chapter - ii review of related...
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CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
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CHAPTER-a
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction:
In the previous chapter the importance of education, the importance of
advance organizer model, scope of the study, statement of the problem,
objectives of the study, variables, hypothesis, definition of technical terms and
an overview of the study were presented. In this chapter a brief review of
studies related to advance organizer model are presented.
Whatever may be the field of research, science, humanities, fine arts or
any other field of knowledge, an up-to-date through knowledge of published
literature of the field gives the researcher an insight into unsolved problems in
the field and time opens the door for their solution. Since effective research is
based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate duplication of what has
been done earlier and provide usefiil hypotheses and help suggestions for the
investigation (Best and Khan - 1993). In order to be fully creative and original,
a research worker must read extensively and critically the related literature to
his field of research. Therefore, Good, Barr and Scates rightly write, "The key
to the vast store house of published literature may open doors to sources of
significant problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpfiil
orientation for a defmition of the problem background for solution of procedure
and comparative data for interpretation of results".
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2.1 Importance of reviews in Related Literature:
Literature review in a research study accomplishes several purposes.
a. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely
related to the study being reported (Fraenkal and Wallen, 1990).
b. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature
about topic, filling gaps and extending prior studies (Marshal and
Rossman, 1989).
c. It provides a fi-amework for establishing the importance of the study,
as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with
other findings.
Other Benefits of Literature Reviews are
• A literature review at the proposal stage provides a good
knowledge of field of inquiry, what the facts are who the eminent
scholars are and which ideas, theories, questions and hypothesis
seem important. In other words, it provide ideas, theories,
explanation or hypotheses valuable in formulating the problem.
• The review can give an idea of what methodologies are most
often used, the methodology appropriate for the proposed
research, and when and how these ideas successfiiUy used in the
field.
• Literature review often helps to narrow a problem. Nothing
overwhelms one like getting in to literature of a field of study.
There seems to be no end to information and to interesting off
shoots that might be pursued with profit.
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• Guiding the researcher on focusing the objectives of the study.
• Understanding research trends over the years in order to identify
the thrust areas.
• Identifying research issues and concerns that have surfaced time
and again.
• Identifying gaps in research efforts.
• Avoiding dupHcation of efforts while appreciating the need for
replication of studies/results.
• Identifying converging understandings / insights and diverging /
controversial / unresolved issues and concerns.
• Understanding methodological issues in addressing the problems
including techniques, tools and analysis of data.
A number of research studies have been conducted in the area of model-
based teaching. This chapter presents summaries of such studies.
2.2 Some Important Related Reviews:
For better cognizance, it would be wise to review the related literature
under different headings. The reviews have been gathered through primary
sources, database and Internet. The related literature on the study is reviewed
under the following two sections.
Section - A: Studies Related to Teaching Models in India.
Section - B: Studies Related to Teaching Models in Foreign.
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Section- A
2.2.1. Studies Related to Teaching Models in India:
Advance Organizer Model took shape with the work of David.P.Ausubel
in his theory concept meaningfulness.
Battacharya, Gopal Chandra (1985) compared the effectiveness of teaching
geography through Concept Attainment Model and Inductive Thinking Model
in relation to institutional resources.
The findings of the study indicated that Inductive Thinking Model emerged as
the best suitable model for all types of institutions. High ERIS institution
groups showed better achievement irrespective of the models and concept types
than the low ERIS ones. There was no observable combined interaction effect
between EIRS, models of teaching, types of concepts taught and achievement.
Passi, B.K., Singh, L.C. and Sansanwal, D.N.(1985) conducted a study on
models of Teaching-Developing Training Strategy.
The objectives were
(i) to study the effectiveness of training in the Concept Attainment
Model (CAM) in terms of, (a) understanding of, and (b) reaction
towards the model,
(ii) to study the effectiveness of training in the Inquiry Training Model
(ITM) in terms of, (a) understanding of, and (b) reaction towards the
model,
(iii) to study the resultant willingness of teacher educators to implement
the models in teacher education programmes, and
(iv) to develop a strategy of training in Models of Teaching.
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The hypotheses were:
(1) At the end of training in CAM, teacher educators will have greater
understanding of the model.
(2) The teacher educators will have favorable reaction towards the model as
a result of the training.
(3) At the end of the training in ITM, the teacher educators will have greater
understanding about the model.
(4) The teacher educators will have favorable reactions towards the model
as a result of training.
(5) Willingness to implement the two models, CAM and ITM, will be
developed in teacher educators as a result of training.
A purposive sample of 45 teacher educators was taken as subjects of the
study. The teacher educators were invited to attend an eight- day workshop on
Models of Teaching held at Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, in April
1985. The subjects represented 25 institutions from nine states and five union
territories. The single group pretest-post-test design was employed in the study.
The treatment comprised orientation in the theory of model, a lesson plan
guide, and a teacher analysis guide through lectures and discussion. This was
followed by demonstration lessons and practice. The tools used were: Theory
check-up for CAM and ITM developed by Bruce Joyce and M. Weils at Indore,
Theory check-up for CAM and ITM developed at Indore, Reaction Scale for
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CAM and ITM, and Willingness Scale for implementation of models
developed for the study. The data were analyzed by computing mean, standard
deviation, coefficient of variation, and by employing t-test and chi-square test.
The findings were:
1. Training in CAM did bring significant favorable change in teacher educators'
reactions towards CAM.
2. The level of understanding of CAM did not influence teacher educators'
reactions towards CAM.
3. Training in CAM in the form of lecture, demonstration, discussion and peer
practice plus feedback did enhance the understanding of teacher educators'
theoretical aspects of CAM.
4. Training in ITM in the form of lecture, demonstration, discussion and peer
practice, plus feedback did enhance the understanding of teacher educators'
theoretical aspects of ITM.
5. Training in ITM did bring about favorable reactions of teacher educators
towards ITM.
6. The understanding of ITM did not influence teacher educators' reactions
towards ITM.
7. The teacher educators were willing to implement models of teaching in the
teacher education programme if a support system was available.
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8. The training strategy comprising theoretical discussion, demonstration, and
peer practice plus feedback was found effective in terms of developing
understanding, favorable reactions and willingness to implement models of
teaching in a teacher training programme.
Buddisagar (1986) Studied on "Development and comparison of instructional
material developed by using Advance Organizer Model for teaching
Educational Psychology to B.Ed., students".
His findings were as follows, instructional material based on Advance
Organizer Model as well as Operant conditioning model were significantly
superior to the traditional method.
The instructional material based on operant conditioning model and that
based on Advance Organizer Model were effective in terms of achievement of
students in different criterion tests and reaction of students.
Panda (1986) Determined "The Effectiveness of Advance Organizer and
traditional method of teaching on the achievement of 9* grade pupils".
His findings were
The difference between the mean achievement of pupils studying
through AO, set induction and traditional method were effective.
Senapathi (1986) Studied, "Comparative study of Programmed learning
material, Advance Organizer Model and Traditional method in terms of
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achievement of students studying through them and effect of personality factors
on achievement".
He found out that the Advance Organizer Model was effective than both
programmed learning material and traditional method in terms of achievement
of students on criterion test.
Pandey, S.N. (1986) "Effectiveness of Advance Organizer and Inquiry
Training Models for Teaching Social Studies to Class VIII Students".
The objectives of the study were
(i) to compare the effect of the Advance Organizer Model, Inquiry
Training Model and Conventional Teaching in terms of pupils'
achievement in social studies,
(ii) to compare the effect of the Advance Organizer Model, Inquiry
Training Model and Conventional Teaching in terms of pupils'
attitude towards social studies, and
(iii) to study the pupils' reactions towards the Advance Organizer Model
and Inquiry Training Model.
The tools used in the study for collecting data were: 1. Samanya Mansik
Yogyata Parikshan by M.C. Joshi, 2. Socio-Economic Status Index Scale by
R.P. Varma, and P.C. Saxena, 3. Uplabdhi Parikshan by the researcher, 4.
Samajik Adhyan Ke Prati Chhatra Abhivritti Talika by the researcher, and 5.
Shikshan Ke Prati Chhatra Pratikriya Suchi by the researcher.
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A purposive sampling technique was used in the study. The final sample
comprised 86 students of class VIII. Two experimental groups formed Advance
Organizer Model group and Inquiry Training Model group consisted of 29 and
28 students respectively. The control group consisted of 29 students. All the
students included in the sample were boys in the age group of 13-14 years.
ANOVA, t-test and chi- square test were used for drawing conclusions.
The major findings were:
1. The treatments had different effects on the pupils' achievement.
2. The difference in means of gain scores in achievement due to Advance
Organizer and Conventional Teaching was significant at the 0.05 level.
3. Difference due to Inquiry Teaching Model and Conventional Teaching was
significant at the 0.01 level and the difference due to Advance Organizer
Model and Inquiry Training Model was not significant.
4. There was no significant difference between the Advance Organizer Model
and the Inquiry Training Model, Advance Organizer Model and Conventional
Teaching, and Inquiry Training Model and Conventional Teaching, in terms of
pupils' attitude towards social studies.
5. Pupils reacted favorably towards the Inquiry Training Model and Advance
Organizer Model.
Buddhisagar, M.(1987) conducted a study on Development and Comparison
of Instructional Material Developed by Using Advance Organizer Model and
Operant Conditioning Model for Teaching Educational Psychology to B.Ed. a
Students"
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The objectives were
(i) to develop two types of instructional material, namely, material based
on the Advance Organizer Model and the Operant Conditioning Model
for teaching educational psychology to BEd students and to study their
effectiveness in terms of achievement of students on criterion tests and
reaction of students towards the instructional materials,
(ii) to compare the achievement of students who have studied through the
instructional material based on the Advance Organizer Model and
Operant Conditioning Model and those taught through traditional
methods by taking intelligence as covariate,
(iii) to study the effect of treatment, intelligence, attitude towards teaching
profession and their interactions on overall achievement of students,
(iv) to study the effect of treatment, intelligence, creativity and their
interactions on overall achievement of students,
(v) to study the effect of treatment, personality, creativity, and their
interactions on overall achievement of students,
(vi) to study the effect of treatment, attitude towards teaching profession,
personality, and their interactions on overall achievement of students,
(vii) to study the effect of treatment, attitude towards teaching profession,
creativity, and their interactions on overall achievement of students,
(viii) to study the change in reaction of students towards Programmed
Learning Material (PLM) and Advance Organizer Material (AOM)
separately, and
(ix) to study the students' reaction towards PLM and AOM separately with
respect to their levels of intelligence, creativity, personality and attitude
towards the teaching profession.
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The study was carried out at two stages. At the first stage the
instructional materials were developed. For this, 109 BEd students admitted
during the 1983-84 academic session in the University Teaching Department of
Education, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, were taken. The sample for
the second stage comprised 139 students admitted during the 1985-86 academic
session in the University Teaching Department of Education, Devi Ahilya
Vishwavidyalaya, Indore. These students were divided into three groups. The
study was designed on the lines of post-test only central group design. There
were three levels of treatment and three groups of students. The treatments
were randomly assigned to the three groups. Group I received the treatment of
linear PLM, group II received the treatment of AOM and group III was given
the treatment of traditional method. Four topics were taken up for
experimentation. These were learning, transfer of learning, memory and
forgetting, and mental health and adjustment. The achievement of students on
criterion tests and reaction of students towards instructional material
constituted the dependent variables. Attitude towards teaching profession,
creativity, extraversion introversion were the independent variables.
Intelligence was measured with the help of Advance Progressive Matrices
developed by Raven. Attitude towards the teaching profession was measured
by using the attitude scale developed by Katti and Bannur. The splithalf
reliability coefficient was 0.76 while self correlation of the scale in full length
was 0.96. The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (Figural form B) was
employed for measuring creativity. Its interscores reliability was 0.90. The
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relationship between scores on TTCT and measures of intelligence was 0.06 in
the case of figural creativity. The extraversion-introversion trait of personality
was measured with the help of the Maudsley Personality Inventory. Its split-
half reliability was 0.71 for neuroticism and 0.42 for extraversion.
Achievement was measured with the help of criterion tests developed by the
investigator. A Reaction Scale was also devel- oped by investigator for
measuring reaction towards PLM and AOM separately. The data were analysed
by computing mean, percentiles, and using 3 X 2 X2 factorial ANOVA with
unequal cell size followed by t-test and chi-square technique.
The findings were:
1. The instructional materials PLM and AOM were found to be effective in
terms of achievement of students on different criterion tests and reaction of
students.
2. The PLM as well as AOM were found superior to the traditional method, and
PLM and AOM were equally effective when students' mean achievement
scores were adjusted with respect to intelligence. On the other hand, when the
overall mean achievement score of students was not adjusted with respect to
intelligence, AOM was found to be superior to PLM. But AOM as well as PLM
were superior to the traditional method.
3. Intelligence was found to affect significantly the overall achievement of
students. Highly intelligent students were found to achieve high.
4. Attitude towards the teaching profession did not affect significantly the
overall achievement of students.
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5. There was no significant effect of creativity on overall achievement of
students.
6. There was no significant effect of personality on overall achievement of
students.
7. There was a significant effect of interaction between treatment and
intelligence on overall achievement of students. Further it was found that low
intelligent students could be taught effectively with the help of AOM.
8. There was no significant effect of interactions between treatment and attitude
towards teaching profession, treatment and creativity, treatment and
personality, intelligence and creativity, creativity and personality, attitude
towards teaching profession and personality, attitude towards teaching
profession and creativity, between treatment, intelligence and attitude towards
teaching profession, between treatment, intelligence and creativity, between
treatment, attitude towards teaching profession and personality, between
treatment, attitude towards teaching profession and creativity, between
treatment, creativity and personality on overall achievement of students.
9. There was significant effect of interaction between intelligence and attitude
towards teaching profession on overall achievement of students. Further it was
found that, as the degree of favorable attitude towards teaching profession
decreased, the overall achievement of high intelligent students increased
sharply while that of low intelligent students decreased sharply.
10. Students belonging to different levels of intelligence, creativity,
extraversion-introversion dimensions of personality and attitude towards
teaching profession had equally favorable reactions towards PLM as well as
AOM.
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Sushma (1987) investigated the effect of Concept Attainment Model (CAM)
and Biological Science Inquiry Model (BSIM) for teaching biological sciences
on achievement and attitude to science and also compared their effectiveness.
Both the models were found be effective. The CAM was found to be more
effective when compared with BSIM and BSIM found to be more effective
than conventional teaching with reference changing the attitude favorably and
improving their achievement level.
Kaushik.N.K (1988) has investigated the long term effect of Advance
organizers on achievement in Biology in relation to reading ability, intelligence
and scientific attitude of the learners. It was found that the general introduction
or an overview, which generally precedes learning material, is less effective
when compared to Advance organizers.
Sau, T. (1988) conducted a critical review of some researches on Information
Processing Model of teaching. The findings of the study indicated that most of
the studies were unidimensional, although the concept was multidimensional.
Baveja. B (1989a, 1989b) conducted two comparative studies to investigate
the effectiveness of Concept Attainment Model with Taba's Inductive Thinking
Model in regard to concept learning in biology and also analyzed the thinking
strategies used by the learners. The two studies had different sample population
and elaboration. The findings of both the studies support the role of inductive
thinking processes in the process conceptualization and generalization.
Chaudhary, K. (1989) investigated and found that the teaching skills and
competence developed among student teachers through the use of Concept
Attainment Model (CAM) are easily transferable in other teaching situations,
besides the teaching of concepts. This study also recommended the use of
CAM technique to develop the teaching skills.
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Singh, Ajit (1990) conducted a study to find out the relative effectiveness of
the following different training strategies in the training of student teachers in
the model of teaching - AOM
Training Strategy I - presentation of theory, followed by whole
demonstration and discussion,
Training Strategy II - presentation of theory, followed by phase-wise
demonstration and discussion,
Training Strategy III - presentation of demonstration, followed by
presentation of theory, followed by phase-wise
demonstration and discussion.
The effectiveness of these strategies was studied in terms of theoretical
understanding competency in the model and reaction towards the model. The
study also intended to study the effectiveness of AOM in terms of specific
instructional effects.
Statistical techniques such as ANOVA, ANOCOVA and t-tests were
employed. The study reveals that the training strategy involving presentation of
demonstration followed by presentation of theory, followed by phase-wise
demonstration and discussion was found to be significantly more effective than
other strategies in terms of developing theoretical understanding of the AOM;
the training strategy involving presentation of the theory, followed by phase-
wise demonstration and discussion was found to be more effective than other
two strategies in terms of developing competence in the model; all student-
teachers trained through different training strategies developed favorable
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reactions towards AOM, and AOM was found to be effective in terms of
specific instructional effects.
Singh, D.K. (1990) investigated the effect of Inquiry Training Model and
Concept Attainment Model over traditional teaching methods for physical
sciences. It was found that both the models were equally effective in teaching
of physical science to class IX pupils.
Sood, K. (1990) conducted a comparative study on effectiveness of Advance
Organizer Model (AOM) and Concept Attainment Model (CAM) for
acquisition of language concepts in relation to cognitive style, intelligence and
creativity. It was found that CAM was more effective than AOM in teaching of
concepts in Hindi. Intelligence, creative levels and cognitive style were
redundant factors so far as the learning of concepts were concerned.
Gupta, S. (1991) conducted an experimental study on the effectiveness of
Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model (AOM) in developing teaching
competence of student teachers and their attitude towards teaching. It was
foimd that AOM was effective in developing teaching competence among
student teachers under simulated as well as classroom conditions.
Jamini (1991) took up a study with an objective to investigate the relative
effect of Advance Organizer Model (AOM) and Concept Attainment Model
(CAM) on conceptual learning efficiency and retention of chemistry concepts
in relation to divergent thinking. The findings indicated that although both
AOM and CAM were effective in fostering concept learning, the AOM was
comparatively more beneficial to pupils with high divergent thinking while
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CAM with low divergent thinking pupils. AOM was found to be more effective
than CAM in the retention of concepts irrespective of the level of divergent
thinking.
Kaur, R,P (1991) investigated the effectiveness of Bruner's Concept
Attainment Model (CAM) and Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model (AOM)
for teaching of economics to high and low achieving students across creativity
levels. It was found that for teaching of economics both the models are
effective and that AOM is more effective than CAM. The interaction between
teaching strategies, intelligence and creativity were not found to be significant,
Subudhi, Bhagavan (1991) conducted a study of the comparative efficiency of
different variations in the training strategy adopted for training through the
ITM of teaching in terms of performance on Theory checkup (TC); Teaching
Assessment guide (TAG) and Reaction Scale (RS).
This study also intended to find the feasibility of integrating training
through the ITM of teaching with the practice teaching programme and school
teaching in terms of student-teachers and pupils reactions.
The findings reveal that in theory orientation the two groups of student-
teachers were initially similar in their pre-test scores, but later on the
attainment of the experimental group was more than that of the control group,
i.e., the group in which demonstration was immediately followed by feedback
showed more gain on TAG than the group in which there existed a long
interval of time between demonstration and feedback. The findings also reveal
that students showed their reaction towards student-teacher rather than the
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model of teaching adopted by individual teacher. Secondly, students preferred
only those methods where there was not much noise or disturbance in the class.
Khan and Siddiqui (1992) reviewed the studies on effectiveness of Concept
Attainment Strategies. It came up with the findings that concept attainment
strategies were more effective over the traditional approach and attainment of
disjunctive concepts is more difficult than the attainment of conjunctive
concepts.
Mahajan (1992) took up a comparative study of effectiveness of two models
of teaching viz., Bruner's Concept Attainment Model (CAM) and Ausubel's
Advance Organizer Model (AOM) on teaching abilities of student teachers and
on achievement of students in various schools. It was found that the group
taught by CAM was superior to groups taught by AOM as well as the routine
method as far as the teaching ability of student teachers is concerned.
Panda B.B (1994) attempted to ascertain the effectiveness of Advance
Organizer Model (AOM) and Set Induction (SI) in enhancing learning retention
and transfer. The study intended to fmd the effect of AOM and Set induction
on learning of class IX, to compare the effectiveness of AOM and Traditional
Method "̂̂ and set induction and TM, AOM and Si on achievement and to
determine the influence of interaction between methods of instruction. Sex and
cntenon test. 4 - J 6 6 6 It was found that students studying through AOM and SI scored higher than
TM. There was no interaction between methods of instruction, sex and
immediate and delayed test, and there was no significant difference between
achievemen. of boys and girls. j S ^ f ^ a d r f S a r ^ ,
Singh, S.N (1994) in his study investigated the effectiveness of Inductive
Thinking Model (ITM) in comparison to Traditional Method (TM) of teaching
370 ^̂
economics to class XI. The study intended to study the effectiveness of ITM in
terms of achievement in economics as well as reaction of students towards
ITM, to compare ITM with TM in terms of achievement, inductive reasoning,
concept formation, higher mental ability in economics, scientific attitude and
creativity separately by considering intelligence, achievement motivation as co-
variables, to study the effect of treatment, sex and their interaction on the
dependent variables separately.
It was found that ITM was more effective compared to TM in terms of
achievement in economics and reaction towards ITM. Intelligence significantly
influenced the dependent variables. Interaction between treatment and sex
influenced the achievement. ITM was suitable for both male and female
students in teaching economics in comparison to traditional method.
Patnaik, Sabita.P and J.R Ugru (1994) conducted a study to know the effect
of teaching through Inquiry Training on achievement in biology with respect to
sex difference and different intellectual levels.
It was observed that there was a significant difference in all the objectives, i.e.,
knowledge, imderstanding, application and total scores of achievement in
biology among experimental and control groups. This shows that the inquiry
training was highly effective in achieving all the objectives of achievement on
biology. There was a significant improvement in the achievement of students
from pre-test to post-test, when they were taught by inquiry training method.
Irrespective of sex and intellectual levels the students achieved better in
biology when they were taught by ITM.
Ajatha Swamy (1995) compared the effectiveness of Inquiry Training Model
(ITM) and Conventional Method (CM) of teaching science in terms of
(i) developing science process skills (ii) fostering fluency, flexibility and
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originality components of creativity (iii) boosting curiosity and to investigate
the interaction between treatments and levels with reference to the dependent
variables.
It was found that ITM was more effective than CM in developing science
process skills for above average and below average groups. ITM was more
effective than CM in fostering fluency and originality components of creativity.
ITM was more effective than CM in boosting curiosity. It was also found that
the students sustained the skills developed, curiosity boosted and creativity
fostered through ITM of teaching science.
Naresh Kumar Gupta (1995) studied the relative effectiveness of some
Information Processing Models of teaching (i.e. Concept Attaiimient Model
(CAM), Inductive Thinking Model (IThM) and Inquiry Training Model (ITM)
on mental processes and attitudes towards science.
It was found that CAM was effective in developing reasoning ability, scientific
creativity whereas it could not foster inquisitiveness, persistency of problem
awareness among the students. Inductive Thinking Model promoted reasoning
ability, scientific creativity, problem awareness ability but could not bring
significant enhancement in inquisitiveness. ITM was effective in developing
reasoning ability, scientific creativity, problem awareness ability, however it
could not bring significant gain in inquisitiveness and persistency. CAM, ITM
and Inductive Thinking Model did not differ in effectiveness in terms of
enhancing reasoning ability or scientific creativity. ITM and Inductive
Thinking Model rated better than CAM in fostering problem awareness ability.
However Inductive Thinking Model and ITM did not differ in fostering seeing
the problem ability.
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Likhra (1996) conducted a study to compare the effectiveness of teaching
science through ITM and traditional method on the achievement in science.
The IQ was taken as co-variate.
The study reveals that ITM was more effective than traditional approach in
teaching of science. The reasons for this were fovmd to be a very active
participation by students while learning they tried to understand the problem,
formulate hypothesis, collecting data and testing hypothesis by asking
questions. They were conscious of their inquiry process and cooperative efforts
among the students enriched their thinking process.
Sivakumar and Prema (1996) conducted a study to find out the effectiveness
of ITM in learning biology at the secondary level. The study also intended to
develop packages on ITM for the topics Genetics, Ecology and Evolution and
apply these packages at the IX standard level to find out their effectiveness in
comparison with that of conventional approach.
The study reveals that Suchman's ITM was more effective than teaching with
conventional approach. This investigation also reveals that the ideas or
concepts should not be forced on the students mind rather concepts or ideas
must be developed through a natural way of scientific inquiry.
Rajindar Pal Kaul Sidhu (1997) conducted a study on transforming the
learning process through teaching models.
He found out that,
The achievement in concept learning occurring through teaching by
Bruner's Concept Attainment Model, Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model and
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Conventional method shows the significant difference and also there is a
significant independent effect of different teaching techniques on the scores of
subjects on criterion test for the attainment of concept in Economics of
Eleventh class students.
Kaur. H (1998) conducted a study on Inquiry training model in teaching social
studies.
The present investigation was an attempt to study the effectiveness of
two teaching strategies; namely, Inquiry Training Model and Traditional
Method of teaching, for developing process skills in geography. This
experimental study was conducted on a sample of 480 female students of ninth
class. The statistical treatment in terms of t-values indicated that the students
who were taught through the Inquiry Training Model exhibited significantly
more achievement in developing process skills in geography as compared to
their counterparts who were treated through the Traditional Method of
teaching.
Rajindar Pal Kaul and Harvinder Kaul(1999) investigated the effectiveness
of Advance Organizer Model for teaching of concepts in Economics.
The results indicate that- there^ is a significant difference in the
effectiveness of Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model and traditional method of
teaching of concepts in Economics.
Anandi Martis (1999) took up an action research study to find the effect of
Desensitization Model of teaching on fears of adolescent boys of a local
school. It aimed at preparing lessons for sessions on Desensitization Model of
teaching and to find the effect of it on the scores of fears measured by the Fear
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Survey Scale. Action research methodology with a single group pretest-posttest
research design was used. It was found that the model of teaching helped in
reducmg fear.
Rajinderpal Kaur Sidhu and Parminder Singh (2005) investigated
"Comparative study of Concept Attainment Model, Advance Organizer Model
and Conventional method in teaching of Physics in relation to InteUigence and
Achievement motivation of Ninth class students".
The objectives of their study were
1. To study the effect of Bruner's Concept Attainment Model on
scholastic achievement as compared to conventional method of
teaching in physics in relation to intelligence and achievement
motivation;
2. To study the effect of Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model on
scholastic achievement as compared to conventional method of
teaching in Physics in relation to intelligence and achievement
motivation; and
3. To study the relative effectiveness of Bruner's Concept Attainment
Model and Ausbel's Advance Organizer Model on scholastic
achievement in Physics in relation to intelligence and achievement
motivation.
The Hypothesis of their study were
1. There is no significant difference in the efficacy of of Bruner's Concept
Attainment Model, Ausbel's Advance Organizer Model and
conventional method of teaching for learning of concepts in Physics;
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2. There is no significant independent effect of intelligence on the gain
scores of subjects for learning of concepts in physics;
3. There is no significant independent effect of achievement motivation on
the gain scores of subjects for learning of concepts in physics;
4. There is no significant interaction effect between various teaching
techniques, intelligence and achievement motivation (in gains) on
scholastic achievement for learning of concepts in physics.
The method and procedure used for their study were
In his study, 'pre-test post-test control group quasi - experimental
design' was employed. The statistical technique of 'three way analysis of
variance' (3x2x2) was used on gain scores for finding out the main effect and
interactional effect of teaching techniques, intelligence and achievement in
physics of ninth class students.
The tools used for their study were
Meenakshi's Socio-economic Status Scale, Jalota's Verbal group Test of
General Mental Ability, Achievement Motivation test of Pratiba Deo and Asha
Mohan, Lesson plans and a criterion test in Physics.
The findings of their study were
1. Bruner's concept attainment model and Ausubel's advance organizer
model were almost equally effective;
2. Bruner's concept attainment model was more effective than
conventional method of teaching; and •
3. Ausubel's advance organizer model was more effective than
conventional method of teaching.
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It was found that the students belonging to high level of intelligence had
better performance than the students belonging to low level of intelligence. The
variable of achievement motivation has no impact for learning of concepts in
physics. There was no significant interaction effect between various teaching
techniques, intelligence and achievement motivation.
Implications of the Study
The conclusions fi-om the study have important implications for day-to-day
classroom teaching. The results indicate that models approach to the teaching
of physics may be introduced for the benefit of the students. The textbooks of
science, especially physics, should also be modified accordingly. It is further
implied that pre-service and in-service teacher training programmes should
include training in models of teaching also. The models approach can be used
in day-to-day teaching to achieve various purposes. It makes the teaching
process interactive, lively and interesting. Both these models, Bnmer's Concept
Attainment Model and Ausubel's Advance Organiser Model, aim at improving
the teaching method and teaching-learning process. They do so because they
incorporate the essentials of verbal conditioning, that is, feedback or
reinforcement which have since been found to be very effective in teaching, as
well as, learning, especially, in the age group 14-25 years. As such, the two
models should be included in the B.Ed, curriculum so that the teacher trainees
could be made fully conversation with the use of these Models. The school
administrators, the guidance workers and students can take cue from the results
of the present study regarding the effect of the variables of intelligence and
achievement motivation considered singly and in conjoint situations so that the
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findings may be used with advantage for ensuring better achievement in case of
the learners.
Shamnad, N (2005) conducted a study on the effectiveness of Concept
Attainment Model on achievement in Arabic grammar of standard IX students.
The objectives of the study were
1. to prepare instructional materials for teaching Arabic Grammar in
standard IX based on Concept Attainment Model.
2. to find out the effectiveness of Concept Attaiimient Model in teaching
Arabic Grammar.
3. to compare the effectiveness of Concept Attainment Model with the
Conventional Method in teaching Arabic Grammar.
4. to compare the effectiveness of Concept Attainment Model with the
Conventional Method in teaching Arabic Grammar under the following
categories of objectives namely, knowledge, understanding and application.
Hypotheses formulated for the study were:
1. There is significant difference in Achievement of Arabic Grammar
between the IXth standard students taught using the Concept Attainment Model
and Conventional Method.
2. There is significant difference in Achievement of Arabic Grammar
between the IXth standard students taught using the Concept Attainment Model
and Conventional Method under the categories of instructional objectives
namely, knowledge, understanding and application.
Findings of the study were:
1. The Concept Attainment Model is more effective than Conventional
Method in teaching Arabic Grammar in standard IX.
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2. The Concept Attainment Model is more effective than Conventional
Method in teaching Arabic Grammar under the objective -Knowledge.
3. The Concept Attainment Model is more effective than Conventional
Method in teaching Arabic Grammar under the objective-Understanding.
4. The Concept Attainment Model is more effective than Conventional
Method in teaching Arabic Grammar under the objective -Application.
Vishwanath.H.N (2006) conducted a study on Comparative study of
effectiveness of models of teaching on the achievement of Xstd students in
environmental studies.
The main objectives of his study were
1. To compare the achievement of X std low, average and high SES
students m ES taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
2. To compare the achievement of X std students studying in schools with
low, average and high total school facilities in ES, taught through AOM,
ITM and NPM.
3. To compare the achievement of X std low, average and high total home
facilities in ES taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
4. To compare the achievement of X std boys and girls in ES taught
through AOM, ITM and NPM.
5. To examine whether any significant difference exists in the achievement
of various groups of students in total and subgroups thereof in ES to test
the feasibility of selected models.
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6. To examine whether any significant difference exists in the achievement
of students in ES exists when it is considered in total and for the sub
samples thereof in unit I and unit V in ES.
7. To examine whether any significant relationship exists between students
achievement and their (a) SES, (b) total home facilities and (c) sex.
The Hypothesis of his study were
1. There is no significant difference in the effectiveness of AOM, ITM and
NPM on the achievement of X std students in ES.
2. There is no significant difference in the achievement of X std low,
average and high SES students in ES taught through AOM, ITM and
NPM.
3. There is no significant difference in the achievement of X std students
with low, average and high total school facilities in ES taught through
AOM, ITM and NPM.
4. There is no significant difference in the achievement of X std students
with low, average and high total home faciUties in ES taught through
AOM, ITM and NPM.
5. There is no significant difference of X std boys and girls in ES taught
through AOM, ITM and NPM.
6. There is no significant difference in the achievement of students in ES
when it is considered in total and for the sub samples thereof in unit I
and unit V in ES.
7. There is no significant relationship between achievement of students in
ES with their a) SES, b) total home facilities and c) sex.
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The tools used for his study were
An Achievement test in Environmental studies (ES), Lesson Transcripts based
on AOM, Lesson Transcripts based on ITM, Unit tests in ES, Modified SES
scale (Rural), Students Home Facilities Infonnation Schedules (HFIS), School
facilities Information Schedules (SFIS), Teaching Analysis Guide for AOM
(TAG-AOM), Teaching Analysis Guide for ITM (TAG-ITM), Willingness
scale for teachers to implement models for experimentation. Reaction scale for
students for AOM and Reaction scale for students for ITM
The findings of his study were
1. ITM and AOM were found to be more effective than NPM; and ITM
was superior to AOM and NPM when students were taken in total
2. There is no significant difference in the achievement of low, average
and high SES students in ES when students are taken in total
3. The achievement of students with average total school facilities, taught
through ITM is higher than that of students with average total school
facilities, taught through AOM and students with high total school
facilities, taught through NPM
4. There is no significant difference in the achievement of students with
low, average and high total home facilities in ES
5. There is no significant positive correlation between achievement of
students in ES and their SES and total home facilities, whereas
achievement of students in ES has a significant positive correlation with
their 'sex' in two of the units and in total ES
6. All students of both experimental groups expressed their positive
opinion towards ITM and AOM models of teaching used in teaching ES
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7. The findings of case study analysis are consistent with the findings of
quantitative analysis. It is inferred following both quantitative and
qualitative analysis that:
a. Both ITM and AOM as models of teaching are quite effective in
promoting the achievement of students in ES and they are far
superior to NPM
b. Between ITM and AOM, ITM is more effective than AOM
c. The effects of moderator variables such as SES, TSF and THM is not
visible on the relationship between models of teaching (ITM and
AOM) and achievement of students in ES.
Raj Rani Aganval (2006) conducted a study on the effect of teaching
strategies in relation to Creativity on Conceptual Learning of class XI students
of commerce.
The Specific objectives of her study were
1. To compare adjusted mean learning scores of the students belonging to
Advance Organizer Model, Concept Attainment Model and
Conventional Method by taking Intelligence and Pre-test as covariates.
2. To compare adjusted mean learning scores of the students belonging to
Advance Organizer Model, Concept Attainment Model and
Conventional Method by taking Intelligence and Post-test as covariates.
3. To study the effect of treatment, creativity and their Interaction on
concept learning of students.
4. To study the effect of treatment, creativity and their Interaction on
concept retention of students.
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The Hypothesis of her study were
1. There is no significant difference between the adjusted mean learning
scores of the students taught through Advance Organizer Model and
Concept Attainment Model when compared separately with the
Conventional Method and also when inter-model comparison is made.
2. There is no significant difference between the mean learning scores of
the students belonging to high creative group and that students
belonging to low creative group when taught by Advance Organizer
Model, Concept Attainment Model and Conventional Method,
respectively.
3. There is no significant difference between the adjusted mean retention
scores of the students exposed to Advance Organizer Model and
Concept Attainment Model when compared separately with that of those
exposed to Conventional Method.
4. There is no significant difference between the adjusted mean retention
scores of the students exposed to Advance Organizer Model and that of
those exposed to Concept Attainment Model.
5. There is no significant difference between the mean retention scores of
the students belonging to high creative group and that of low creative
group when taught by Advance Organizer Model, Concept Attainment
Model and the Conventional Method respectively.
The tools used for her study were
1. Standard Progressive Matrices by J.C.Raven, to measure general
intelligence of the pupils.
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2. Baquer Mehdi's test of Creativity Thinking (verbal and non-verbal
tests). This test measures the creative potential in terms of fluency,
flexibility, originality and elaboration.
3. Concept Attainment test, to measure the knowledge, comprehension and
application of concepts in commerce. It was developed by the
investigator herself
The findings of her study were
1. The Advance Organizer Model and the Concept Attainment were found
more effective than the Conventional method in fostering concept
learning.
2. Concept Attainment model was found more effective than the
conventional method in the measure of concept retention.
3. There was no significant difference between the Advance Organizer
model and the Conventional method in the measure of concept retention
while both were found equally effective in the measure of concept
learning of class- XI students of commerce.
4. Advance Organizer model and Concept Attainment model were found
significantly different in the measure of concept retention while both
were found equally effective in fostering concept learning.
5. The high creative group showed better concept learning when taught by
Advance Organizer model.
6. Though t-ratios for all the teaching strategies, when intergroup
comparison was made, showed a non-significant result for the students
of low creative abilities yet the mean scores on learning outcomes for
low creative group was found maximum in Concept Attainment model,
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followed by low creative pupils in Advance Organizer model and
minimum in Conventional method group,
7. The mean learning scores for high creative group was found maximum
in Advance Organizer model, followed by high creative group in
Concept Attainment model and minimum in the conventional method.
8. The concept retention of the pupils was not significantly influenced by
their creative abilities. Rather it was significantly influenced by the
teaching strategies they were exposed to.
Sunila Bhalla Mehan, (2007) conducted a study on enhancing environmental
awareness of schoolchildren.
In the present article this approach has been adopted with certain
modifications. Here the teacher plays a pivotal role in the teaching learning
process of the classroom. Lesson plans have been prepared beforehand.
Objectives of the lesson in behavioural terms have been incorporated in the
plan. The teacher has attempted to evaluate the attainment of the knowledge by
the students at different stages of the lesson.
Objectives:
The present article was written with the following objectives in mind:
1. To provide every student with opportunities to acquire the knowledge
about the environment its protection and improvement.
2. To observe and create new patterns of behavior in the society for better
adjustment according to the environmental needs.
3. To foster a clear concept about economic, social, political and ecological
areas of environment.
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4. To help the individual to acquire skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems.
5. To develop scientific attitude, motivation and creativity towards
environment protection.
6. To compare and study the effects of Concept Attainment Model, Inquiry
Training Model and Traditional Model of Teaching on environmental
awareness of classes 6th, 7th and 8th through various subjects ~
language, social science and general science ~ in curriculum as
prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
Design - sample and tools of study:
The study comes under the experiment method of research. In this study
control group pretest-post test design was followed. Three groups of the
subjects work were considered. There were only girl students of elementary
classes ~ 6th, 7th, and 8th. Three sections were considered. Each section had
40 subjects. Two groups were treated as experimental groups and the third
group as control group. One of the two experimental groups was taught
environment related topics by Concept Attainment Model and the second group
was taught by Inquiry Training Model and the third group was taught by
Conventional Model (Traditional Model). The topics were selected from three
subject only ~ general science, social studies and English language. The
selected topics were concerned with the environment directly or indirectly.
Procedure of data collection:
After giving treatment to the subjects, the answer sheets for the
environment awareness achievement test were collected. The data of the study
77
was collected in two stages. In the first stage, data of initial behavior was
collected through environmental awareness (pre test) before the treatment. In
the second stage, after the termination of the treatment, it was the data of
terminal behavior of the sample again through environmental awareness
achievement (post test). Scoring was done and data was collected. Means and
standard deviations were calculated for three classes. Data was analyzed to see
the effect of experimental models of teaching on environmental awareness of
6th, 7th and 8th classes.
Results and finding:
Analysis of data revealed that pre test scores of three classes did not
differ much significantly in environmental awareness of initial behavior among
the three groups of the samples.
Observation of data of 6th class indicated that most significant change in
environmental awareness comes through Inquiry training model. The second
higher change comes by teaching the student in traditional model. The students
taught by concept attainment were least effected. Similarly, in case of 7th class,
inquiry training Model was the most effective, and then comes concept
attainment model and the least effective was traditional model. In case of class
8th the concept attainment model has affected the student most. The inquiry
training model of teaching has its place in increasing the environment
awareness and the traditional model comes at the last place. Thus we can say
that the three models of teaching have affected the students significantly
regarding environmental awareness. The inquiry training model has effected
the students most. Then comes the concept attainment model and the traditional
model comes the last in effectiveness.
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The effectiveness about environmental awareness through subjects like
general science, English and science studies is significant at elementary level.
General science has been most effective, and then comes language. Social
study occupies the third place.
Conclusions:
In the light of above results it is concluded that inquiry training model of
teaching has effected the student most. The concept attainment model has its
place in increasing the environment awareness of elementary students. The
students taught by traditional model have not shown any significant gain
regarding environment awareness.
Jagannath Dange., R.Praveen and Gangashree.G.V (2008) conducted a
study on effectiveness of Advance Organizer model in relation to Traditional
teaching of Biology.
The main objectives of his study were
1. To find the difference between the means of scores on pre-test in
Biology of experimental group and control group.
2. To find the difference between the means of scores on post-test in
Biology of experimental group and control group.
3. To find the difference between the means of scores on pre-test and
post-test in Biology of experimental group.
4. To find the difference between the means of scores on pre-test and
post-test in Biology of control group.
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The findings of his study were
1. There is no significant difference between the mean of scores on pre
test in Biology of experimental group and control group.
2. There is significant difference between the mean of scores on post-
test in Biology of experimental group and control group.
3. There is significant difference between the mean of scores on pre
test and post-test in Biology of experimental group.
4. There is only a slight significant difference between the mean of
scores on pre-test and post-test in Biology of control group.
Aarti Kalani (2008) conducted a study on the effectiveness of Concept
Attainment model over conventional teaching method for teaching science in
relation to achievement and retention.
Objectives of the study were:
1. To study the effect of teaching model on attainment of concept at high
school level.
2. To study the relative effectiveness of concept attainment model and
conventional method of teaching at high school level.
3. To study the effect of teaching model on achievement at high school.
4. To study the effect of teaching model on retention of high school level.
Hypothesis of the study were:
1. Teaching through teaching model (concept attainment model) and
conventional method affects academic achievement of high school
level.
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2. Teaching through concept attainment model and conventional model
affect attainment of concept in high school level.
3. Teaching through concept attainment model affect retention in high
school level.
Findings of the study were:
1. The achievement of students who were taught by concept attainment
model was found to be better than conventional method.
2. Concept attainment model was more effective than conventional
method with respect to the scores on attainment on the concept in
science.
3. Concept attainment model was more effective than conventional
method ia the retention of concept.
Conclusion of the study was:
Students learn best by being actively involved in learning, by conducting
an experiment, participate in group work. Pupils need concrete first hand
experiences as basis of concept formation. Most of the science learning is
teacher centered or science text book oriented or examination oriented. There is
a need to rewrite the science text book which provides sufficient scope for
learner to investigate and experiment. The book should be learner centered.
The science concept should be matched with school level.
T. R. Muralikrishnan and T. S. Sanjayan (2009) Studied, "Is there a teacher
in this class? Information Processing, multimedia and education".
This paper proposes to discuss the concept of multimedia using
information processing theory in ICT enabled teacher education in the context
of a knowledge society. The Information and communication technology (ICT)
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competencies required of teachers related to content, pedagogy, technical
issues, social issues, collaboration and networking remain crucial in shaping
the new global economy and producing rapid changes in society. Information
Processing (IP) models share an orientation toward the information processing
capability of student and the ways they can improve their ability to master
information. Problem solving strategies give students opportunities to think
rationally, understand intellectual processes and practice intellectual skills. The
problem solving method assumes that students are active participants in the
construction of new knowledge rather than passive receivers. Using a computer
the students can get access to audio, video and further information. This
interactivity encourages problem solving. Multimedia helps the process of
stratification on mind which moulds the mind for receiving various aspects of a
term or process through multiple assimilations. The attempt here is not to state
that teachers can be asked progressively to disappear fi-om the scheme of
things, but to emphasize that multimedia adds to their kit of resources in the
days to come. Students can find a space in the class room when they solve
problems all by themselves with the help of ICT.
He concluded that
Summing up certain benefits need to be underscored. They include
• Sustained motivation if the multimedia component is less complicated.
• Interesting packages can change students into players rather than spectators.
• The medium will respond fast to the learners
• It can integrate various disciplines.
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• It can be customized as per the needs of the students
• It can be more inclusive than being exclusive
• Updating of information possible
The attempt here is not to state that teachers can be asked progressively
to disappear from the scheme of things, but to emphasize that multimedia adds
to their kit of resources in the days to come. Students can find a space in the
class room when they solve problems all by themselves with the help of ICT.
The discussion on IP has proved the point that the thinking pattern of students
can go in tandem with the new emerging situation in the field of education.
Shashirekha, G.S (2009) conducted a study on the effectiveness of Biological
Science Inquiry Model on the Academic Achievement in Biology among VIII
standard students.
Objectives of the Study were:
1. To construct Biological Inquiry model on the topic "Photosynthesis"
in Biology for VIII standard students.
2. To find out the effectiveness of Biological Sc4ence Inquiry Model on
the achievement in Biology among VIII standard students.
3. To compare the effectiveness of Biological Science Inquiry Model
over traditional classroom teaching method on achievement in Biology
among VIII standard students.
Objectives of the Study were:
1. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on
pretest and post-test of experimental group.
83
2. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on
pretest and post-test of control group.
3. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on post-
test of experimental group and control group.
4. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on
pretest of experimental group and control group.
Findings of the Study were:
1. There is a significant difference between the means of scores on pretest
and post-test of experimental group.
2. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on
pretest and post-test of control group.
3. There is a significant difference between the means of scores on post-
test of experimental group and control group.
4. There is no significant difference between the means of scores on
pretest of experimental group and control group.
Hooda, Jai Prakash and Sushma Rani (2010) conducted a comparative study
to find out the effectiveness of Science Inquiry Model and Advance Organizer
Model in attaining Mastery in Biology. In their study, pre-test, experimental
treatment and post-test design was employed. The experimental group-I was
taught Biology through Science Inquiry Model. Experimental group-II was
taught Biology through Advance Organizer Model and the control group was
taught Biology through Conventional method. The design comprised three
stages. The first stage involved pre-testing of all the students of three groups on
achievement in Biology, Intelligence and Socio-Economic status. The second
stage involved treatment of twenty weeks. The experimental treatment
84
consisted of teaching of four units of Biology tiirough Science Inquiry Model
to experimental group-I, through Advance Organizer Model to experimental
group-II and through conventional method to control group. In third stage, the
students were post tested on achievement in Biology.
The results indicated that the students who were taught Biology through
Science Inquiry Model and Advance Organizer Model have shown significant
improvement in the achievement in Biology than the students who were taught
through conventional method. The group of students who were taught through
Advance Organizer Model has shown significantly higher gain in achievement
than the group of students taught Biology through Science Inquiry Model.
Aruna P.K and Sumi V.S (2010) conducted a study on the Process Approach:
Effect on Attitude towards Science and Process Skills in Science.
Objectives of the study were:
1. To compare the mean pre-test scores and post-test scores of Attitude
towards Science of the experimental and control group.
2. To compare the mean pre-test scores and post-test scores of Process
Skills in Science of the experimental and control group.
Tools used for the study were:
Lesson Transcript for Process Approach Model of Teaching; Lesson Transcript
based on Constructivist Model of teaching; Achievement Test in Biology of std
IX pupils; Classroom Environment Inventory; Socio-Economic Status Scale;
Standard Progressive Matrices test by Raven; Test of Process Skills in Science
for the Secondary school pupils; and Scale of Attitude towards Science.
85
From the findings,
It is evident that the Process Approach in Science is superior to the
constructivist model of teaching for increasing Attitude towards Science and
Process Skills in Science. The new approach helps the teacher to increase
his/her knowledge about the outcome of teaching. In ordinary classroom
teaching model, there may not been much emphasis on the development of
process skills. The skill which are developed, really help students to nurture a
new world in their learning approach. They feel more close to nature in their
learning approach. Teachers need to select curricula which emphasize science
process skills. In addition they need to capitalize on opportunities in the
activities normally done in the classroom.
2.2.2. A Trend report on Models of Teaching
In India, during the last few decades, efforts have been made to study
the classroom behavior of teachers through Flander's Interaction Analysis
Category System which equips them to change their teaching behavior so that
development in the cognitive and affective domains of pupils can be brought
in. Efforts were also made to identify teaching skills for teaching different
subjects. Also the microteaching technique was researched for improving upon
general teaching competence. Later, different strategies-of integration of
teaching skills were tried out. Another group of researchers tried to find out the
teaching patterns which are conducive for developing cognitive and affective
behavior. It is generally agreed that the objectives to be achieved through the
teaching learning process are multidimensional in nature. It is also felt that a
particular method or technique may not be appropriate for achieving the multi-
86
dimensional objectives. This led researchers to explore the use of various
methods and techniques in an integrated fashion which resulted in the
development of new instructional strategies. The greatest emphasis was on
development of the cognitive domain. All these efforts did little for achieving
the all-round development of the personality of the child. In other words,
cognitive, affective and psychomotor behavior must be developed in a balanced
and integrated fashion. Models of Teaching have great potentiality for
achieving this goal of education.
Joyce and Weil (1980) developed more than 20 models which were
grouped on the basis of their chief emphasis the way they approached
educational goals and means. They have classified models into four families.
These are Information Processing Models; Social Interaction Models; Personal
Models; and Behavior Modification Models. Information Processing Models
share an orientation towards the- information-processing capability of students
and ways they can improve their ability to master information. Various models
of this family are the Inductive Thinking Inquiry Model, Scientific Inquiry
Model, Inquiry Training Model, Concept Attainment Model, Cognitive Growth
Model and the Advance Organizer Model.
Social Interaction Models emphasize the relationships of the individual
to society and to other persons. Among models falling under this category are
the Group Investigation Model, Social Inquiry Model, Laboratory Method,
Jurisprudential Inquiry Training Model, Role Playing Model, Value Discussion
Model and the Social Simulation Model.
87
Personal models share an orientation towards the individual and the
development of selfhood. Among models of this family are the Non- directive
Teaching Model, Awareness Model, Synetics Model, Conceptual Systems
Model and the Classroom Meeting Model.
Behavior Modification Models were evolved from attempts to develop
efficient systems for sequencing learning tasks and shaping behavior by
manipulating reinforcement. Exponents of reinforcement theory, such as
Skinner (1957) have developed these models and operant conditioning as their
central mechanism. Among the various models were the Programmed
Instruction Model, Managing Behavior Model, Relaxation Model, Anxiety
Reduction Model, Assertive Training Model and the Simulation Model.
Related to Models of Teaching, this vital area of research, the first study
at Ph.D. level, was completed in 1983 by Chitriv at Nagpur, while at M.Ed,
level the first study was conducted in 1979 by Buddhisagar at Indore. By now a
large number of studies have been completed. These relate to studies where in
models of teaching have been used for teaching and for training of teacher
educators and student-teachers in Models of Teaching. In short, the studies
relate to the teaching and training aspects of Models of Teaching. Various
models of teaching such as the Advance Organizer Model (Buddhisagar, 1979;
Patania, 1980; Dennis, 1984; Malik, 1985; Morgan, 1985; Rajoria 1986; Panda,
1986; Senapati, 1986; Rajoria, 1987; Evelyn F Searls, 1988; Agnes Downing,
1995; Caral M Story, 1998; Harvinder Kaul, 2002; Tseng C.H, 2004; Heloiza R
Barbosa, 2005; Katiierine, 2006; Dell Olio, 2007; Gangashree.G.V, 2008;
Sunitiia.M, 2008; Weller, 2008; Huifen lin, 2008; Fred N Keraro, 2009. The
Inquiry Training Model (Katyal, 1985; Dubey, 1986; Kaur, 1998; Ahmet
88
Kilinic, 2007), the Concept Attainment Model (Kumaria, 1985; Pani,1985;
Das,1986; Behari, 1986; Gangrade, 1986, 1987; ShamnadN, 2005; Aarti
Kalani, 2008; Khan Zeenath Muzaffar, 2008), the Cognitive Growth Model
(Senapaty,1985); the Jurisprudential Inquiry Model (Tiwari, 1986); the
Information processing models (Sanjayan.T.S, 2009); the Multiple models
(Allan G Harrison, 2003); the Synectics Model (Sheela.G, 2004); Comparative
study between Concept Attaiimient Model and Advance Organizer Model
(Rajinder Pal Kaul Sidhu, 1997; Parminder Singh, 2005; Raj Rani Agarwal,
2006; Shyamsundar Bairagya 2006); Comparative study between Concept
Attainment Model and Inquiry Training Model (Vishwanath.H.N, 2002; Sunila
Bhalla Mehan, 2007), and the Non-Directive Model (Sahani, 1986) have been
investigated wherein teaching has been done with the help of Models of
Teaching.
Related to Models of teaching, few PhD studies were completed. These
were by Chitriv (1983), Ghosh (1986); Pandey (1986), Buddhisagar (1987);
Sushma (1987), Baveja (1988), Vishwanath (2002) and Sheela (2004). While
comparing the Concept Attaiimient Model and Advance Organizer Model with
traditional methods in terms of performance on the concept knowledge test,
Chitriv (1983) found that the Advance Organizer Model as well as the Concept
Attainment Model were significantly superior to the traditional method,
whereas the Advance Organizer Model was superior to the Concept Attainment
Model for teaching mathematical concepts to XI grade students. Prose-passage
type and pictorial type advance organizers facilitated the retention of Life
Science subject matter even after an interval of four weeks (Ghosh, 1986).
Ghosh also observed that instructional strategy with a pictorial type of advance
89
organizer was found to be better than the prose-passage type of advance
organizer. Pandey (1986) reported that both the Advance Organizer Model and
Inquiry Training Model were significantly superior to the traditional method in
terms of pupil achievement, whereas all the three were equally effective in
terms of pupils' attitude towards social studies. The Advance Organizer Model
and Operant Conditioning Model were significantly superior to the traditional
method in terms of achievement of B Ed students in educational psychology
(Buddhisagar, 1987). The Concept Attainment Model and Biological Science
Inquiry Model were found to be significantly superior to conventional teaching
in terms of class VIII pupils' achievement (Sushma, 1987) The Concept
Attainment Model and Inductive Thinking Model were found to be superior to
the traditional method in terms of concept attainment and retention (Baveja,
1988).
On the basis of studies presented in this category, it may be said that the
conventional method of teaching different subjects at various levels was found
to be less effective than various innovative teaching patterns like programmed
instruction, instructional strategies and models of teaching in terms of
achievement of students. In spite of this, it is difficult to determine which
instructional strategy, pattern of teaching or model of teaching is most
appropriate for teaching different subjects at various levels. This is due to the
fact that no two studies are alike in all respects such as, design, sample, tools,
treatment, dependent variable, etc. The researchers took achievement as a
criterion variable. There is need to deviate from this traditional approach to
selecting a criterion variable. In the case of some studies, the criterion variable
belongs to the affective domain. The psychomotor domain seems to be out of
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sight of researchers. In the case of Models of Teaching, Joyce and Weil (1980)
have given instructional effect as well as nurturant effect for each model. Thus,
studies may be designed in developing tools to measure these effects and thus
Facilitate study of the effectiveness of the model of teaching in terms of
instructional and nurturant effects.
2.2.3. Conclusion
A model of teaching as an area of research is emerging in a significant
manner. Instructional effects and nurturant effects for each of the models of
teaching have been hypothesized. The hypothesized effects are improved
concept building strategies, inductive reasoning, tolerance of ambiguity,
sensitivity to logical reasoning in communication, scientific process skills,
strategies for creative inquiry, spirit of creativity, autonomy in learning,
tolerance of ambiguity. The effectiveness of each model of teaching should be
studied in the context of these variables. This activity will demand the
development of new tools of measurement. Apart from this, the worksheets, the
teaching analysis guides, and lesson plan formats have to be developed and
their impact studied on the achievement of these objectives studied for which a
given model of teaching has been designed.
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Section- B
2.2.4. Studies Related to Teaching Models in Foreign:
Rodegres Cathy Allyn (1981) conducted a study to find out the effect of a
comparative Advance Organizer that has on student expectancy for success and
achievement
The research questions were derived from the areas namely,
1. Instructional strategies which enhance learning (particularly
comparative Advance organizer)
2. Learner motivation and the effect of expectancy for success; and
3. The influence of academic self-esteem on school programme.
This was essentially an exploratory study intended to identify these
effects, beyond enhancement of incorporation of new information into
cognitive structure which may result from exposure to an Advance organizer.
While the predictions that the Advance organizer group would exhibit
greater enhancement than the control group were not supported, the Advance
organizer did evidence strong effects. In particular, the Advance organizer
suppressed the positive relationships between esteem and achievement,
expectancy for success and achievement and level of prior knowledge and
achievement which were generally found in learning situations.
Bonne Robesta Carol (1982) conducted a study to understand the effects of
Advance organizers of varying length on the comprehension and retention of
VII grade students.
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The purpose of the study was to investigate three institutional methods
based on Ausubel's concept of meaningful verbal learning. Specifically the
effectiveness of 200 word Advance organizers, 20 word Advance organizers
and no word Advance organizers were investigated using expository passages.
The findings of the study were reported under four categories, namely
At-level readers on immediate comprehension; Above-level readers on
immediate comprehension, At-level readers on delayed retention, and Above-
level readers on delayed retention. In response to the above four categories, it
was found that on immediate comprehension the 20 word AO and At-level
readers were superior to the 200 word AO readers. For above-level readers,
there were no facilitative effects among the 200 word AO, 20 word AO and no
AO readers. Results indicate that 20 word AO at-level readers were superior to
the 200 word and no AO on delayed retention. For the above-level readers on
delayed retention, there were no facilitative efforts among the 200 word, 20
word and no AO readers.
Chang, Moon Kil (1982) examined the effect of Filmic Advance organizers
(FAOs) on the learning and retention of facts and concepts from a sound film
by the regular and mainstreamed educable mentally retarded learners (EMR),
FAOs referred to a set of tape narrated to a set of tape narrated slides presented
in advance of a sound film from which the slides were made to give a brief
general overview of the film.
2 x 3 factorial design was utilized with ability levels (regular to EMR) and
presentation modes (FAOs x films x films control) as independent variables
and the post-test scores as dependent variables. All subjects selected from 6*,
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7 and 8 grades in two middle schools in Louisville, Kentucky, were assigned
at random to the six groups. Each of the three groups received one of the
treatments. FAO and film, fihn or control, likewise each of the three EMR
groups received the three identical treatments. 17-item multiple choice test
which yielded Kunder-Richardson-Hoyt reliability of 0.70 for the regular
groups and 0.31 for the EMRs was administered immediately after the
treatment and 17 days later. All subjects were pre-tested one week prior to the
treatment to test initial learning. A two-way ANOVA and Duncan's Multiple
Range Test were performed separately on the 60 observations included in the
final analysis.
The findings of their study were
1. on the immediate and delayed retention tests, interaction between ability
levels and presentation modes were not significant at 0.05 level.
2. on the immediate retention test, significant effects were found at 0.01
level for the regular FAO group and at 0.05 level for the EMR, FAO
group, and
3. on the delayed retention test, a significant effect for the regular FAO
group was found at 0.05 level.
It was concluded that FAOs prepared for this study appeared to provide
facilitative effect for the regular subjects in acquisition and retention of facts
and concepts presented in a consumer education film and the ability levels did
nit differentially affect the learning outcomes.
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Dennis (1984) investigated "The Effectiveness of Advance Organizers and
Repetition on Achievement in a high school Biology class".
The findings of his study were
1. There was no significant interaction between the two dependent
variables.
2. There was no significant gain in achievement by students in all
groups fi"om pre-test and post-test.
Nides, Alexander George (1984) conducted a study to locate correlative
effects of learning style preferences of VIII grade students on achievement in
the learning of Anthropological concepts when an Advance Organizer was
employed to facilitate learning for the purpose of explaining possible learning
style sources of variance in the inconclusive findings of Advance organizer
research.
The study was conducted with VIII grade students. 21 learning style
preferences were assessed by the learning style inventory in the preference
domains environmental, emotional, sociological and physical. The Advance
organizer accompanying reading achievement test comes fi"om the
anthropology curriculimi process. Reading ability was statistically controlled.
The hypotheses were tested by using correlation analysis.
It concluded that learning style variables expressed as preference for
environmental, emotional, sociological and physical factors not accoimt for
variability in achievement when an Advance organizer was employed in the
learning of anthropological concepts for the failure of other research to affirm
the efficacy of Advance organizer.
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Morgan (1985) assessed 'The Effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model
in Biology laboratory course on student's achievement and attitude towards
Biology".
He found out that there was a statistically significant facilitating effect
of Advance Organizer Model on both student's achievement and student's
attitude.
Avalos, Carlos Elpio (1986) attempted to improve student learning by using
Advance organizers at the middle and end of each textbook chapter.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the separate and combined
effects on students learning of
1. the use of Advance organizers at the middle and of each learning task;
2. the enhancement of students prerequisites, and
3. master learning, cognitive achievement and affective outcomes were two
dependent variables representing students learning.
Two studies were conducted in different high schools
1. In the first study (algebra), three groups were used. One group used
conventional instruction (CI) which was the control group, the second
group used CI with organizers and the third group used organizers,
enhancement of prerequisite and master learning.
2. In the second study (biology), each of the three teachers taught four
classes under conventional methods of instruction, one class was the
control group, the second class used enhancement of prerequisites; the
third class used organizers and the fourth class used both enhancement
of prerequisites and organizers.
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The results of algebra study showed that the use of organizers alone and the
combined use of organizers, enhancement of prerequisites and mastery learning
had significant positive effects on students learning. The combined use of three
strategies was slightly better than organizers alone in improving students'
achievement. In the biology study, organizers were not effective in improving
students learning.
Evelyn F. Searls (1988) conducted a study on, "Using Advanced Organizers m
the Classroom".
The paper advocates that Ausubel and many subsequent studies were
conducted using college students as subjects, advance organizers have been
used successfully with nursery age children (Lawton & Ershler, Note i),
preschoolers and kindergarteners (Lawton & Fowell, 1978; Swadener &
Lawton, 1977), elementary students (Lawton, 1977; Lawton & Wanska, 1979),
and secondary students (Hall, 1977; Jones, 1979). On the other hand, few
investigators have considered Piaget's stages of cognitive development in
relation to the use of advance organizers. •
The structured overview would seem to hold the most promise at the
present for classroom teachers who want to begin using a form of advance
organizer. The use of the adjective, "structured," distinguishes this type of
overview fi-om those in general use; the latter generally are presented at the
same level of abstraction and inclusiveness as the learning material which they
introduce and emphasize the main ideas of that material.
In this reviewer's opinion, the best single source for classroom teachers
who wish to understand and use advance organizers is probably Eggen,
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Kauchak, and Haider's (1979) recent text, Strategies for Teachers; Information
Processing in the Classroom. Chapter 7, "The Ausubel Model," describes the
model in easily understandable terms, explores ways the model can be used in
different subject areas and at different age levels, and gives profuse
illustrations. Eggen et al. demonstrate the use of a prose advance organizer in
three forms (definition, analogy, and generalization) accompanied by a
structured overview in the leaching of world geography. It is clear from Eggen
et al.'s illustrations that teachers must know the structure of their subject area
thoroughly, must know what information their students already possess, and
must be able to guide students in assimilating the new knowledge. This is
surely what goad teaching consists of The combined use of a prose advance
organizer and a structured overview would seem to facilitate both the teachers'
and learners' tasks.
Up to this point nothing has been said in this paper regarding the
relationship of advance organizers to the use of textbooks. The textbook
continues to be the principle source of information in most classrooms.
Ausubel et al. (1978) contend that most texts are not written so as to enhance
the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. The more typical
practice is to segregate topically homogeneous materials into separate chapters
and subchapters, and to order the arrangement of topics and subtopics (and the
materials within each) solely on the basis of topic relatedness without regard to
their relative level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness. Instead, texts
should have a hierarchical series of organizers. The initial ones should furnish
anchorage at a global level.
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Obviously, the use of a text which includes advance organizers would
make the teacher's task easier. Teachers would still have the responsibility for
ascertaining what their students already know. Once this has been done, they
could adapt, restate, explain, or make other necessary adjustments to be sure
that the advance organizers will really function as such for the students with
whom they are working.
Bagget, James Lamer (1993) compared the relative merits of using different
concept map presentations as Advance organizer in teaching photosynthesis to
community college science students. This was done using the Ausubelian
approach of concept maps as AO in sequencing and presenting lecture material.
The subjects in the study were grade III students from six intact biology
classes in a southern Mississippi Community college. A no concept map
control group and two concept maps experimental groups were utilized. The
experimental design was pre-test - post-test. Multiple linear regression analysis
was employed to test the hypothesis at the 0.05 level of significance.
As AO, the photosynthesis concept maps and the photosynthesis physical
science concept maps were found to be effective when used for photosynthesis
instruction in community college biology classes.
Downing, Agnes (1995) conducted a study titled "An Investigation of the
Advance Organizer Theory as an Effective Teaching Model".
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This paper advocates for the improvement of presentational methods of
teaching and expository learning, based on David Ausubel's theory of
Meaningful Verbal Learning and its derivative, the Advance Organizer Model
of Teaching. This approach to teaching enables teachers to convey large
amounts of information as meaningfully and efficiently as possible, while
allowing for student acquisition and retention of that information. The Advance
Organizer Model provides teachers with a method for improving their
presentations and enhancing students' abilities to learn from them. Use of the
model is illustrated with a lesson for Year 9 Home Economics students in
Australia on the food and nutritional practices of people from various cultures.
Planning and preparation of the lesson involved creating a knowledge
hierarchy, observing the learners and determining the learning task, and
developing an expository organizer to help students relate to new data. The
lesson involved three phases: presentation of the advance organizer;
presentation of the learning material or task; and strengthening cognitive
organization, to anchor the material in the student's existing cognitive structure.
The script of an audio taped presentation of the lesson is presented and
critically analyzed.
Zhang Ji-Ping and Betty Collis (1995) conducted a study titled "A
Comparison of Teaching Models in the West and in China".
The paper advocates that the Models of teaching commonly used in the
West and in China are analyzed and compared, using an analytical approach
that systematically considers different aspects of the models. The purpose of
the exploration is three-fold: (a) to create better understanding of both Chinese
100
and Western models, for mutual insight and to strengthen the development of
pedagogical theory building in China; (b) to guide a joint project between the
Netherlands and China relative to the development computer related learning
resources for China; and (c) to contribute to better overall understanding of
how instructional resources can be adapted for use in both Western and
Chinese situations. The analysis provides a contribution for each of these goals.
He found out that.
The comparison of teaching models in the West and in China has been
little undertaken and there are very few articles in the literature relating to this
issue. Our primary goal for this study was to help Western and Chinese
educators to better understand each other's approaches to teaching, through the
creation of a framework to concisely compare the individual characteristics and
functions of teaching models from the West and China. We think our approach
offers a useful contribution for such a comparison. Our second purpose for the
analysis was more personal, to create a theoretical framework for our own
research project, relating to the adaptability of computer-related learning
environments to different teaching methods in the West and in China. From the
analysis we have a basis for hypothesizing this adaptability. Such a basis is also
a contribution to our third purpose - to contribute to portability research
relating to learning resources. We realize our ratings relative to the fit of the
models are subjective; we hope they will stimulate critical discussion, in that
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such discussion will further support our main goal ~ in increase in insight and
familiarity with teaching methods from a cross-cultural perspective.
Carol M. Story (1998) conducted a study titled "What Instructional Designers
need to know about Advance Organizers".
The paper advocates the goal of an instructional designer is to produce a
plan for instruction, whether for a complete course, a unit, or a single lesson,
that stimulates and supports the learning of individuals. Instructional design
emphasizes a systems approach to planning for teaching and learning (Ledford,
1996). Many models for instructional systems design exist; however, the
components of any of those models "can be characterized into one of three
functions: (1) identifying the outcomes of the instruction, (2) developing the
instruction, and (3) evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction" (Gagne,
Briggs, & Wager, 1988, p. 21). In order to identify appropriate outcomes or
goals and objectives and to develop effective instructional activities, the
instructional designer must consider and use existing knowledge of how
individuals learn. The purpose of this paper is to examine one particular
learning theory, David Ausubel's advance organizers theory, and its
implications for instructional design.
Chinwe Nwagho (2000) conducted a study titled "Effects of guided Inquiry
and Expository teaching methods on the achievement in Biology and attitude of
students of different levels of scientific literacy" and found that the effect of
guided inquiry is more than the expository teaching and he also finds that
guided inquiry increases the achievement in Biology.
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Kester, L., Kirschner, P., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Baumer, A. (2001)
conducted a study titled "A Model for Just-In-Time Information Presentation".
This paper describes a model for just-in-time (JIT) presentation of
information. Learners receive the information needed to carry out a task
precisely at the time it is needed. The model is twofold: Supportive information
is best presented before practicing task clusters while prerequisite information
is best presented during practice on learning tasks. JIT supportive information
presentation promotes schema construction through meaningful learning or
elaboration. JIT prerequisite information presentation promotes schema
automation through proceduralization or restricted encoding while learning the
recurrent aspects of a task. It leads to a reduction in extraneous cognitive load
because temporal split attention is avoided. This frees up cognitive capacity for
learning the non-recurrent aspects of a complex cognitive skill and so enhances
transfer performance. An exploratory, empirical study is described that
supports our model.
The practical implications of our model and preliminary results are quite
clear. In teaching and teacher training, little or no attention is paid to timing
aspects of information presentation. When attention is paid to this area, it is too
often a just-in-case approach compounded with information redundancy which
dominates. On the one hand, this may lead to a huge amount of information
presented to learners before they start to practice on their learning tasks, with
negative effects on learners' motivation. On the other hand, it may lead to a
sub-optimal availability of prerequisite information during task performance
because it is included in the just-in-case information and forgotten by the
learners. As a result, teachers have to answer many questions and (again)
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present the prerequisite information (redundancy) while learners work on their
learning tasks. This may be especially detrimental in distance learning and
other independent learning situations where there is no or little synchronous
contact between learners and teachers. For this reason, the authors include the
distinction between prerequisite and supportive information in their teacher
training programs at the Open University of the Netherlands, and advise
teachers to directly connect prerequisite information to the (Web-based)
learning tasks they provide to their learners.
To conclude this article, future research will be aimed at establishing a
firm basis for the use of the demand pull principle in the instructional design of
learning tasks that aim at mastering a complex cognitive skill. An attempt has
to be made to find further support for the assumptions that supportive
information is best presented before practicing task clusters and prerequisite
information is best presented during task practice. When firm support is found
for these assumptions, the manner in which the supportive or prerequisite
information is presented can be further studied.
Allan G. Harrison, (2003) conducted a study on exciting teaching and
learning when Multiple Models are used to explain Chemistry ideas".
This case study describes the multiple models used to teach chemical
equilibriimi and examines the teacher's reasons for using models. Three
consecutive Grade-12 lessons were studied and the teacher presented the
'school dance', the 'sugar in a teacup', the 'pot of curry', and the 'busy
highway' analogical models. The data yielded the following outcomes: The
teacher used the students' prior knowledge wherever possible and responded to
student questions with exciting stories and analogies. He planned to discuss
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where each analogy broke down but did not. Students enjoyed the teaching but
buih variable mental models of equilibrium and female students disliked some
masculine analogies and other students did not recognize all the taught
processes. Most students learned that equilibrium reactions are dynamic, occur
in closed systems and the forward and reverse reactions are balanced.
Katherine.N., Macferlane and Barbee T. Mynatt (2004) conducted a
study titled "A study of an advance organizer as a technique for teaching
computer programming concepts".
Research on instructional methods has suggested that advance
organizers (e.g., metaphors) can be an effective tool in teaching certain types of
material in some situations. In many cases, teaching computer programming
concepts satisfies these criteria. In our research, beginning programming
students were trained on the syntax of arrays. A training session consisted of
reading a tutorial manual and entering lines of source code into an interactive
system. One group was given a metaphorical organizer prior to training (an
advance organizer). A second group received the organizer after training. A
control group read a passage on computer history prior to training. The groups
did not differ on training task performance or on a test of syntactic knowledge
(near transfer). However, the advance organizer group did significantly better
on a test of semantic knowledge (far transfer). Factors relating to when to use
an advance organizer are discussed.
Tseng.C.H (2004) conducted a study on Pupil's using of Multimedia Advance
Organizer and Learning Retention.
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This study aimed to evaluate if multimedia advance organizers promoted
pupils' learning retention. The computerized organizers were used as a
cognitive tool for linking up the prior and new conceptions of mathematics.
The system was also used to further advance the efficiency of computer as a
Mind tools. Taking equivalence-fraction and probability computerized
organizers as materials in an exploratory study, the objective was to evaluate
the influences of students' learning retention by using computerized advance
organizers. In the experiment involving more than 200 pupils, it was founded
that the learning retention of the students who used two types of computerized
advance organizers were better than those of students who used none. A
tendency showed that PowerPoint version was better between these two types
of computerized organizers.
Heloiza R. Barbosa, Marilis V. Marques, and Bayardo B. Torres (2005)
conducted a study titled "An Advance Organizer for Teaching Bacterial
Metabolism".
The paper advocates the metabolic versatility of bacteria is a source of
learning difficulty for students in classical microbiology courses. To facilitate
the learning process, the authors developed an advance organizer. It consists of
a set of six diagrams of metabolic pathways describing the basic living
requirements of several types of bacteria: energy, carbon sources, and
oxidizable substrates that provide electrons for reductive biosyntheses. The
students are presented with the six diagrams and at the same time with one
problem that must be resolved using solely the set of diagrams, with no access
to any textbook. This procedure aims at developing the skills necessary to
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analyze different (and perhaps more complex) metabolic processes than those
represented by the diagrams.
He found out that.
The organizer fulfills two fundamental roles in the teaching/learning
process, namely 1) to provide a scaffold to subsequent learning and 2) to allow
students to predict the learning that lies ahead. As an advance organizer, it
should not be used solely to introduce the subject of metabolism.
Unlike overviews and summaries, advance organizers have been poorly
utilized in the teaching of experimental sciences, despite the benefits provided
by their use. Some of the few instances where they have been used involve
precisely the teaching of microbiology to medical students and the study of
metabolic pathways in mammals. The advance organizer herein described was
designed for nonmedical microbiology courses. Its goal is to encourage
students to compare different types of metabolism and to emphasize their
differences and similarities with respect mainly to energy metabolism. Given
the fact that there are no identities but rather patterns and regularities to be
verified, comparison is not trivial. This comparison is therefore placed at the
level of analysis in the hierarchy of cognitive abilities, as established in Bloom
et al. 's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The use of high level questions as
provided by the organizer herein described goes beyond the simple transfer of
information and becomes a tool for the development of critical and analytical
skills.
Helen Askell-Williams (2005) conducted a study on Extending teacher
education students' mental models of teaching and learning through Problem
Based Learning.
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This paper reports student teachers' reflections on changes in their
mental models of teaching and learning following their experiences of a
problem based learning (PBL) topic. Students develop robust mental models of
teaching and learning during their school years. Mental models inform
intentions and plans, which in turn inform actions. As such, teachers often
teach as they were taught—^possibly perpetuating practices that limit
intellectual inquiry in classrooms. PBL was introduced to our Bachelor of
Education (B.Ed.) to challenge and extend students' mental models about
teaching and learning, with a view to influencing their prospective teaching
actions.
Results provide evidence that students do report changed mental models
in areas such as, 1) the value of case studies for engaging with subject content,
motivating learning and connecting theory with practice, 2) self-reflection and
peer collaboration for cognitive and professional growth, and 3) PBL processes
of inquiry for developing self-regulated learning practices.
Behrangi, Mohammed Reza (2006) conducted a study titled "Can new
approaches in Science and Technology education act as a model for
rationalizing socio-cultural and human values in other subjects?".
The paper advocates new approach to teaching and learning has been
conducted in teaching 54 chapters of four academic texts in four graduate
courses within a four year longitudinal semi-experimental case study (216
cases) in educational administration emphasizing students' participation in
teaching, promoting cognitive, personal, social, and behavioral skills and
changes in their socio-cultural and human values. The approach maps the
existing curriculum in each of 54 chapters, generating new map using tenets of
curriculum planning in structuring critical concepts, plans for its feasibility in
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teaching titles and subtitles, plans for using teaching models and technology
that fit the instruction, implements the lesson designed accordingly and,
evaluates the instructional and nurturing effects on students' socio-cultural and
human values of each chapter. A researcher developed questionnaire of 250
items was tested for reliability and validity and reduced to 72 indicators to
measure instructional effects. Another developed questioimaire with 100 items
designed to measure the changes and interpret students' attitude in socio-
cultural and human values. The effect size tools measured the significant
effects of the approach. The interrelated 7 models of information processing
teaching and 10 chapters of "Supervision", and curriculum map- making are
demonstrated here as examples for purpose of transparency.
He found out that.
The items on nurturing effects are more important than instructional
effects mostly because they are sustained in one's whole life. Their final effects
should be calculated by multiplying their effects by the time they are used in
whole life. Some of the nurturing items that affects students' behavior are also:
having mutual understanding in learning, finding self in the field, improving
inquiry inclination, improving critical thinking, maintaining patient and
tolerance in critical situation, using comprehensive, flexible and penetration in
discussions, being self directed person, having individual self-awareness,
evaluating new concepts, understanding feeling of themselves and feelings of
others, using sympathy and empathy in relation to others, understanding their
uniqueness, feeling internal rewards for understanding, self evaluation, learning
independently, having a positive attitude toward themselves, acting on the base
of rationalized accepted values, being aware of social and individual values,
having respect for others, improving human relation, having a life philosophy,
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finding the meaning of self in life, being patient in evaluation of others' idea,
working in a group of peers, being motivated to learn and doing according to
their logical understanding and so on.
Using the approach makes a significant change in the trend of akeady
existing teaching, improves the quality of teaching and the curriculum, and lets
students to be improved in learning with a good motivation to learn. It is
basically oriented to students' learning improvement and works with students'
involvement in all the process of attaining concepts and learning. The results of
the approach have been so far so good to be implemented in teaching not only
the aforementioned four courses but in all grades and levels of education. There
are a heavy burden of its implementation in teaching other subjects and it need
supportive action from educational administration and educational systems for
making general policy to carry it out.
Henze, Ineke; Van Driel, Jan and Verloop, Nice (2007) conducted a study
on the Change of Science Teachers' Personal Knowledge about Teaching
Models and Modelling in the Context of Science Education Reform.
The paper advocates that in order to enhance teachers' professional
awareness, it is necessary to understand and value their subjective or personal
knowledge and beliefs. This study investigated the change of science teachers'
personal knowledge about teaching models and modeling in science within the
context of educational reform in The Netherlands. The study followed nine
experienced science teachers during the first years of the implementation of a
new syllabus, which emphasizes models and modeling. Data collection
consisted of the repeated administration of a Repertory Grid instrument. From
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the results, three different types of personal knowledge concerning teaching
models and modeling in science were identified, each of which showed
significant change over time. Type 1 combined modeling as an activity
undertaken by students with the learning of specific model content. In Type 2,
the learning of model content was combined with critical reflection on the role
and nature of models in science. Finally, in Type 3, the learning of model
content involved both students' production and revision of models, and a
critical examination of the nature of scientific models in general.
Dell'OUo (2007) Studied, "The teaching models"
The paper advocates that advance organizers have been shown to be
effective in helping students understand and recall information by providing a
framework that represents the hierarchy and major concepts of a discipline or
subject. The advance organizer presents introductory information that students
are able to use to build a cognitive structure or scaffold in which they can
anchor information presented in the various learning activities that follow the
presentation of the organizer. Advance organizers can be used in all subject
areas and with all ages of learners. They also can be constructed using visuals,
graphics, text, and a variety of other media. As such, they are flexible tools for
both student learning and teacher construction and use.
Ahmet Kilinc (2007) conducted a study titled, "The Opinions of Turkish
Highschool Pupils on Inquiry Based Laboratory activities".
The purpose of this study is to prepare inquiry based experimental
activities on the photosynthesis, thought to be a very difficult subject by pupils,
and to determine the pupil's ideas towards this method. This study was made
111
with 24 pupils from Grade 3 at Atatiirk Anatolian High school in Turkey. As
data gathering material; seven inquiry experimental study sheets, the pupils'
opinions survey consisting of six open-ended question, and two- lesson-hour
video records were used. According to the result of study, the pupils declared
that the inquiry based laboratory activities were more permanent, more
enjoyable, and more pupil centered than the traditional methods, that thanks to
this method, they studied cooperatively and benefit from different aspects by
discussing, that they were be satisfied with the teacher's guide position in the
implementations, and that their attitudes related to biology increased positively.
Findings of this study
1. Almost all of the pupils determined that the experiments to be teaching,
applicable and easy. Two of the pupils expressed that they couldn't
understand all the experiments, but that they comprehended at least
some of the information in the experiments they couldn't understand.
2. Most of the pupils (87,5 %) expressed that they had no negative attitudes
towards biology and they liked this lesson before. Also, they point out
that their positive attitudes about biology increased thanks to this study.
Remaining three pupils (12,5 %) expressed that they had negative
attitudes related to biology, and that they didn't like this lesson because
It was based on memorization, but two of these pupils expressed that
their attitudes changed a bit positively, and the other pupil expressed
that his negative attitudes continued.
3. Most of the pupils (91,7 %) pointed out that these discussions were
more useful. Also, they expressed that they benefit from different
aspects, that their communication skills improved, and that they
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corrected their mistakes thanks to this method. Remaining two pupils
(8,3 %) expressed that there was noise in the classroom.
4. All the pupils expressed that learning with their own thoughts was very
useful, that they were satisfied with the guide position of the teacher,
and that the guidance of the teacher was necessary. Also, some of the
pupils expressed that the experimental studies in which the teacher
makes alone and the pupils do nothing except for watching him are not
educational and enjoyable.
5. The pupils expressed that the inquiry based laboratory activities were
more enjoyable, educational, permanent, scientific, and pupil centered
than the traditional methods.
Results of this study
The laboratory activities are very important in the subjects in which
metabolic events, such as photosynthesis, could be explained experimentally.
But the laboratory lessons should be done more inquiry based, not with the
guidance in which all the process is given one by one. Only in this way could
the traditionalism in this lesson be through taken over.
According to the results of this study, the pupils expressed that the
inquiry based laboratory activities are more permanent, enjoyable, and pupil
centered than the traditional methods, that they studied cooperatively thanks to
this study, that they utilized different aspects, that they were satisfied the guide
position of the teacher during the application, and that attitudes towards
biology lesson increased positively.
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Mustafa Ozden (2008) conducted a study on improving Science and
Technology Education Achievement using Mastery Learning Model".
The paper advocates that Core idea of mastery learning can be
concluded as aptitude is the length of time it takes a person to learn not how
bright a person is, i.e., everyone can learn given the right circiraistances. The
science and technology education programs aim reading and writing about
science and technology for every student in primary school. If the educators
have enough knowledge and instructional strategy about mastery learning
model. This aim will become reality and almost every student can read and
write about science and technology. The mastery-learning model is suitable for
new science and technology education program, because, this new program
aims to teach science and technology for every student in schools. Mastery
learning model can be adapted and applied to the program easily. For this
purpose, the educators should be trained about the application of mastery
learning model to the program.
Khan Zeenath Muzaffar (2008) conducted a study titled "Self concept
attainment model of teaching".
The paper advocates that Self-concept is very much essential in the
development of personality of an individual. It is high time the teachers and
parents realize the importance of self concept and make the child realize his
potentials and make him believe that he is very much important and has a
specific role to play on the stage of this world. Self concept enhances the
personality of an individual and leads him to high self esteem. Every child is a
"tare zameen par" and the only need is that the teacher should identify his
hidden potential. Thus education has a great role to play in polishing the
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talents of children through self-concept. Self-concept is not an inherited one,
it is leamt and developed through interaction with the different components of
the environment. So the education should create a congenial and conducive
environment, which promotes high selfconcept among the children.
Alain Fayolle and Benoit Gailly (2008) conducted a study on Teaching
models and learning processes in Entrepreneurship Education.
The Purpose of the study was to offer a conceptual framework in
entrepreneurship education largely inspired by education sciences and discuss
its two main levels, the ontological and educational levels. This framework is
then used to discuss various types of entrepreneurship teaching programs,
focusing on three broad categories of learning processes.
A finding of the study was there is a need to reconsider entrepreneurship
education in its wide diversity, both from an ontological and pedagogical point-
of-view. The range of theoretical choices, objectives, publics, pedagogical
methods and institutional context should be approached through the lenses of
multiple teaching models and learning processes, which can be structured
around a general framework.
H. Weller (2008) conducted a study titled, "Some Important Science Teaching
Techniques"
The paper advocates through Advance Organizer (Stage 1) Presentation
by the teacher of a "scaffolding" that links new learning to prior learning—in
written, oral, graphic, and/or pictorial form. (Stage 2) Logical presentation of
the new learning. (Stage 3) Strengthening the students' cognitive organization
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by periodically calling attention to the relation of the new learning to the
advance organizer.
• Many uses of the Periodic table in chemistry
• Comparison of a biological cell to a factory.
Huifen Lin, Khusro Kidwai, Mine Munyofu, William Swain, Brad ley
Ausman, Francis Dwyer, (2008) conducted a study on impact of Advance
organizers.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of two different
types of advance organizers-visual statement and visual question in
complementing animated instruction. 120 undergraduate students were
randomly assigned to the control group and two experimental groups receiving
treatments of visual statement advance organizer and visual question advance
organizer. Four criterion measures were used to determine the effects of
respective treatments. Results indicated that although there were no significant
difference in scores on four measures between the two experimental groups,
students in both the visual statement advance organizer group and visual
question advance organizer group scored significantly higher on four measures
than did the control group. This fmding suggested that advance organizers are
an important instructional variable for complementing animated instruction
although all types of advance organizers are not equally effective in facilitating
achievement of the different educational objectives.
Eric J Pyle (2008) conducted a research title "A model of Inquiry for teaching
Earth Science".
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The objectives of the study are models of Inquiry Science teaching attempt to
engage students in active processes of science knowledge, construction and
emulating the process of science itself This model of inquiry science teaching
that more accurately reflects the nature of the Earth Sciences than do Generic
or Physical Science - based on models do.
The findings of the study: These mechanisms include descriptions of materials,
space and time, observations and modeling, inspirations and historical
representations. Earth Science is not a narrow set of ideas but a synthesis of
many concepts, traditions and discipline in Science.
Donetta J. Cothran, Pamela Hodges Kulinna (2008) conducted a study on
Teachers' knowledge about and use of teaching models.
Teacher knowledge is a key to effective teaching. Understanding teacher
knowledge can help educators understand teacher practices. It was the purpose
of this study to examine teachers 'knowledge about the use of direct, peer, and
inquiry teaching models. Thirty-two teachers, representmg both elementary and
secondary levels, were interviewed. Data were analyzed via constant
comparison and analytic induction methods. All teachers had some knowledge
about the models and that knowledge was gained through a variety of sources.
Key to that knowledge gain, however, was experience with the model. The
decision to use a model depended on a variety of factors including control,
time, and knowledge. Direct instruction was self-reported as the dominant
model used at both elementary and secondary levels.
Sezen Ozeke (2009) conducted a research titled "Connections between the
constructivist-based models for teaching science and music".
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The paper advocates that in the area of education, there are a number of
models of teaching based on constructivism reported in the literature. Three-
stage model, 4E model, 5E model and 7E model are only four of the
application types of constructivism into classrooms. 'Orff approach' and its
learning stages is also very common model used in education especially in
music classrooms. In this article it is aimed to present some of the
constructivist-based teaching models used in science education and 'OrfP
learning stages in detail and make connections among them to provide sources
for teachers to help students learning in a constructivist way.
Hudson Shihusa and Fred N. Keraro (2009) conducted a research titled
"Using Advance Organizers to Enhance Students' Motivation in Learning
Biology".
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using advance
organizers as a teaching strategy on student's motivation. Specifically, the
study attempted to fmd out the effectiveness of using advance organizers on
students' motivation in biology as compared to the conventional teaching
methods, methods that do not actively engage learners in learning activities
such as a lecture and demonstration.
Pre-tests results
At the beginning of this study the assumption was that the groups to be
used in the study were similar. The researchers, therefore, sought to assess the
homogeneity of the groups before the application of treatment as recommended
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by Gall, Borg and Gall (1996); Wiersma and Jurs (2005). A pre-test was
administered on two groups. The pre-test used was the Students' Motivation
Questionnaire (SMQ). SMQ had a maximum score of 100. The groups that
were pre-tested were experimental group (El) and the control group (CI).
The level of motivation between groups El and CI is significantly
different, The t-value indicates that a statistically significant difference exists
between the two means. The difference necessitated the researcher to use
ANCOVA on the pre-test scores to analyze the effects of initial difference
among the groups. The groups used in this study exhibited similar
characteristics and were therefore found to be suitable for the study.
Results of post-test
The Students' Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ) mean scores of students
from the four groups were compared using one way ANOVA. The post-test
mean scores for the four groups were different. One-way ANOVA was carried
out to find out whether these means were significantly different. The
differences in the mean scores between the four groups were significant. After
establishing that there was a significant difference between students taught the
topic pollution using advance organizers and those taught using conventional
teaching methods, it was important to carry out further tests to show where the
difference occurred. This was done using post-hoc tests of multiple
comparisons using Tukey test. The results indicate that the differences in mean
scores of groups El and CI, groups El and C2, groups E2 and CI and groups
E2 and C2 were statistically significant at 0.05 margin of error. It was,
therefore, necessary to carry out ANCOVA to help in confirming the results.
Table 6 shows the results of ANCOVA of the post-test scores of SMQ.
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An examination reveals that the difference between the two groups is
statistically significant F(l,78) 24.39, p<0.05. This would, therefore, suggest
that advance organizers improved the motivation of students who were in the
experimental groups compared to those in control groups.
Findings of the study
The findings of this study have shown that advance organizers enhance
learners' motivation to learn. The use of advance organizers in this study,
therefore, enabled learners to be active cognitively and hence was motivated to
learn biology. A study by Solomon (1986) on motivation shows that active
involvement of learners enhances their understanding of new situations. In this
study, a film on pollution was used as an advance organizer captured the
learners' interest hence enhancing their motivating them to learn biology.
The use of advance organizers proved interesting and stimulating since
the learners were exposed to prior information that was to be learnt later
(Ausubel, 1968). Parkinson (1994) points out that it is up to teachers to ensure
that they make science as inviting as possible. Indeed, as demonstrated in this
study, this can be achieved by the use of advance organizers.
The other major finding in this study was that there was a significant
gender difference in motivation to learn biology in favour of male students.
This seems to contradict earlier studies which show that girls have more
positive attitudes towards biology (and hence should be more motivated to
learn the discipline) than boys (Keeves & Kotte, 1992; Dawson, 2000; Proko,
Tuncer & Chuda, 2007). This may be attributed to the fact that as Wachanga
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(200) has argued, teachers treat boys and girls differently and in ways that often
are not beneficial to girls motivation and achievement. Puhan and Hu (2006) in
their study also foimd that motivation is an important predicator of science
achievement than gender. Proko, Tuncer & Chuda (2007) also posit that
teacher characteristics have a significant role on students' attitude towards
biology. Perhaps this would also explain the gender differences in motivation
noted in this study. This also seems to suggest that more research needs to be
devoted to the role of teacher characteristics on students' motivation to learn
science.
He concluded that
ANOVA and ANCOVA results indicated that a significant difference
was identified between group means of students who were taught using
advance organizers and those taught using conventional teaching methods.
Even though there was a significant gender difference in motivation in favour
of male students there was an improvement in both mean scores after the
treatment. Thus advance organizers enhance students' motivation to learn
biology compared to conventional teaching methods.
Bayardo B Torres (2009) conducted a study on Advance Organizer for the
Teaching of Metabolism.
Utilization of an advance organizer may help to prevent this lack of
continuity. Advance organizers were first proposed by Ausubel 1 as teaching
aids to be presented prior to the learning material. These are instruments aimed
at organizing the content to be given and are therefore designed for each
specific case. Adequate prose passages, visual displays, maps or graphs can be
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used as advance organizers if they present a high degree of generahzation and
inclusiveness, and a virtual lack of factual information or detail. These features
make advance organizers conceptually different from overviews or abstracts
presented introductorily in the text books, since what organizers provide is a
conceptual framework to help the learner identify, and even predict, the
learning that lies ahead. The expectation on the use of organizers is to provide
an anchor to which subsequent learning will be attached, based on the premise
that the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows. Many educational psychologists share this viewpoint. True
organizers are bridges that span the gap between what the learner already
knows and the knowledge he or she must acquire. New increment of
knowledge therefore becomes more readily and stably incorporated in
cognitive structure if it is subsumable under a correlated pre-existing scaffold.
Advance organizers are thus supposed to be utilized when one aims at
meaningfiil learning, having slight or no effect on simple verbatim retention.
To quote Ausubel himself, "the use of organizers is suggestively more
beneficial for low-ability students . . . because they are both less likely to
possess and choose existing relevant subsumers in their cognitive structure for
the new material, and are less able to improvise appropriate new organizers by
themselves".
Results stemming from the use of advance organizers have been
comprehensively studied. Certain criticism and skepticism (if it works it is an
advance organizer, if it doesn't work it isn't), as to the effectiveness of this type
of instrument was promptly reftited by Ausubel who offers a precise definition
of advance organizer and indications for its production. This production is not
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always a simple task, but the result of its application makes the effort well
worthwhile.
Kathy Joan Daniel (2010) conducted a study on Advance organizers:
Activating and Building Schema for more successful learning in students with
disabilities.
The purpose of this paper is to explore advance organizers and their use
as tools to activate and build schema when students with disabilities are
presented with new concepts in the classroom. This will be done by first giving
a brief synopsis of the inception of advance organizers and their connection to
schema theory. Next, various types of organizers and their uses will be offered
to enable teachers to determine the best organizers to use for their individual
students and the type of content being presented. Then, because it is important
for the teachers to make selections of organizers for their students and course
content based on scientifically-based research, an overview of the literature and
research on advance organizers will be discussed. Finally, a discussion that
reviews the implications for teachers will ensue.
An overview of the literature about advance organizers holds several
implications for teachers. First, keeping in mind that advance organizers are
instructional strategies to activate and build schema in a cognitive learning
structure, it is vitally important for teachers to consider advance organizers as a
tool to preview a lesson, not as the sole means of instruction (Bundy, 2005;
Jones, 2003; Postrech, 2002). Based on the initial response to the material
presented in the organizer, teachers can modify their lesson plans and materials
to better fit the prior knowledge of their students. They can also more
efficiently structure their time and the critical points that need to be covered,
while simplifying complicated text (Anderson, 2004; Ausubel, 1978;
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Bransford, 2004; Jones, 2003; Walther-Thomas & Brownell, 2000). This
enhances the development of higher order thinking in the students by helping
them to relate concepts previously learned to the new material and enabling
them to quickly organize their thoughts (Paik, 2003). Joyce and Weil (1986)
offer teachers a three phase Advance Organizer Model of Teaching that
includes "the presentation of the advance organizer, the presentation of the
learning task or material, and the strengthening of cognitive organization".
Following this basic procedure in a structured teaching environment should
enable students to get the most from advance organizers (Bundy, 2005;
Kalmes, 2005).
In addition, research on advance organizers provides teachers with the
tools they need to determine how their students learn. Emphasis is placed on
knowing individual students and their backgrounds and abilities so that
teachers can best determine the type of organizers that will best foster learning,
retention, and recall for the subject content that will be presented to their
students (Jones, 2003). With a plethora of organizer types available, teachers
should study the research on advance organizers as well to know what works
best in a particular area, while keeping in mind that a large mmiber of
researchers agree that advance organizers with a visual format appear to be of
particular value to the learning process of students with disabilities (Anderson
et al., 2004; Mosco, 2005; Story, 1998; Walther-Thomas & Brownell, 2000).
In conclusion, it is good for students to realize that they need to acquire
additional information to understand and remember. In this way, students learn
how to search for their own elaborations. Also, this enables the student to learn
about themselves as learners. When considering less successful learners,
teachers should keep in mind that many of these students are not aware of what
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factors make things easy or difficult to comprehend or recall. Teaching students
with disabilities to employ strategies such as advance organizers that activate
and build schema will give way to improved learning, retention, and recall.
John MacLellan (2010) conducted a study on benefits of Teaching Science
with Manipulative Models.
Manipulative models are physical objects that are used as teaching tools
in order to engage students and introduce, practice, or remediate a variety of
scientific concepts. Manipulatives can be as simple as a grain of rice, or as
sophisticated as the contents of a VIRTmac kit. Teachers who embrace hands-
on learning and incorporate manipulatives into their everyday lesson plans
introduce their students to an intuitive way of learning, and empower them to
succeed.
Biology teachers that have used a hands-on approach to teaching have
experienced the following benefits:
• Students are able to remember material better, and feel a much greater
sense of accomplishment when the task is completed. This is because
students have a better chance of understanding and retaining concepts
that are taught using manipulative models.
• Students who have difficulty learning due to language barriers, auditory
deficiencies, or behavioral issues have a much easier time stay engaged
and on task when manipulative models are introduced.
• Most importantly, students enjoy learning about science when
manipulative models are used. Karina LeBlanc, VP, Autism Pro,
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remarks that, when using VIRTmac manipulative models, "the students
are excited about science, eager to get to class, attentive, [and] taking
initiative." Students have a much easier time learning and process
information when they're having fun and genuinely interested in the
project at hand.
Textbooks and manipulative learning tools can, and should, be used
together to provide students with a well-rounded learning experience. This
multifaceted approach to teaching helps to reinforce important concepts and
tackle tough problems.
Manipulative model kits help students develop critical thinking skills and
learn complex scientific concepts. Don't just teach your students to remember
information - help them understand the different facets of science with
manipulative model educational kits.
Maryellen Weimer (2010) conducted a study on Teaching Undergraduate
Research: A Unique Model.
Teaching undergraduate research when laboratories are involved is a
time-consuming and costly endeavor, especially at those institutions without
graduate assistants. One faculty member working alongside two or three
students for four hours a week for one credit isn't a particularly viable
approach. For faculty who use undergrads to support their research programs,
this approach slows down productivity as proficient students graduate and new
ones must be trained in an unending cycle.
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Since this model was developed, it has generated a number of benefits,
including an increased level of comfort for students, even though initially the
learning curve is very steep. Student mentors work closely with students new to
the course, which leaves faculty fi-ee to help with particularly challenging
research techniques. The course also develops a stronger sense of community
among students, in part because they learn much more than just how to conduct
research. "They also learned to teach, nurture, plan, manage, build a team,
solve the problem, organize, communicate, etc. In other words, they learn to
operate in a team and to become team leaders." Faculty note that this kind of
learning involved new skills for them to teach.
Perhaps the most important measure of this model's success has been its
productivity. In one year, which the faculty describes as typical, the course
resulted in nine oral presentations at professional meetings, two papers
submitted for publication, and one paper published in an international journal.
Participants in projects for that year included two faculty, one surgeon, one
research scientist, one surgical resident, and 33 undergraduate students. The
course is managed by three faculty members who productively engage an
average of 30 students a semester in research. That makes their one-room
schoolhouse model a very impressive one.
Rene Postrech (2010) conducted a study on Advance organizers.
An advance organizer is a cognitive strategy proposed by Ausubel in his
Subsiunption Theory, which allows the learner to recall and transfer prior
knowledge to the new information being presented. This theory is based on the
idea that learning is facilitated, if the learner can find meaning in the new
information. If a connection can be made between the new information and
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previous knowledge, the learning experience will become more meaningful to
the learner. Therefore, the new information will be learned. The advance
organizer is not a strategy used by the learner, but rather an instructional
strategy used by the teacher. In essence, the advance organizer is a brief,
general speech prepared by the teacher, before presenting the new material, to
introduce the new lesson. In designing the advance organizer recall of previous
knowledge relevant to the new knowledge is important. It should provide a
bridge that links the known to the unknown, by including an abstract outline of
the new information and a restatement of old knowledge. Theoretically, this
will encourage transfer and application of old knowledge, to make the new
knowledge more meaningful to the learner. In SLA advance organizers could
be used to help the learner categorize new learning, in relation to their native
language. The learner could then distinguish similarities and differences in the
target language and their native language, thus carrying out a cognitive
comparison between deviant and correct target language, forms or utterances.
This may even reduce learners' errors as conscious attention is focused on these
differences and similarities. The use of advance organizers does fit in with
current teaching approaches, particularly with the communicative language
approach. For in this approach, learners negotiate for meaning and the teacher
acts as a facilitator of the communication process.
2.3. Conclusion:
The studies conducted were of various types, which include different
experimental designs to study the impact of different methods, approaches and
strategies on the achievement, attitude, awareness and understand of different
subjects. Studies carried on AOM highlight the effectiveness of different types
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of advance organizers, length of organizers, development and tryout of new
organizers and effectiveness of models in the training of teachers. It is found
that both types of advance organizers namely expository and comparative,
facilitated retention of subject matter.
Many researchers compared the effect of various models of teaching. In
most of these comparative studies, the effectiveness of Information processing
models among themselves and against that of conventional methods of teaching
has been investigated in relation to many criterion variables such as
Achievement, Attitude towards various subjects. Knowledge acquisition,
students learning and Teaching competencies. Few studies have tried to design,
develop and test the effectiveness of instructional plans and materials based on
selected models. Some of the studies are done to know the reaction of teacher
educators and teachers towards the willingness to implement the models.
Since many studies have been made on AOM, no one has conducted a
study on effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model on the academic
achievement in Biology separately. Therefore the researcher was interested to
know to what an extent the AOM influence on the achievement of students in
Biology studying in Davanagere Taluk. Hence present study was taken up.
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