chapter eleven approaches to instruction. copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights...

Chapter Eleven

Approaches to Instruction

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-2

Overview

• Devising and using objectives

• The behavioral approach to teaching

• The cognitive approach to teaching

• The humanistic approach to teaching

• The social approach to teaching


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

• Knowledge– Remembering previously learned information

such as facts, terms, and principles

• Comprehension– Grasping the meaning of information by putting

it into one’s own words

• Application– Applying knowledge to actual situations


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

• Analysis– Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and

seeing how the parts relate and are organized

• Synthesis– Rearranging component ideas into a new

whole

• Evaluation– Making judgments based on internal evidence

or external criteria


Taxonomy Categories and Problem Solving


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain

• Receiving (attending)– Willingness to receive or attend

• Responding– Active participation indicating positive

response or acceptance of an idea

• Valuing– Expressing a belief or attitude about the value

or worth of something


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain

• Organization– Organizing various values into an internalized

system

• Characterization by a value or value complex– The value system becomes a way of life


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain

• Perception– Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide

motor activity

• Set– Being ready to perform a particular action

• Guided response– Performing under the guidance of a model

• Mechanism– Being able to perform a task habitually with some

degree of confidence and proficiency


Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain

• Complex or overt response– Performing a task with a high degree of

proficiency and skill

• Adaptation– Using previously learned skills to perform new

but related tasks

• Origination– Creating new performances after having

developed skills


Mager’s Recommendations for Use of Specific Objectives

• Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it.

• In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance.

• Write a separate objective for each learning performance.


Gronlund’s Recommendations for Use of General Objectives

• Examine what is to be learned with reference to lists of objectives. Use such lists to formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit.

• Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective.


Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Objectives

• Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid learning.

• Objectives seem to work best when they are clearly written and the learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy.

• Students of average ability seem to profit more from being given objectives than do students of higher or lower ability.

• Objectives lead to an improvement in intentional learning but to a decline in incidental learning.


The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction

• Focusing almost all classroom activity on learning basic academic knowledge and skills.

• Having the teacher make all instructional decisions.

• Keeping students working productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible.

• Maintaining a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.


Components of Direct Instruction

• Orientation– Introduction and overview of the lesson

• Presentation– Explaining and demonstrating new material

• Structured practice– Teacher leads class through problem

• Guided practice– Students work on problems with teacher assistance

• Independent practice– Students practice on their own


Using Technology to Support Behavioral Approaches

• Drill-and-practice CBI tools

• Integrated learning systems

• Multimedia to embellish a lecture


The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Facilitating Meaningful & Self-Directed Learning

• Communicate clear goals• Use attention-getting devices• Emphasize organization and

meaningfulness• Present information in learnable amounts

and over realistic time periods• Facilitate encoding of information into long-

term memory • Practice what you preach


The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Constructivism

• Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD)

• Provide opportunities for learning by discovery

• Foster multiple viewpoints

• Emphasize relevant problems and tasks

• Encourage students to become self-directed learners


Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches

• Helping students process information

• Discovery and exploratory environments

• Guided learning

• Problem- and project-based learning

• Situated learning


The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction

• The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning; specifically, students’ needs, emotions, values, and self-perceptions.

• Maslow: Let Children Grow

• Rogers: Learner-Centered Education

• Combs: The Teacher as Facilitator


The Humanistic Model

• Defining the helping situation

• Exploring the problem

• Developing insight

• Planning and decision making

• Integration


Using Technology to Support Humanistic Approaches

• Learner-centered process

• Helping students meaningfully construct and represent knowledge

• Create challenging and novel learning environments that help students link new information to old

• Achieve complex learning goals

• Build thinking and reasoning strategies


The Social Approach to Teaching: Teaching Students How to Learn from Each Other

• Competitive structures– Structures in which one’s grade is determined by how

well everyone else in the group performs

• Individualistic structures– Structures that are characterized by students working

alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts

• Cooperative structures– Structures that are characterized by students working

together to accomplish shared goals


Elements of Cooperative Learning

• Group heterogeneity

• Group goals/positive interdependence

• Promotive interaction

• Individual accountability

• Interpersonal skills

• Equal opportunities for success

• Team competition


Why Does Cooperative Learning Work?

• Motivational effect

• Cognitive-developmental effect

• Cognitive elaboration effect


Using Technology to Support Social Approaches

• Social constructivist learning

• Cooperative and collaborative learning

chapter eleven approaches to instruction. copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights...

Documents

objectives lea

learning task

teachingthe cognitive

students of higher

learning performance

teachingthe social approach

specific learning outcomes

students of average