chapter 6 - information technology

8/8/2019 Chapter 6 - Information Technology

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KOLEJ KEMAHIRAN TINGGI MARASRI GADING

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UNIT 6: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This subject includes introduction to information system, maintenanceinformation needs, uses of information, information sources, classification of maintenance cost, coding of maintenance and tools of maintenanceinformation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this unit are to provide knowledge and skills in:1. Understanding the information system in maintenance

2. Understanding the needs, uses and sources of information in maintenance3. Understanding classification of maintenance cost4. Understanding the coding and tools of maintenance information

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing the unit, trainees should be able to:1. Identify the information system, needs and uses of information in

maintenance2. Evaluate suitable sources of information in maintenance3. Develop suitable coding and tools in maintenance information4. Apply the knowledge of information technology in real maintenance

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEM

A management information system has been defined by the Institute of Cost and Work Accountants1 as ‘a system in which defined data are collected,processed and communicated to assist those responsible for the use of resources’.

Many writers have commented on the paucity of information relating tomaintenance; the following extract from a conference paper is atypicalexample: ‘It is regrettable that the scientific collection, assessing andanalyzing of data relating to problems of maintenance and repair is very rarelycarried out and information when available is frequently so colored by aparticular situation or prejudice as to be of doubtful value.’ However, the

collection of information is not an end in itself and is only of value if theinformation is applied to control actions towards the achievement of specific

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aims dictated by policy considerations. It is important, therefore, that the basicaims should be clearly identified and appropriate procedures and techniques

developed for the storage, retrieval and processing of relevant information.It is necessary to examine the needs of the users of the information,

the nature of the information they require, the sources from which it may beobtained and the mode of presentation which will facilitate its use in thedecision-making process.

6.2 MAINTENANCE INFORMATION NEEDS

In order to ensure a consistent approach it is desirable that the basicinformation collected should be capable of being proceeded to meet the

particular requirements of decision makers at different stages in buildingsystem. However, in this context only the information needs of those decisionmakers within the owner/occupier and design systems will be considered.

6.2.1 OWNER/OCCUPIER SYSTEM

Two sub-systems can be distinguished:

1. Maintenance expenditure control (see Figure 6.1)This is basically a function of upper management and is concerned

with the total amount to be spent over a period of time rather than thedetailed costs of individual items, unless these happen to be large andnon-recurring. For this purpose a fairly coarse yardstick would besatisfactory against which to measure the reasonableness of theexpenditure proposed or incurred. However, it would be unwise toplace too much reliance on cost incurred by other organizations inwhich circumstances might be quit different. The person exercising thefunction of maintenance cost control is subject to various pressuresand his decision to authorize a certain level of expenditure onmaintenance will be effected by the strength of the demands from other quarters and, in part, by his own interest in and knowledge of

maintenance. It could be a highly individual decision and unlikely toform a reliable basis for other firms in which conditions and financialpressure are different.

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Figure 6.1.: Maintenance expenditure control(Reginald, 1987)

2. Maintenance managementThe functions in this area are mainly of a technical nature andconcerned with the planning and control of construction resources toensure that necessary repairs and renewals are carried out withmaximum efficiency and economy. The major decisions related to:

(a) Determining standards. For this it is necessary to haveinformation on the other external requirements so thatcompatible standards can be fixed. The expression of thesestandards is qualitative and quantitative terms demandsknowledge of the effects of varying degrees of disrepair on user activities and levels of visual acceptance.

(b) Planning inspections. Fixing the periodicity of inspectionsrequires knowledge of the rates of deterioration of the buildingelements so that defects are revealed before they have reacheda critical stage. The minimum period will be determined by theinspection costs which should clearly not exceed the costconsequences of failure.

(c) Identifying and specifying the work necessary. This is achieved

by comparing the information received on the condition of thebuilding from inspections and other sources with the standards

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laid down. It demands knowledge of causes of defects and of the remedial measures which would be appropriate in the

circumstances. Often the assessment is based on accumulatedexperiences but there are obvious dangers in applyingtraditional remedies to new constructional forms and materials.

(d) Estimating the cost of the work. As far as possible the estimatesshould be based on historic cost data obtained from within theorganization for previous similar jobs, but in the absence of suchdata, costs from external sources and experienced judgmenthave to be used.

(e) Planning the work. This is mainly in respect of fixing appropriate

start and finish times for the individual jobs and requiresinformation on the effect of the timing of the work on user activities, its urgency, the availability of resources and the labor time required for each operation.

(f) Organizing the execution of the work. The major decision in thisarea is whether to employ labor directly for the purpose or toengage an outside contractor: for this, information will berequired on the relative merits of these alternatives from point of view of both cost and convenience.

(g) Controlling cost, performance and quality. This involves formalsystem for the feedback of information on progress so thatactual costs and performance can be compared with thosepredicted and remedial action taken if necessary.

The relationships between the above functions are illustrated in Figure 6.2.

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Figure 6.2.: The relationships between maintenance management functions(Reginald, 1987)

6.2.2 DESIGN SYSTEM

The design system embraces all those who contribute to producing adesign solution which meets the client’s requirements in spatial,environmental and cost terms. In addition to the usually accepted members of the design team, i.e. architect, quantity surveyor, structural engineer andmechanical and electrical engineers, one should include the maintenancemanager for advice on the maintainability of the design. The informationneeds in relation to maintenance include:

1. Knowledge of the client’s maintenance policy. This relates to generalpolicy in that details depend on the design finally produced. Theprobability that repairs will be carried out promptly will influence

decision concerning the required durability of the various elements andcomponents. Where the client owns other buildings an examination of these will give a general indication of his attitude towards maintenance.Also the employment of a direct labor force and the operation of aplanned maintenance system would suggest that periodical servicing islikely to be attended to. An important factor which is rarely mentionedin the brief is the planned life of the building and yet this is essentialinformation if the designer is to design for minimum maintenance andrunning costs commensurate with the initial capital cost.

2. Information on the behavior in use and maintenance characteristics of alternative materials and design solutions. Surprisingly there is verylittle hard information in this field and of that which does exist only a

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small proportion is presented in a form which is easily and convenientlyusable.

3. Knowledge of the way in which maintenance and cleaning will becarried out. This information is required so that suitable access can beprovided and proper safeguards incorporated to protect the operativeswhen carrying out the work.

4. Information on maintenance costs for the purpose of calculating thetotal costs – i.e. initial capital cost plus subsequent maintenance andrunning cost – of alternative design. It is doubtful whether actual jobcosts would be of very much value in this context, since they areeffected by many factors other than the intrinsic properties of the

design element, e.g. working conditions, tender climate, managementskills, etc. it is more important to have some guide as to the frequencywith which repairs are necessary and the probable lives under differentconditions of the components under consideration.

6.3 USES OF INFORMATION

It is clear from the foregoing examination of needs that information isused for three main purposes – prediction, comparison and knowledge (or instruction).

6.3.1 PREDICTION

This involves the collection of data over a period of time in order toestablish trends or the conjunction of information to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, e.g. the bringing together of information on the propertiesof materials and the environmental conditions to which they will be exposed toforecast their probable behavior in use.

The nature of the information and the most suitable form of presentation will depend upon:

1. What has to be forecast, the reasons for the forecast and the amountof detail necessary.

2. The time scale of the predictions and the degree of accuracynecessary.

3. The sources of the information, its reliability and the frequency withwhich new information becomes available and whether the new

information supersedes the old or enlarges it.

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4. The importance of external factors and the ways in which these can be

anticipated and their effect measured.

5. The impact of the predictions on other parts of the system and theoverall effect of prediction errors.

6.3.2 COMPARISON

This may take the form of comparisons of internal data for the purposeof measuring performance or of comparing internal data with that obtainedfrom external sources as a check on efficiency. It is important to ensure that

the sets of data being compared have been collected and classified on thesame basis and that the background conditions are similar.

6.3.3 KNOWLEDGE/INSTRUCTION

In many cases the information is required for the purposes of explaining what has to be done and how it is to be done. The amount of detailand form of presentation will depend upon:

1. The purpose for which the information is required. In some cases theinformation may be solely for internal use within the firm while theothers it may be contained in documents which form part of a bindingcontract, e.g. drawings, specification and bills of quantities.

2. The knowledge already possessed by the recipient. Documents rarelycontain all the information required by the recipient for an activity andassume sufficient background knowledge to fill any gaps.

3. The method of communication. Although the primary means adoptedare graphical and written, a good deal of information is conveyed

verbally and it is anticipated that greater use will come to be made of punched or magnetic tape.

4. Economy. The production and transmission of information should beefficient in the use of resources of the originator and of the recipient.

5. Multi-use of information. In addition to the initial instructional use of contract documents, these also provide a source of information for predictive and comparative purposes.

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6.4 INFORMATION SOURCES

There are two pints to consider: firstly, whether the amount of information is adequate and secondly, whether the information that isavailable is being properly used. Although attention is frequently drawn to thelack of maintenance information there is quite clearly a vast amount inexistence which, for a variety of reasons, is inadequately used. Perhaps themain reason is the difficulty in finding relevant information at the time it isrequired. Faced with the plethora of uncoordinated information, the decision-maker tends to use only the most accessible material, combined with intuition.The information may be obtained from internal recodes or from outside

sources.

6.4.1 INTERNAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Internal sources of information may be gathering from:

1. Statement from upper management. It is essential that themaintenance manager should be apprised of the overall policy in so far as this influences the standard of maintenance. This information isrequired in order to assess the extent to which different standardsaffect user activities and either hinder or advance the achievement of the organization’s overall objectives. It may be that where maintenanceexpenditure forms only a small proportion of total expenditure upper management does not think it worthwhile to analyze the problem and iscontent to leave decisions solely to the technical judgment of themaintenance manager. However, this inevitably leads to an add hocapproach to maintains and remove the incentive to introduce a plannedsystem designed to secure the most economic use of resources.

2. Building inventory/project information manual. This document lists the

facilities to be maintained, their location and condition, and is anessential pre-requisite to planning maintenance. For new buildings amaintenance manual may be provide by designer, but will requirecontinuous revision in the light of direct experience of the building, andincorporate any alterations or additions. The Maintenance Manual andJob Diary published by the Building Center is divided into three partsas follow:

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(a) sources of information

description of building contract consultants

contract information

authorities

subcontractors and suppliers

emergency contracts

schedule of floor and loadings

list of maintenance contracts

(b) general maintenance

regular cleaning

general maintenance guide chart

general maintenance instructions

general maintenance log sheets

fitting for replacement

(c) services maintenance

services maintenance guide chart

fittings for replacement

log sheets

drawing list

The manual is prepared by the designer largely on the basis of information received from manufacturers and suppliers. If properlyprepared, it can be a most useful document in manual cases themaintenance and inspection periods are not related to any definedmaintenance policy and are therefore unlikely to be the most economic.Also, in practice, one finds that only a proportion of the items are listedin the manual and that it falls far short of being a comprehensiveplanned maintenance system.

3. Inspection reports recording the actual physical condition of thebuilding. The quality of the information will depend upon the skill of theinspector and the degree of forethought given to the setting of testcriteria and procedures. The preparation of standards forms to serve ascheck lists is an important means of guarding against omissions.

4. User reports relating to inadequacies and faults which detract from theuser of the building. Generally information from this source will beincomplete and will require previewing by a member of themaintenance organization to establish the precise nature and scope of the work involved. Again, it is desirable to standardize the form in

which such requests are made and the reporting procedures.

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5. Documents used for the initiation and control of work. The work order isthe major sources of information on resources used by direct employed

labor. Against the standardized description of the job the completedwork order should indicate the number of labor hours per craft and thematerial used. Suitably coded, the information can be processed togive costs per building, per department, per element, per craft, etc.,and if necessary may be subdivided into labor and materials.

6. Contract documents such as priced bills of quantities, schedules of rates and accounts submitted by contractors on completion of jobs.The amount of information which it is possible to elicit will depend uponthe extent to which the work broken down for the purpose of tender

pricing. For new construction, the priced bill of quantities forms avaluable source of information for cost planning, but this is a verydetailed and standardized breakdown into small items of labor andmaterial which are priced individually. For maintenance work there isno similar standards approach to preparation of tender and contractdocuments, and in many cases the contractor merely quotes an all inlump sum or carries out the work on a cost reimbursement basis. Insuch cases only the total contract sum is recorded and this is notcapable of subdivision or adjustment for the purpose of estimating thecost of future jobs.

6.4.2 EXTERNAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

These are extremely varied and the following account indicates onlythe more important. Apart from textbooks, the sources include:

1. Government departments such as The Department of Environmentaland Statistic publishes statistical data of, among other things, thecomposition of the stock of building, the input of the constructionindustry in term of type and size of firms, operative trades and earnings

and the output by type of client and building. Other governmentdepartment also issue design guides and recommendations onmaintenance procedures for the types of building for which they areresponsible.

2. Other source such as The Building Research Establishment has for many years carried out research into and published papers on thetechnical, economic and organizational aspects of construction andmaintenance. Manufacturer’ literature is produced in very largequantities and varies greatly as to the quality of the information given.Trade associations have been formed to promote the proper usage of

materials by their member firms; most of these associations publish

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information on maintenance methods and are willing to advisedesigners and maintenance managers on particular problems.

6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE COSTS

It is particularly desirable that the classification system should permitthe grouping of maintenance costs in alternative ways to indicate:

1. WhereBuilding, department, use area, element or other appropriate locationreference

2. WhatThe nature of the work done expressed in standard terms

3. WhyThe reason for carrying out the work and the cause

4. WhenThe frequency at which the work becomes necessary

5. HowThe method of execution and, in particular, whether by directlyemployed labor or outside contractor

However, although there are possible roles for a great many classes of maintenance cost, the number should be restricted to those which areessential in order to minimize recording costs. The following classes of costwill be considered:

1. Location2. Building element3. Functional system4. Purpose5. Cause6. Magnitude7. Frequency8. Source of funds9. Job10.Initiation

11.Execution

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6.5.1 LOCATION

Where the maintenance organization is responsible for the upkeep of several buildings the system should allow allocation of cost to each building.Further subdivision into departments or use areas is also desirable. The usualaccountancy practice is to distribute the total cost to departments on a floor area basis, but this is not as meaningful as direct allocation. The physical

parameter for each building should be recorded, i.e. age, form of construction,materials specification, and number of storey, floor area, use, etc., to form abasis for comparison with the costs of maintaining similar building.

The most meaningful location reference for internal work is the ‘room’which in this context would include all self contained use areas, e.g. corridorsand stairways. It has been suggested that greater use should be made of room schedules during the initial design as basis for collecting information onsizes, finishes, windows, doors, fittings, services, etc.

These would give rise to two broad categories – the building envelopeand the individual spaces which it enclose (Figure 6.3).

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Figure 6.3.: The building envelope and the individual spaces(Reginald, 1987)

Although different in kind, they reflect the parts of the building which are actedupon by the two primary causes of deterioration – for the building envelope(foundations, ground floor, external walls and roof) the effect of climaticfactors, and for rooms (finishes to floors, ceilings and walls, fittings) the actionof user activities. This would leave only the central services and externalworks to be dealt with separately.

6.5.2 BUILDING ELEMENTS

A building element has been describe as a major component commonto most buildings which usually fulfils the same function or functionsirrespective of its construction or specification. The standard lists of elementsproduced for the purpose of cost planning new buildings have ad a songinfluence on the elements suggested for maintenance. It is pertinent,therefore, to consider how for the same form of analysis is suitable for bothpurpose.

The main uses of elemental analyses for new construction are:

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Building

Structural envelope

Rooms

(spaces enclosed byenvelope)

Substructure Superstructure

Foundation

Ground floor

External walls

Suspended floors

Partitions

Roof

Floor finish Wall finish Ceiling finish Fittings

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1. To provide a reliable forecast of the cost of the building work.

2. To break down the cost in such a way as to enable decisions to bemade regarding the development of the design.

3. To indicate probable user costs in total and with respect to individualelements of the building design.

It is only in respect of (3) that there is any direct identity of purpose. For (1)and (2) the elemental breakdown reflects the manner in which the designer conceives the building and develops the design of the parts. The primarydifference is that whereas the designer is concerned with a hypotheticalconstruct of a purposed building the maintenance manager is concerned with

the physical result.In the case of maintenance, the purposes of cost analysis are:

1. To reveal the pattern of expenditure in order to determine, for budgetary purposes, what is a reasonable amount to spend on themaintenance of each part of the building.

2. To identify high cost areas for further analysis and in particular toprovide data to assist decisions as to whether it is more economic torenew a component or to continue to repair it.

3. To provide a check on the effectiveness of a panned maintenancepolicy by studying the incidence of costs over s period of time.

4. To assist in the prediction and control of future expenditure.

5. To compare the costs of like locations and elements both within andwithout the organization.

For these purposes the elements chosen should meet the followingrequirements.

1. They should represent major cost areas so that time is not wastedrecording trivia. However, it should be borne in mind that whereas it isalways possible to produce broad analyses from coarse-grained dataand that although initially the fine details may be thought unnecessarythere could be times in the future when they will be needed.

2. They should be capable of precise identification do that the costs canbe accurately apportioned. Inevitably, there will be some small degreeof overlap, e.g. where a floor enters a wall, and arbitrary rules arenecessary to ensure consistency in the classification of work occurring

at the junction of different elements. In laying down such rules, itshould be borne in mind that the information is collected initially from

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sources close to the execution of the work and that therefore thedivisions should be natural ones which are easily recognizable on site.

3. They should be related to measurable parameters of the building sothat costs can be adjusted for different conditions. Usually this does notgo beyond expressing elemental maintenance costs in term of theamount per 100m2 of floor area. However, it is quite clear that manyelemental maintenance costs are not directly related to floor area andanalyses are to provide a reliable basis for inter-firm comparisons. Themost important factors for which adjustments should be made are:

(a) Quantity. It is apparent that knowledge of the floor area alonedoes not indicate the actual areas of the elements to be

maintained. Thus, a single-storey building will have ten timesthe roof area of a ten-storey building with the same floor area.The actual area would provide a more reliable basis on which tomake adjustments.

(b) Quality. This relates to the condition of the building at the timeand is the product of the initial specification and the age of thebuilding. The age factor will tend to assume a constant valueafter about the first 15 years of the life of the building.

(c) Environment. This would include climate factors in relation toexternal elements and user activities in relation to the internalelements and finishes.

(d) Policy. Although difficult to express in quantitative terms there islittle doubt that the maintenance policy is often the dominantfactor in determining the amount spent on maintenance.

4. They should be common to all buildings of the type under consideration. The more detailed the element analysis, the moredifficult it is to satisfy this condition. However, commonality could be

preserved at the higher levels of aggregation while allowing greater flexibility at the more detailed lower levels.

5. They should be related to maintenance management procedures andprocesses. Although alternative groupings may be necessary to suitthe needs of particular procedures it is desirable that the elementalbreakdown should be compatible with these other groupings and forman integral part of the whole system.

6. They should allow logical subdivision and aggregation to suit the needsof different users, including feedback to the designer.

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An examination of the published elemental analyses used for maintenancereveals that they fall into one of four basic groups:

(a) Those designed principally to facilitate inspections or fieldsurveys for the purpose of combining an inventory of facilitiesand their condition. The elements are arranged in a convenientorder for viewing and inevitably certain elements, e.g. the roof,have to be split into two parts because the interior and exterior are inspected at different points in time. It is usual for specifications of work to be done to be subdivided in a similar way.

(b) Those which are an extension of normal accounting and cost

control procedures.

(c) Those designed to permit comparisons of maintenanceexpenditure incurred by different organizations. In the threeexample analyses given in Table 4.1, decoration is recognizedas being the major maintenance item and given pride of place.However, there are differences in the other elemental groupingswhich preclude direct comparison of analyses compiled onthese bases.

(d) Those which parallel the element breakdowns used for cost-planning new buildings. These usually take the form of adetailed inventory coded so as to indicate the precise location of each individual item. These items are assigned inspectioncriteria and job descriptions for preventive maintenance andremedial work.

6.5.3 FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS

The terms ‘functional system’ is used to describe the interactive resultof a set of building elements in combining to provide some identifiable aspectsof the user’s environment. Building elements – walls, floors, roofs, etc. –simultaneously contribute to one or more functional systems. For example,the roof serves not only to exclude the weather but also by reducing heatlosses forms part of the environmental thermal system. By relating costs tofunctional systems, the purpose of the work is more clearly demonstrated and

it becomes more feasible to assess the effect on user activities of differentlevels of maintenance expenditure.

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However, as this represents a new approach to the classification of maintenance costs, it would be better used as an addition to a system based

on building elements to fulfill an explanatory function and to assist in relatingcosts to benefits.

A possible classification on these lines would be:

(a) Safety (SAF). This would cover structural stability, fireprecautions, security measures and hazards of all types. Usuallythese matters must be given first priority to comply with legalrequirements, but some work, e.g. installation of a sprinkler system, may be carried out to obtain a reduction in insurancepremiums.

(b) Weather (WEA). This would include those parts of the externalenvelope which prevent the entry of wind and rain, e.g. roof coverings and wall claddings. The standard ad priority willdepend upon the extent to which the penetration of water adversely affect other parts of the structure or interfere with theuser of the building.

(c) Environmental (ENV). This may further be subdivided into thevisual, thermal and acoustic sub-systems and would include allwork necessary to maintain the appropriate physiological andpsychological conditions. It would include the serviceinstallations for heating, cooling, ventilation. Lighting etc.; thecontributions of the building fabric, internal decoration andcleaning.

(d) Spatial (SPA). The internal subdivision of the building and theprovision for movement between spaces both horizontally andvertically. This could be treated as a subdivision of environment,but since spaces may have to be frequently rearranged toaccommodate different activity patterns, it is better to consider such changes separately. It would also provide useful

information on the value of flexible design methods and of provisions such as movable partitions.

(e) Hygiene (HYG). This would cover washing and lavatory facilitiesand the associates waste and soil disposal systems.

(f) Communication (COM). The audio and visual means of transmitting information including internal telephone, messagetubes, close circuit television, etc.

(g) Storage (STO). The spaces, shelving, cupboards, lockers, etc.,

for the storage of materials and equipment.

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(h) External (EXT). This would be subdivided into access (path anddrives), boundary protection (fencing and boundary walls),

landscaping, and drainage, supply mains for gas, water andelectricity.

It will be appreciated that the conventional elements will fall into one or other of the above functional systems according to the purpose for which the workis carried out. Thus work t walls may be for the purpose of improving theinsulation, in which case it would be classified under environment, or may beto prevent the collapse of the wall, in which case it would be entered under safety.

Table 6.1 indicates the relationship between building elements,functional systems and maintenance operations.

Table 6.1.: Relationship between building elements, functional systems andmaintenance operations.

(Reginald, 1987)Buildingelement

Functionalsystem

Operation

External walls

SAFWEAWEAWEA

SAF

Repair/rebuild brickworkPatch/renew renderingRepair/renew claddingRemake joints between units

Underpinning

Roof

WEAWEAWEAWEA

SARWEAENV

Replace units/strip and renew slates/tilesPatch areas/strip and renew felt/asphaltReplace units/strip and renew sheetingClean out gutters and rainwater pipes and remake jointsStrengthen/renew structural timbersRepair/renew eaves fascia/soffit board/gutter boardsRenew/provide insulation

Floors SAFSAF

Repair/renew floor finishRepair/renew structural timbers

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6.5.4 PURPOSE

For the proper interpretation of cost data, it is essential to know thepurpose for which the work was undertaken.

A useful sub-division would be into:

1. Repairs necessary to maintain the facilities to the required standard.Admittedly this does not resolve the problem of comparing costsincurred by different organizations, in that the base standards will varyfrom one building to another. An agreed method of grading standardsis desirable so that costs can be adjusted to a common base.

2. Renewals. The decisions to renew rather than to continue repairing

may be influenced by economic or aesthetic considerations. It would behelpful to know which was the determining factors, e.g. whether acomponent was renewed before the end of its functional life because ithad become visually unacceptable.

3. Modifications. This would include alterations and improvements toallow more effective use of the building and would be justified in termsof the predicted benefits flowing from the change.

4. Protection. This would apply principally to external painting and other thin coatings whose primary purpose is the protection of the basematerials.

5. Decoration. This would include internal painting and other decorativetreatments whose main purpose is to enhance the appearance of theinternal surfaces of the building.

6. Cleaning. Although this also serves to maintain the internal appearanceof the building, it is organized differently from normal maintenance workand is therefore better dealt with separately.

6.5.5 CAUSE

The cause of the failure is difficult to ascertain from the usual forms of analysis of maintenance data. And yet this is a key factor if past errors are tobe avoided. Clearly the causes are many and varied and to record then all indetail would be exceedingly time-consuming. However, they fall into one or other of the following broad categories:

1. Normal wear and tear. This would be normal for the particular type of building, exposure conditions and user activities and does not imply

that there is a certain level of expenditure which is applicable in allcircumstances. However, it is suggested that where there is similarity of

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construction, exposure and user, it is logical to assume that thephysical need for maintenance will be similar and that variations I

amounts actually expended reflect differing policies and attitudes tomaintenance.

2. Abnormal wear and tear. The abnormality may be due to:

(a) Design fault. This may be in respect of constructional details or materials which are unsuited to the environment in which theyare used.

(b) Exceptional weather conditions for which it would not havebeen reasonable to make provision in the design.

(c) Improper use. Where the possibility of rough usage could havebeen foreseen by the designer, failure to guard against it wouldamount to a design fault. But willful damage or grosscarelessness should be separately recorded so that wherepossible restitution can be sought or steps taken to avoid arecurrence.

(d) Inappropriate maintenance. It would be unusual, perhaps, for maintenance management to enter anything under thisheading, but there is little doubt that the wrong diagnosis of thecause of failure can not only fail to affect a cure, but can resultin a worsening of the condition of the building.

(e) Neglect. This is work made necessary through delay incarrying out maintenance at the proper time. Strictly speaking,the loss is the difference between the cost of the work doneand the cost which would be incurred had the work been doneat the right time. However, it is useful to draw attention to thehigher costs resulting from delay and where the amount shownunder this head is substantial, to reconsider the organization’s

maintenance policy.

6.5.6 MAGNITUDE

In most organizations one finds a distinction made between minor andmajor work. From a number of points of view – planning, authorization of expenditure, and source of funds – jobs are dealt with differently according tosize. This may also be reflected in the manner of executing the work – directlabor undertaking the minor works, and the major works let out to contractorson a competitive or negotiated basis, with the consequential effects on

documentation and supervisory and control functions. The division is usuallyachieved by fixing some arbitrary cost limit.

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6.5.7 FREQUENCY

This characteristic is usually linked to magnitude in that many minor jobs are of frequent occurrence, whereas major jobs, by their nature, tend tobe infrequent. The value of this information lies in its use for predicting theincidence of future maintenance and for this purpose, it is important todistinguish between routine, cyclic and frequent work. In particular, theperiodicity and average cost of cyclic work should be established so that theeffects of varying the period on total costs and on the user of the building canbe ascertained.

6.5.8 SOURCE OF FUNDS

The basic division is between revenue and capital according to whether or not the work increases the capital value of the asset. The distinction issignificant with regard to tax, in that revenue expenditures may be set againsttaxable profits.

6.5.9 JOB

Where the work is carried out by directly employed labor, thecompleted work orders showing time spent and materials used together with astandardized description of the job can be filed in numerical order for futurereference. Although jobs rarely repeat themselves in precisely the same form,the completed work orders provide a useful aid to estimating andprogramming. Also, for control purpose, a schedule showing actual andestimated labor hours against each job number will indicate progress andefficiency.

6.5.10 INITIATION

It is necessary for control purpose to have a measure of planningefficiency and this may be achieved by a breakdown into schedule work,contingency work – i.e. that requested by the user – and emergency work.Generally, the higher the proportion of the scheduled work the more efficientthe planning, although it should be noted that over scheduling may bewasteful if it results in unnecessary work. The most advantageous proportionscan be found y a careful analysis of the workload and will vary according tothe predictability of the repairs and the nature of the occupancy.

6.5.11 EXECUTION

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Maintenance expenditure should be classified according to whether the

work has been carried out by direct labor or by an outside contractor. Wheredirect labor has been used it is helpful for the purpose of manpower planningto subdivide into operatives’ skills. Contract work may be subdividedaccording to the type of contract entered into.

6.6 CODING OF MAINTENANCE

Having decided upon the most useful categories of information torecord, the next step is to devise a suitable coding system. In this context acode may be defined as a set of symbols used to facilitate the storage,

retrieval and processing of information and data. The codes may benumerical, alphabetical or mnemonics of natural language words, e.g. BKWKfor brickwork. Numerical codes are usually are more convenient for machineand computer processing although an alpha numerical code, i.e. acombinations of letters and numbers, is easier for visual recognition. Thealphabetical also has some advantage where the number of classes to bedistinguished is greater than 10 but less than 26, in that only one letter isrequired instead of two digits. It should be borne in mind that the accuracy of the system will depends upon the correct allocation of costs on the job. Temain source of error is in the recording of labor costs and this should be donedaily by the foreman or supervisor. Clearly, the simpler the code structure thebetter from the point of view of reducing recording errors.

The processing of data may be carried out manually or by machine.Manual systems are time consuming, costly and subject to human error. Theyare, however, flexible and once the procedure has been established they canbe transferred to a machine. The final sophistication is to computerize themeans of storing, sorting, calculating and presenting the information indifferent formats for management control. Whatever system is used, the mainsource document is the completed work order showing the appropriate codesymbols with details of labor hours and materials. For example, assuming thata maintenance organization is responsible for the upkeep of a number of

buildings and that is required to classify costs according to location, elementand operation, an appropriate code field would be shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 6.4.: Maintenance Coding

(Reginald, 1987)

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1. BuildingsThe buildings would be listed and each one assigned a letter, for

example:

Office AWorkshop 1 BWorkshop 2 CStores Detc.

2. ElementA standard list of elements would be produced and each element andsub-element given a code number. For example, the roof might be 22.

3. OperationSimilarly a standard list of maintenance operation would be preparedand the operations numbered sequentially. For example, cleaning outgutters might be 156.

Thus the code B 22 156 would indicate cleaning out the gutters to theroof of Workshop 1. if all the work orders are coded in a similar way accordingto location, element and operation it is possible to obtain the total cost of maintaining each building, or the cost of maintaining individual elements or of carrying out a particular operation. The procedures would be as shown inFigure 6.5.

Figure 6.5.: The procedures of Coding(Reginald, 1987)

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TIME SHEETS

Operative’s code

number JOB

FILE

Opera

tive’s

codenumb

er

Material input record

STORES

CONTROL

PROCEDURES

COST ALLOCATED

TO

Building

Element

Operation

PAYROLL

PROCEDURES

Labor input record

STORES

REQUISITION

Materials code

number

WORK ORDER

Job number and

code




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6.7 TOOLS OF MAINTENANCE INFORMATION

Few technologies have developed at the speed of computer design or are as likely to have such a fundamental effect on our everyday lives.Computers have three main uses:

1. MathematicalThe carrying out of extremely complex mathematical calculations or ‘number crunching’ as it is sometimes referred to.

2. CommercialThe carrying out relatively simple calculations on large amount of data.

3. Process controlThe use of microprocessors to monitor and control the operation of plant and equipment, e.g. optimizing start and stop times for firingboilers.

The first two are extensions of the human mind whereas the last one is takingover man’s role as a machine minder. It is, however, the commercial uses towhich the reminder of this chapter is devoted. It should be noted that in thisrespect the computer is doing little more than could be done manually butvery much more quickly and with less risk of errors. It makes it possible torearrange data to serve various management functions without having toemploy an army of clerks for the purpose. Also, once the data has beencommitted to a computer file, it becomes possible to use the data in other people’s files. Thus, one should be thinking in terms of an integrated systemfor the organization as a whole rather than on which is limited to themaintenance department.

More recent developments in computerized systems for maintenancemanagement have been towards integrated systems which provide for thedirect online entry of job information. However, before deciding of type of hardware and software one should careful assessment of the organizationalrequirements in terms of the nature of the input data, the form of the output

data and the number and location of access terminals and printers. The needto involve the people who will be using the system should not be overlooked.Initially it will call for a good deal of time and effort to produce the necessarydatabases which would normally include:

1. Property database: location, description, construction, age, use, etc.

2. Work specification: coded job description with priority ratings.

3. Estimating data: coded schedule of rates with items broken down intolabor, materials and plant.

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4. Planned inspections: frequencies and check list of items to beinspected.

5. Accounting data: codes for charging jobs to different cost centers.

6. Contactors: details of contractors on approved list and details of contractual arrangements with term contractors.

7. Direct labor: personnel files and stores inventory.

8. Historical data: details of various categories of maintenance andimprovement jobs.

Usually an online system would be adopted to give immediate and up-to-date information in different forms to aid management decisions. Ideally thesystem should:

1. Provide for the continuous up-dating of the property database reflectingphysical changes in the characteristic of the property and patterns of use.

2. Permit the direct input of details of new work to be carried out to theproperty including:

(a) description of the work, expressed in a standard form(b) location of the work(c) trade involve for direct labor or name of contractor

(d) priority rating(e) when access can be gained to the premises

3. Schedule the jobs into an economic sequence taking into account:(a) location of the jobs(b) priority rating(c) age of the jobs

(d) current availability of direct labor operatives or contractors

4. Print work orders ether singly or batches for particular buildings or areas.

5. Monitor the progress of individual jobs and report any that are fallingbehind the program.

6. List all cost against work orders to provide up-to-date information onpayments and commitments for budgetary control.

7. Check availability of materials in stores and issue reminders whenstock is nearing re-order level.

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8. produce statistical information concerning:

(a) number of jobs requested, completed, cancelled and in hand(b) average response time for dealing with user requests(c) analysis of backlog classified according to location, trades,

contractors, etc., with reasons for holdups, e.g. no access,waiting for materials, special plant, instruction, etc.

(d) performance measures for direct labor and contractors(e) recurring defects for inclusion in planned preventive

maintenance program and feedback to designers

9. Provide the necessary financial data for accounting purposes includingpayroll procedures, bonus payments and contractors’ account.

10. Build up a complete maintenance history to each building classified intoelements and use areas with future projections of major renewals andrepairs.

Clearly, the manual processing of the very detailed and fragmentaryinformation on maintenance jobs to the degree of sophistication suggestedwould be extremely time-consuming, and such processing is only reallyfeasible using a computer. The main advantages that can be gained fromprocessing such data by computer instead of manually are:

1. Provision of a more efficient maintenance service by resolving many of the day-to-day operational bottlenecks.

2. Overall reduction in maintenance costs which will more thancompensate for the cost of installation.

3. Reduction of human errors and staff time on routine clerical processes.

4. Rapid availability of comprehensive operational and budgetary data.

5. Ability to rearrange data too quickly to serve various purposes, e.g. aspot investigation of a particular type of defect.

6. Information may be accessed by other systems if there is a centraldatabase.

7. Better feedback to designers of defects related to particular forms of construction or materials.

Figure 6.6 shows the components of integrated building maintenance ITsystem.

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Figure 6.5.: Components of integrated building maintenance IT system(Wordsworth, 2000)

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SUMMARY

In this unit we have studied what is information system, needs and uses of information in maintenance, sources of information in maintenance, how todevelop suitable coding and tools in maintenance information so that it canapply in real maintenance.

REFERENCES

1. Building Maintenance Management, L. Reginald, William Collins Sons &Co. Ltd, 1987

2. Lee’s Building Maintenance Management, P. Wordsworth, Library of Congress, UK, 2000