front and behind the pressure foot.

It is advised by Lewis (1984) to place a piece of masking paper while

stitching delicate fabrics otherwise they easily get pushed in the needle hole

of throat plate causing drawing of the fabric.

As stated by Decosse (1998) while filling bobbin, winding should be slowly

done to prevent the thread from stretching which result in puckering.

Jamming of thread could be prevented by avoiding back stitch on sheers.

2.1.2.2 HEM / EDGE FINISHING

The garment should be hanged for at least 24 hours before marking the

hem. Sheer fabrics can have either very deep or very narrow hems. According

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to Turvey (2001) narrow rolled hems are suitable for circular edge whereas

deep or double hems on straight edges help garment to hang better.

Hem of garment made of sheer fabrics can be finished in many ways

which include hand rolled hem, machine rolled hem, narrow machine stitched

hem, double hem, horsehair braid hem, serged hem and serged rolled hem.

2.1.3 POST SEWING OPERATIONS

2.1.3.1 PRESSING AND FINISHING

The basic objective of finishing must be the enhancement of quality and

appearance. This usually refers to pressing, final inspection and packaging.

According to Rao (2006) and Mehta (2000), defects must be within AQL

(accepted quality levels) level and care should be taken of critical points.

Ironing makes a large contribution to the finished appearance of

garments. Ironing includes the application of heat, moisture and pressure singly

or in combination. Chuter (2004) explained that different companies adhere

rigidly to different type of equipments. Many companies use several type of

pressing equipment to achieve satisfactory and economical ironing of garments.

Some of the irons used in industry are electric iron, steam iron, steam air

finisher and stream tunnels. Right cladding of table protects the surface,

distributing steam and pressure evenly and allows vacuum to operate

effectively.

2.1.3.2 WASH AND CARE Clothing made of sheer fabrics are expensive, therefore special care

should be taken so that they can be enjoyed for long. Wash and care would

depends upon many factors like fiber content, dye stuff, type of finish given and

30

type of garment stitched. Also laundry of garment could be done in the form of

dry cleaning, hand wash or machine wash.

If sheer garment is hand washed, soapless detergent should be used.

The garment should not be squeezed or wringed. For drying, garment should

be put flat on a spread towel and rolled.

If machine washed, mesh bags (care bags) can be use which would

prevent items from being wrapped around the agitator or having the hooks snag

other items.

Chemicals, bleaches and spot removers should be avoided for sheer

garments. According to Laundry Care Guide (2011) if needed, only chlorine

bleach can be safely applied on sheers.

2.1.3.3 PACKAGING AND STORING GARMENTS

Appropriate method of storing should be based on the style and weight

of garment. For garments made of delicate fabrics, padded and shaped

hangers are most preferred. Use of garment support straps or loops reduces

the stress because these help to distribute the garment weight and minimize the

distortion of garment shape. Enough space should be provided between

hanging garments.

While folding or storage it is advisable to use white tissue paper between

garments to prevent creases. Roll method which minimize storage space is also

another method of storing garments of delicate fabrics.

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2.2 PROBLEMS FACED WHILE MANUFACTURING GARMENTS

FROM DELICATE FABRICS

2.2.1 CONSTRUCTION RELATED PROBLEMS

2.2.2 HEALTH RELATED PROBLEMS

2.2.1 CONSTRUCTION RELATED PROBLEMS

Sheer fabrics require some special techniques at each and every step of

handling and finishing. According to wwwpatternreview.com a great deal of

working successfully with sheers comes down to one word that is “control”.

For the apparel industry product quality is calculated in terms of quality,

standard of fibers, yarns, fabric construction, colour fastness, designs and the

final finished garments. Certain quality related problems often seen in garment

manufacturing are like sewing, color, sizing or garment defects.

Some of the common sewing problems according to Chuter (2004),

Laing (1998) and Mehta (2000) at various stages during garment manufacturing

are –

Breaking needles

Looping of stitches

Skipping stitches

Variation in stitch length

Seams puckering

Upper thread breaking

Lower thread breaking

Machine not feeding properly

Machine working heavily

Layers feed unevenly

Fabric not fed in straight line

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Seam slippage

Feed marks on the under side

Damaged fabric or holes around the stitches

Chuter (2004), Laing (1998) and Mehta (2000) reported that seam

puckering and seam slippage is most common problems faced by

manufacturers during garment construction.

2.2.1.1 SEAM PUCKERING

A seam is the joining of two or more layers of a material by making a

series of stitches with one or more number of threads (Carr & Latham, 2004).

Glock & Kunz (2005) explained that “with the change in the apparel

production method from manual system to line production system, the

interrelationship between fabric properties and various processes in tailoring of

garments have become important. Selection of manufacturing process will

require selection of machine and variables based on the specific properties of

the fabric”.

Puckering is the disruption in the original surface area of a sewn fabric

giving swollen and wrinkled effect along the line of the seam in an otherwise

smooth fabric. Gaur et al (2006) mentioned that “gathering of seam occur either

just after sewing or after laundering causing an unacceptable seam

appearance”.

Consequently seam pucker described by Dorkin & Chamberlain (1960) is

a ridge, wrinkle or corrugation of the material or a number of small wrinkles

running across and into one another, which appear in sewing together two

pieces of cloth. Several factors which contribute to seam pucker are sewing

thread, fabric structure, seam construction, needle size and feeding problems

as well as incorrect thread tensions and unsuitable thread.

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McGinnis (1984) and Aggarwal (2007) explains that there are several

factors which contribute to seam puckering. These factors include fabric

structure, seam construction, needle size, fabric feeding speed, incorrect thread

tensions and unsuitable thread. Pucker may appear when the garment is first

sewn or may not appear until later when the garment is pressed, wetted and

washed. In many cases, seam pucker can occur from more than one cause at

a time, which can make elimination extremely difficult.

2.2.1.1.1 STUDIES DONE ON SEAM PUCKER

The most recurring and troublesome problem facing the apparel industry

over the years has been the problem of seam pucker. Many researchers have

tried to understand seam puckering phenomenon by adopting different

approaches. An attempt has been made to present available literature on the

issues related to seam pucker. However the studies on the problems related to

puckering can be dated before 1960. Among these investigations the most

comprehensive are given below.

A study undertaken by Dorkin and Chamberlain (1960) identified five

basic causes of seam pucker which covered at least 90 percent of pucker. The

five basic causes suggested were extension in sewing thread, differential fabric

stretch, differential fabric dimensional instability, shrinkage in the sewing thread

and structural jamming.

Clarke and Taylor (1967) studied a wide range of threads and fabrics.

They divided the results into two areas, modification of sewing thread and study

of the basic physics relating to seam pucker. The results indicated that

treatments given to fabrics did not show any decrease in tendency of pucker

though resin treatment of threads appeared to be more effective. Pucker due to

dimensionally unstable sewing thread does not occur until the garment is

washed, wetted or given any other after treatment, such as permanent pressing

or hot box laundering. The study suggested that it is important to match

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performance rather than fibre content while selecting sewing thread for the

fabric.

Zorowski and Patel (1970) in their work defined “seam puckering as a

mechanical instability phenomenon”. In their theoretical analysis, it was

recommended that decrease of stitch length and use of fabric with greater

bending stiffness and increased extensibility, make seams free of pucker.

Nisihikawa (1979) suggested that ”when two plies of material are not fed

uniformly, the variations caused feed pucker. When the foot pressure on the

machine was too high, excessive friction would stretch the top ply and if the foot

pressure was too low, the foot would bounce, momentarily losing control of both

plies or when the operator stretched one ply more than the other while feeding

into the machine”.

Nisihikawa (1979) found difficult to insert threads in a fabric with very

little space between the yarns either warp or weft ways which results in the

extension of the fabric along the line of a seam. The term structural jamming of

the fabric or displacement pucker is given to this type of pucker because it

results directly from the act of jamming threads into a structure which is already

too closely set to accommodate them.

McGinnis (1984) explained that puckering was caused by feeding

mechanism when two plies of fabric, to be joined, were not fed uniformly

through the sewing machine or one ply was greater in length than the other.

Seam pucker occurred as both plies were obliged to conform to the fixed length

of the seam. Preventive methods suggested by study include setting of

pressure of the presser foot and selection of finer needle to avoid distortion of

the fabric during sewing.

A study carried by Naskano & Shimazaki (1984) aimed to analyze the

correlation of seam pucker with sewing machine settings. The profiles of

pucker near the seam line were photographed. The photographs showed that

the seam pucker consisted of two kinds of waves which were random and

35

periodic waves. The increase in stitch density and thread tension lowered the

frequency of the wave of pucker.

Another work on seam pucker by Schwartz (1984) reported geometrical

relationship between fabric and lockstitch seams in plain woven fabrics in

relation to structural jamming within the fabric. According to his research “the

effect of thread size, fabric structure, stitch count and yarn compression was

discussed”. He conformed the result of Taylor and Clark (1967) which indicated

that “if the thread size was fixed, the tendency to jam structurally increased

with increasing stitch count”.

Stylios and Lloyd (1990) These were correlated with the extent of pucker

which was categorized into severe, critical and acceptable seam pucker. The

thinner the fabric the more severe was the tendency to pucker. If the sewing

thread bending properties are higher than fabric bending stiffness, severe

pucker is expected to appear.

Investigation of Shishoo (1990) suggested a correlation between pucker

and properties of fabrics. He studied three seam types and 14 woven cotton or

cotton/polyester blend fabrics. Good correlation was found between seam

puckering and the logarithm of the product of bending stiffness, surface

roughness of the fabrics and tensile elongation which indicates the formability of

the fabrics.

According to Amirbayat & Miller (1991), seam pucker can occur either

during machining or during the use of the garment. A number of experiments

have been conducted to find out the reasons behind the occurrence of seam

pucker and their corresponding remedies. Incompatibility of the fabric

components in plies affects the balance, appearance and stability of the seam.

Incompatibility includes the use of two different types of fabrics as well as the

same fabric stitched at different bias angle of ply. As reported by Amirbayat

(1991) the incompatibility has a positive effect on extensibility and jammability

which in turn affects the seam appearance.

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Kawabata, Niwa and Nitta (1991) in their study “identified three reasons

which included inappropriate mechanical property of fabric, the relaxation

shrinkage of fabric and poor tuning of the sewing thread on account of which

seam puckering occurs. The experiments revealed that there is a clear

correlation between seam puckering and the mechanical property of the fabric

and the results of the experiment indicate that the puckering occurs easily in the

fabrics which are inextensible, highly elastic, stiff, inelastic in bending and

lightweight”.

Seam puckering due to post garment manufacturing processes were

studied by Riodel (1993). It was observed that when two fabric pieces having

different moisture content are sewn together and steam pressed, fabric surface

looses its flatness and elegance due to puckering.

Cheng et al (1996) reported overfeed in seams as one of the cause of

seam pucker. Blended fabrics were more vulnerable to puckering than 100%

cotton fabrics.

Research work carried out by Chopra (1998) on twenty different types of

fabrics and two types of sewing threads brought out the following major

findings:

- Fabrics made from man made filament fibers exhibited higher seam

pucker compared to fabrics made from spun yarns.

- Thick fabrics having medium to high cover and high tensile extensibility

have low seam puckering.

- Cotton fabrics irrespective of thickness gave low to medium pucker. The

man made filament fabrics gave higher level of pucker.

- The tension of the sewing thread during sewing is mainly released by the

lateral compression of thick fabrics and longitudinal compression (in-

37

plane) of thin fabrics. The former helped in reducing and latter in

enhancing the seam pucker.

According to Carr (2004), “the essential feature causing differential

pucker was the relative change in dimensions of upper and lower fabrics while

the seam was being made. Such changes occur if one of the fabrics was

dimensionally unstable while the other was not. In such cases, the seam was

perfectly flat and un-puckered as it leaves the machine but on subsequent

washing one of the fabrics may shrink more than the other. Carr (2004)

suggested that in order to reduce differential seam pucker, before choosing the

fabric for garment production, fabric should be tested for dimensional stability

and be subjected to washing process.

The study by Carr (2004) suggested that in a lockstitch sewing machine

two sewing threads which are used for making a seam have to operate under a

certain amount of tension in order to form a good stitch. The needle thread

operates at a much higher tension than the bobbin thread, since the upper

thread has to snatch lower thread up to form a loop between the back of the

seam, it requires considerable force. Thus the sewing thread enters the seam

in an extended state. When removed from the machine it tends to contract or

relax and recover to its original length, gathering up the seam, thus resulting in

a puckered seam. Carr (2004) & McGinnis (1984) suggested that to prevent

puckering tensions as light as possible should be set in order to maintain

consistently balanced stitch formation. The sewing machine should be in good

working order. Operator should be skillful in handling the sewing machine and

should not push or pull the fabric while sewing.

Aggarwal (2007) tried to find a means of predicting seam pucker in four

different types of fabrics ( Polyester, cotton and polyester cotton blended in

different percentage fabrics) by investigating the effect of fabric type, needle

size, stitch per inch and needle bobbin thread tension for single and double

needle lockstitches. From the study it was found that -

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- For polyester filament yarn fabric with both single and double needle

lockstitch, the extent of seam pucker is less when finer needle size is

used in combination with low stitch per inch with low to medium thread

tension.

- For polyester cotton blended fabric, in case of single needle lockstitch, it

was observed that the extent of seam pucker is less at low stitch per inch

and low thread tension. Needle size has no effect on seam pucker. In

case of double needle lockstitch, all the three variables did not show any

effect on seam pucker.

- For 100% cotton fabric, the effect of all the three variables was quite

negligible in case of single needle lockstitch whereas for double needle

lockstitch, the needle size, stitch per inch and thread tension did not

have any effect on seam pucker.

2.2.1.1.2 FACTORS INFLUENICING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEAM PUCKER

According to Gaur et al (2006) there are a lot of factors which effect

different types of seam pucker.

Fabric type

Fabric type is responsible for 10% to 20% of all cases of seam pucker.

Following fabric properties are possible sources of pucker.

i. Fabric thickness - More thick fabric means more consumption of thread

which ultimately means better elastic characteristic to the seam, which

results in reducing the relaxation pucker.

ii. Fabric extensibility - Seams running parallel to the warp direction of fabrics

tend to cause relaxation pucker because fabric yarns are in more stretched

position in warp than weft.

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iii. Differential fabric shrinkage - Different fibers react differently due to change

in atmospheric conditions which results in relaxation pucker.

iv. Fabric surface characteristics - Fabric surface characteristics influence the

feeding mechanism during stitching and results in transportation pucker.

Sewing machine settings

Sewing machine setting is responsible for 20% to 30% of all cases of

seam pucker. Following machine settings are possible sources of pucker.

i. Bobbin and needle thread tension

ii. Lower thread winding

iii. Stitch length

iv. Presser foot pressure (adjustment and type)

v. Feed dog setting (height and number of teeth in feed dog)

vi. Throat plate (size and setting )

vii. Fabric feed mechanism

Sewing thread

Sewing thread is responsible for 10% to 15% of all cases of seam

pucker. Following characteristics of sewing threads are possible sources of

pucker

i. Elongation

ii. Friction

iii. Thread size

iv. Shrinkage

Sewing needle

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Sewing needle is responsible for approximately 10% of all cases of seam

pucker. The size and point of sewing needle are possible sources of pucker.

Other factors

Other factors such as seam type, pattern shape, interlining and operators

feeding skill may contribute to about 10% of all cases of seam pucker.

2.2.1.1.3 ASSESSMENT OF SEAM PUCKER

American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists (AATCC Test

Method-88B-2003). They consisted of photos of sewn materials with varying

seam pucker from 1 to 5 grades. The first strip being the worst and fifth being

the best. In using the photographic standards, three test seams were

compared with the standards by three observers under standardized conditions

which helped to level differences of opinion.

Chopra (1998) suggested to measure seam pucker objectively by

measuring the thickness of the seam. Thickness strain is the index of the extent

of pucker, high pucker will give high value of the thickness strain. Amirbayat et

al (1991) found that the correlation coefficient between the objective (thickness

strain) method and the subjective rating method for pucker was 0.749 which is

significant.

2.2.1.2 SEAM SLIPPAGE

According to Prakash (2006), in sewn fabrics the displacement of the

fabric yarns parallel and adjacent to the stitch line is known as seam slippage.

In ASTM Standard (1998), seam slippage is defined as partial or complete loss

of seam integrity manifested by yarn slippage parallel to or adjacent to the stitch

line.

Shivendra (2008) defined slippage of yarn as the sliding or shifting of

one set of thread (warp or weft) over the other, resulting in some sort of opening

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in the fabrics, under the influence of a load or tension lower than that which is

normally required to rupture the fabric itself. Webster & Laing (1998) reported

that seam slippage changes from a visual failure to a functional failure, when

the slippage continues the width of the seam allowance reduces and results in

seam tearing.

2.2.1.2.1 FACTORS AFFECTING SEAM SLIPPAGE

Seam slippage may occur in a garment because of various factors described

below –

2.2.1.2.1.1 FABRIC PROPERTIES - According to Mahanta (2006), Solinger

(1989), Gupta (1992) and Krasteva (2008), various fabric properties effect seam

slippage.

Fabric thickness - The actual compression that a fabric is capable of is

directly related to its resistance to seam slippage. The seam slippage

decreases with the increase of fabric thickness.

Type of fiber/yarn - A smooth yarn moves readily over other yarns. Continuous

filament yarns in particular are very slippery and can produce fabrics which are

highly susceptible to seam slippage.

Weave - Different methods of interlacement of yarns influence the fabric

structure. Loosely woven fabrics allow yarns to move freely and are most

susceptible to seam slippage.

Crimp ratio - If warp and weft threads are crimp free or have very less crimp,

then seam sewn at right angles to this direction may be susceptible to seam

slippage.

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Finish Applied - A lubricant or softener applied to the fabric may allow yarns

within the fabric to move more freely and result in seam slippage.

Diameter of Yarn- Diameter of yarn affects seam slippage.

2.2.1.2.1.2 THREAD - The properties of thread which affect seam slippage are

fiber content, count of yarn, tensile strength, elongation, smoothness, thickness,

twist and thread finish. Thread with low surface friction will not resist seam

slippage as compare to thread having higher surface friction.

2.2.1.2.1.3 NEEDLE - The quality of a seam is also governed by the

appropriate selection of the sewing needle which in turn has to be compatible

with the sewing thread and fabric. Correct size of needle and point of needle is

essential for good sewing performance and to avoid seam slippage (Rao,

2006).

2.2.1.2.1.4 MACHINE SETTING - To ensure the production of high quality

garments it is essential that correct machine setting to be use while sewing. It is

important to adjust the following machine settings upper and lower thread

tension, stitch density, presser foot presser, feed dog setting, throat plate and

type of seam.

2.2.1.2.1.5 SEAM ALLOWANCES - Seam allowances refers to the area

between the stitching row and cut edge of the fabric. Increasing the width of the

seam allowance was found to decrease slippage (Chuter, 2004).

2.2.2 HEALTH RELATED PROBLEMS

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Health and Safety of the employees are important aspects of an

organization‟s smooth and effective functioning. Garment workers contribute a

major share of the total labor force in the country, which bring most of the

country‟s foreign currency.

According to Armstrong (1982) occupational health hazards are related

to work environment. The first and the most common cause is the harmful

character of materials that they handle while the second cause may be related

to certain motions and postures of the body, due to which the structure of the

machine is so impaired that diseases gradually occur. According to Nag (1996)

“mismatch between man and machine is one of the major factor contributing to

musculoskeletal problems. This may be mainly due to the attempts made by the

workers to „fit the man to the job‟ rather than to „fit the job to the man”.

The reasons for establishing good occupational health and safety

standards identified by Gupta (2008) are moral, economic and legal.

2.2.2.1 EFFECT OF WORK ENVIRONMENT & CONDITIONS ON

WORK PERFORMANCE OF WORKERS

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Since every manufacturer wants to increase the productivity of his unit

with the limited resources, it is essential to consider the working environment as

an important factor in productivity.

2.2.2.1.1 Temperature and Humidity

As reported by Bheda (2004) discomfort produced by exposure to

conditions outside the thermal comfort zone can deteriorate the performance

sharply. Fanger (1979) indicated that the temperatures between 19° C to 26° C

are generally considered comfortable, provided that the humidity is not high.

According to Rodgers (1980) the comfort zone for relative humidity lies between

35 to 65 percent.

Set of guidelines from the American Conference of Governmental

Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH, 1992) give examples of the moderate balance

between rest periods and work at various temperatures for light, moderate and

heavy work in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Recommended temperatures at various work rest period and percentage in relation to type of work

Work/rest periods Light work Moderate work Heavy work

Continuous work 30 26.70 25.01

25% rest 75% work: 30.62 28.00 25.90

50% rest 50% work: 31.41 29.44 27.89

75% rest 25% work: 32.21 31.12 30.03

Rodgers (1980) depicted that there are six main factors which influence

intensity of feeling hot or cold. These include temperature, moisture, heat, air

speed, physical activity, clothing and other factors.

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According to set of guidelines from (ACGIH, 1992), “for workers in the

industry, too much heat can result in the following health and safety problems” (

Table 2.2) (www.ccohs.ca).

Table 2.2 Health and safety problems due to excessive heat

Safety

Health

Fatigue and dizziness Heat stress/strain (distress)

Sweating palms (become slippery) Heat cramps

Fogging of safety glasses Heat exhaustion/heat stroke

Possible burns Heat exhaustion/heat stroke

Lower performance/alertness Heat rash (prickly heat)

Increased irritability

Fainting (syncope)

It is not only essential to provide a comfortable temperature inside the

factory, but it is essential to ensure an adequate supply of fresh air; removal of

stale air and prevention of any build up of contaminants (dust, spot cleaning

chemicals etc).

2.2.2.1.2 Noise

The relationship between environmental and individual factors with job

satisfaction and psychological strain symptoms were studied by Jana (2008).

Results among a group of workers in an office revealed that disturbance in work

performance due to noise were greater especially when the estimated noise

level was higher. Symptoms of subjective strain were associated with poor

ergonomics of the worksite and sudden loud noises in the work environment.

Anantharaman & Subha (1980) observed during study that more energy

was used by the subjects during work, which was indicated by measures of

oxygen consumption and muscle action potential. It was also observed that

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some people complained of annoyance at high level of noise. It was

emphasized that different people are affected differently by the same noise.

Dugdill (2000) reported that people in noisy environment suffer from lack of

sleep, irritability, severe tension, mental illness, annoyance, anxiety, tension

and sudden unexpected shocks. Grandjean (1988) remarked that most harmful

effects of noise are hearing impairment, irritability, disturbed sleep and

psychological stress interference, verbal communication and conversation.

Mehta (1977) noted that an individual spends more energy to perform a

particular job in presence of extreme noise level than in normal conditions.

Contrary to this, pleasant voice like music aided the subjects by decreasing

tension, frustration and conflicts of the tasks. The subject‟s anxiety level

decreased during task performance when the musical performance was played.

According to Suter (2011) a safe level of noise basically depends on two

things volume of the noise and the duration of exposure. The Table 2.3 gives

recommended limits of noise exposure for the number of hours exposed.

Table 2.3 Recommended limits of noise exposure along with exposed sound levels

No. of hours exposed Sound level dB

8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

1.5 102

1 105

0.5 110

0.25 or less 115

2.2.2.1.3 Lighting

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Lighting is a common source of complaint in modern garment

construction units where it can lead to the adoption of constrained postures

causing discomfort and visual fatigue. The term visible performance especially

in case of high skilled detailed work is used to indicate workers performance in

terms of speed, accuracy and probability of detection in their visual field (ISO

8995, 1989).

According to Light at Work (2002), in a garment factory the

recommended light intensity according to type of work for general tasks is 500

lux, for more detailed work 750 lux and for very fine work 1000 lux.

2.2.2.2 HEALTH RELATED ISSUES

2.2.2.2.1 Accidents and injuries

A study by Pandita (2004) found that accidents, both minor and major,

are common in the garment industry. The common accidents which took place

while operating the cutting machines were cutting of hand. Use of electrical

equipments such as band knife and straight knife cutting machines also lead to

number of accidents in the apparel industry. Injury at both index finger and

middle fingers was due to continuous use of cutting machine.

Mehta (2012) explained that in the sewing section, piercing of finger was

the most common type of injury at the time of stitching. The workers injured

their eyes while stitching since the broken needle flew into the eyes of the

worker. Accidents commonly occur in laundry section due to inadequate safety

system especially while washing and spin drying the garments. In ironing

section, numbers of cases were reported for burning of fingers and arms.

2.2.2.2.2 Illness and diseases

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The apparel industry is generally an industry which yields relatively little

environmental contamination via discharges into air, soil or water. However,

various illnesses and diseases were widespread among the garment workers.

According to Parimalam (2006), in cutting section the maximum number of

workers suffered from vibration induced syndrome and respiratory problems.

Besides this headache, skin problem, hearing and visual discomfort were also

reported. Breathing difficulty due to dust and loose fibers in the cutting section

caused allergies. Cornification of skin at fingers because of excessive use of

shears, leads to swelling of fingers.

Mehta (2012) mentioned that in stitching section majority of workers

complained about neural problem such as headache, respiratory, skin problem,

numbness of hands and fingers, hearing and visual discomfort. It was also

observed that the machines were not properly maintained resulting in arm

vibrations. This led to fatigue, pain, numbness, headache and tingling of fingers

and arms. In this study high levels of noise had been observed in most of the

units engaged in the garment construction specially sewing department.

The study by Mehta (2012) indicated that in case of finishing section,

most of the workers suffered from skin problems, visual discomfort, neural

discomforts, respiratory discomfort and hearing problem. In the finishing

section, the workers had to work really fast. In the washing section, the workers

were exposed to chemicals, particularly bleaches and detergents and were not

aware of their health hazards leading to skin allergies. In the quality section,

there was a lot of stress on the eyes leading to headache and visual discomfort.

Working in humid conditions because of steam ironing, the workers had

respiratory problems such as asthma and breathing difficulty. Also due to

excessive noise the workers had a common problem of hearing.

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Mehta (2012) indicated that the crowded conditions in the textile and

apparel industry created favourable conditions for transmission of

communicable diseases. In particular, TB tuberculosis had been a recurrent

public health issue among workers in the apparel industry.

2.2.2.2.3 Musculoskeletal disorder

Apparel manufacturing is a labor-intensive assembly line process,

requiring significant amounts of repetitive, skilled manipulation. According to

Grandjean (1988), “work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are

impairments of body structure. Most work related MSDs are cumulative

disorders, resulting from repeated exposures to high or low intensity loads over

a long period of time”.

According to Kilbom et al, (1988) “work-related musculoskeletal

disorders mentions a wide range of inflammatory and degenerative diseases

and disorders that result in pain and functional impairment”. According to

Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (2012), musculoskeletal injuries

may be caused or aggravated by repetitive motions, vibration, forceful work,

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compression, sustained or awkward postures or action or any other ergonomic

stressors. Work-related MSI tend to happen when the physical action, job,

movement or job exceeds the body‟s tissue tolerance. To reduce the risk of a

work-related MSI or minimize the discomfort of an existing MSI, employers

should make modifications or changes in the workers workstations, equipment,

tools, work practices, work rate, body movements and provide worker training.

A study conducted by Mehta (2012) analyzed “the types and extent of

occupational health hazards of the garment workers of Jaipur”. Results of study

showed that respondents were suffering from a lot of problems like headache,

musculoskeletal disorders and eye strain. The workers in cutting room had

discomfort at neck, shoulder and back as they had to lean forward on cutting

table. In stitching section majorities of workers had back problem followed by

stiffness at neck and shoulder. In the finishing section, the workers complained

for the leg pain, followed by shoulder and back pain. The main stress factors

were identified as repetitive movements and noisy environment.

Grandjean (1985) concluded through survey that 70% of sewing

machine operators using foot controls reported back pain, 35% reported

persistent lower back pain, 81% reported pain at wrist, 14% reported disorder at

elbow, 5% at shoulder and 49% of workers experienced neck pains. It was

found that absenteeism increased as working conditions worsened. Due to

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injuries workers were lost. In an industry turnover was related with working

conditions.

Wang (2007) started “research with an aim to assess the contribution of

work-organizational and personal factors to the prevalence of work related

musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among garment workers in Los Angeles”. He

concluded that “the prevalence of moderate or severe musculoskeletal pain in

the neck or shoulder region was in 24% sewing machine operators. Prevalence

of upper body pain was associated with age, gender, being single and having a

diagnosis of systemic illness. Other factors responsible for pain were found as

working for more than 10 years as a sewing machine operator, using a single

sewing machine, higher work–rest ratios, high physical exertion, high physical

isometric loads, high job demand and low job satisfaction”.

The study of 216 workers conducted by Parimalam (et al) (2006) in 18

garment manufacturing units located in Madurai city revealed that there had

been several gaps in work environment, tools and equipment that affect the

health and safety of workers at the work site. Result showed that due to

excessive bending, a majority of workers complained of pain in the lower back,

mid back, shoulders and neck.

Characteristic of working population revealed that there was a general

increase in the rate of back pain as tenure at work increased (Blader, 1991).

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According to Kumar and Narayan (1998) prolonged sitting led to swelling of the

lower extremities and caused musculoskeletal problems in the long term.

Signs and Symptoms of MSD

Signs and symptoms of an injury developing appear suddenly or

gradually over a longer period.

A sign can be observed, such as: A symptom can be felt, but cannot be

observed, such as:

- swelling

- redness

- difficulty moving a body part

- numbness

- tingling

- pain

(www.PreventionPractices.com/msd.html)

These injuries are easier to treat if they are discovered early.

2.2.2.3 Significance of Breaks

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According to (HSE book, 2002) “Workers who perform static or repetitive

work should take frequent breaks to ensure that muscular fatigue does not

reduce performance or adversely influence health”.

Rohmert (1973) found “ the benefits from short rest breaks. He found

that short rest breaks did not compromise a workers adaptation to work”.

2.2.2.3 Task variation

According to Kumar and Narayan (1998) “task variation covered factors

as postural change during work, changes in task characteristics as well as

breaks and breaks that included an exercise regime or a variation in posture

from that when working”.

Galinsky et al. (2007) concluded that “introducing exercise breaks (or

conventional breaks) is an additional way of increasing „variation‟ in the job,

which does not require work tasks to be reallocated among workers”.

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2.2.2.4 Impact of Postures

According to Lock and Colford (2005) posture is defined as the relative state of

orientation of different parts in the space. A person while doing work acquires

many kinds of postures but they broadly classified as seating, standing and

lying down.

Grandjean (1988) indicated that “incorrect standing and sitting posture

were sometimes accompanied by pains in muscles and connective tissues of

tendons, joint muscles and ligaments. The vast majority of injuries could be

attributed to specific faulty movements and awkward postures which caused

fatigue, inflammation of muscles or tendons, compression or entrapment of

nerves as well as pain or weakness in the upper limbs and neck”.

Grandjean (1988) described that “it seemed likely that there was a direct

relationship between the increase in the problems of backaches and long hours

of sitting. Sitting posture caused the abdominal muscle to shrinking and curved

the spine in addition to impairing the function of internal organs, particularly

those of digestion and respiration”.

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Dababneh et al. (2001) described that “bad seating posture or seating

with a hunched back resulted in the intervertebral tissue being compressed.

Excessive musculoskeletal stress at work, especially with static load is believed

to play a major role in low back pain, neck and shoulder. The forward bending

of head with no support on the lower part of spine with the arms in lifted position

was a common posture that led to several injuries. All this leads to a significant

drop in performance and in the long run it may result in serious health

problems”.

According to the literature given in CCOHS

(http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics),. To maintain neutral body

posture while working at the workstation it was suggested to align ears,

shoulders and hips straight. Beside this, it was also suggested to keep the soles

of feet flat on the floor or a footrest while sitting.

2.2.2.5 Effects of exercise

Lock and Colford (2005) “investigated the benefits of exercise at work

and referred to different types of exercises. They categorized exercises into four

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main types as limbering up exercises, exercises for general health and fitness,

exercises for rehabilitation and exercising to reduce fatigue”.

Omer et al, (2003/2004) also carried out a study “on the effectiveness of

training and exercise programs in the management of MSDs. In the study they

trained the participants in mobilization, stretching, strengthening and relaxation

exercises. Study revealed these exercises reduced experiences of MSD, pain

and depression levels within participants”.

2.2.2.6 Role of Ergonomics

Das & Sengupta (1996) defined ergonomics as the study of the

relationship between a person and his work environment. In other words

ergonomics is called as science of designing the job, equipment, and workplace

to fit the worker. The objective is to adapt the workplace for the worker in order

to decrease the risk of injury and improve the link between the workers and

their environment. Ergonomics can help manufacturers and industrial engineers

to get maximum work output without causing physical harm to workers.

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According to Galinsky et al. (2007) ergonomics had emerged as a

current issue because it showed the link between certain types of injuries and

the way people performed their jobs. The study suggested that by improving

ergonomic conditions productivity and safety also improved.

The results of the study conducted by Parimalam (2006) revealed that

there had been several gaps in work environment, tools and equipment that

affect the health and safety of workers at the work site. Due to improper

selection of lighting fixtures and their placements, the efforts made to improve

the levels of illumination had failed to give the desired results at the point of

operation.

According to Das & Sengupta (1996), a little understanding of the

principles of ergonomics, can save a lot of discomfort and maximize both

productivity and enjoyment. The study suggested ergonomic principles that

should be followed at workplace. The first principle is to use proper machines or

equipments. Other principles are to minimize repetitive motions, avoid awkward

postures, use safe lifting procedures and to get proper rest.

The review of literature concluded that garment industry is a profitable

industry. In Indian context the manufacturers are facing a lot of challenges

during construction of garments and also health related issues. Reviewing of

existing literature revealed that the studies on garment construction especially

58

of delicate fabrics were mainly in the developed country and only few studies

were carried in India. Therefore, the present study is an attempt to fulfill this gap

by making an extensive investigation in this area in Indian context.