CHAPTER 5

JOB ANALYSIS, JOB DESIGN AND QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

INTRODUCTION

Revolutionary changes, complex technologies and global competition mean increasing vulnerability. Organisations that fail to have the right people in the right place at the right time are at risk. A proper match between work and employee capabilities is now an economic necessity. Moreover, work itself is in a state of constant flux (Change) as organisations downsize, outsource, restructure and re-engineer their work processes, and introduce self-directed work teams and independent contractors to gain a competitive advantage. Such workplace changes dramatically affect the work lives of employees. Organisations that change their existing strategies, or develop new business strategies.

Need to reassess their structures. If there is a poor fit between the chosen strategy and the organisation’s structure, the structure will need to be redesigned.

The move from a tall, hierarchical structure to a flat structure involves eliminating layers of management. - This will produce wider spans of control - More delegation of responsibilities- Increased empowerment - Decentralised decision making- New skill sets.

Thus, changes in strategy affect not only how work is performed, but also the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes required by workers. Job restructuring, for example, may highlight gaps in the current skill levels of employees, calling for new recruitment, training and development, coaching, redeployment and outsourcing programs. This means that HR managers need a good understanding of work and how it is organised to ensure that the organisation’s strategic business objectives are being supported and employee needs are being met. Job analysis and job design provide the foundations for this knowledge.

1. JOB ANALYSIS

Job analysis is a basic HR activity because it focuses attention on the job content, the job requirements and the job context. It identifies what employees are expected to do.

Knowledge about jobs and their requirements What tasks, duties and responsibilities they include Their relationships to other jobs The conditions under which work is performed The personal capabilities required for satisfactory performance

Components of job analysisJob analysis provides information about three basic aspects of a job

Job content describes the duties and responsibilities of the job in a manner that can range from global statements to very detailed descriptions of tasks and procedural steps

Job requirements identify the formal qualifications, knowledge, skills, abilities and personal characteristics Job context refers to situational and supporting information regarding the particular job

- Its purpose - where it fits within the organisations scope data- The availability of guidelines - The potential consequences of error - The amount and closeness of supervision received or provided- The work setting (outdoors, remote areas) and working conditions

Ex: Ability to work under pressure, to travel overseas, to work alone or to work as a team member

Approaches to job analysisI. A job-oriented (or task) approach : concerned with what gets done, that is, the tasks, duties and responsibilities

of the jobII. An employee-oriented (or behavior) approach: focuses on how the job is done, that is, the human behavior

required to perform the job (job requirements).

Job analysis and job designJob information is gathered, analyzed and recorded as the job exists, not as the job should exist. Industrial engineers, methods analysts or technical specialists initially structure work to achieve the organisation’s strategic business objectives. Job analysis is normally conducted after the job has been designed, the worker has been trained and the work has been performed. The organisations can then use the information generated via the written job descriptions and job specifications in the design or redesign of jobs

When to analyses a jobJob analysis must keep up with job changes, but it is not possible to identify precisely how often a job should be reviewed. Cherrington identifies three occasions when job analysis is generally undertaken:

I. When the organisations commences and the job analysis program is startedII. When a new job is created

III. When a job is changed significantly as a result of new methods, new procedures or new technology

Indicators that a job analysis may be needed; No evidence of any job analysis ever having been done A considerable period having passed since the last job analysis was undertaken Increasing employee grievances (Complaint) regarding job content and/or working conditions Disagreement between a supervisor and a job holder on the work to be performed Reorganization, restructuring or downsizing that involves job changes or the creation of new jobs Changes in technology whereby new processes, machinery or equipment are introduced (required to

understand the basics of broadband and wireless internet access, while hotel managers are expected to have additional IT troubleshooting skills)

The uses of job analysis

A job description Defines what a job is by identifying its content, requirements and context. Providing a written summary of the duties and responsibilities of the job

Job specifications Focus on the knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics and formal qualifications that an employee must possess to perform the job successfully

Job design Identifies what work must be performed, how it will be performed, where it is to be performed and who will perform it

Job analysis information can help To identify and clarify the structure and design which helps to minimize overlap or duplication To accurately determine the number and types of employees to be recruited

Aids the recruitment process by identifying the job requirements and enabling HR managers to target their recruiting efforts and attract superior candidates

Identifies irrelevant and/or inaccurate job information, thus facilitating more realistic job previews Assists the selection process by identifying what formal qualifications, knowledge, skills, abilities and personal

characteristics are required for satisfactory performance Essential to the establishment of a performance assessment system because it provides a thorough

understanding of what the employee is supposed to do Used to design and implement training and development programs promotes good industrial relations by providing a clear description of tasks, duties and responsibilities

Job analysis can identify the critical elements of a job and the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities and other personal characteristics required for successful job performance. It provides insurance that an organisation’s HR policies and practices are legally defensible and that job-related selection criteria will be employed.

2. JOB DESCRIPTIONS

A job description, or position description, is a written statement explaining why a job exists, what the job holder actually does, how they do it and under what conditions the job is performed. There is no standard format used for preparing a job description; the format, in fact, depends on managerial preference and how the job description will be used. Most job descriptions contain information on:

Job identificationLocates the job in the organizational structure. It includes information on the employee’s job title, department and reporting relationships

Job objectiveDescribes in a nutshell why the job exists — that is, the primary purpose or objective of the position

Duties and responsibilitiesHeart of the job description and should indicate clearly and specifically what the employee must do. Six to eight of key duties are enough to describe most jobs. A common mistake is to list every task regardless of importance.

RelationshipsWith other positions that are necessary for satisfactory job performance. What positions report directly to this job? What are the job’s most frequent contacts within the organisations?

KnowledgeConcerned with the minimum levels of skills, experience and formal qualifications required to do the job

Problem solvingThe amount of original thinking required in decision making and the environment in which problem solving takes place (Does the job require simple, routine and repetitive solutions or complex & creative solutions?)

AuthoritySpecific rights and limitations that apply to the position’s decision-making authority

AccountabilityIt measures the answerability for actions taken on the job

Special circumstancesConcerned with what is special, unusual or hazardous about the position and/or the environment in which the job is performed

Performance standards(a) The standards required for effective performance and (b) the measures for evaluating performance. It identifies what is expected to be achieved, how the job holder is expected to behave (for example, to be ethical, to be a team player) and how performance will be measured (by results — sales volume, production output)

Guidelines for Job description List duties and responsibilities in a logical sequence State separate duties and responsibilities clearly, simply and concisely. Begin each sentence with an action verb. Use quantitative terms where possible to achieve greater objectivity and clarity. Use specific rather than vague terms. Use standardized terminology. Answer the questions of how, what, when and why. This will help produce a complete job description Clearly identify the end results or standards on which performance will be evaluated.

Job specificationsThe job specification, or person specification, is derived from the job description. It identifies the experience, education, knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics and special requirements needed to perform the job successfully. This is essential, because it identifies in job-related terms what kind of candidates need to be recruited and how they should be assessed. The job specification may be incorporated into the job description form or documented separately.

Job descriptions, job specifications and trade unions

Badly written job descriptions and job specifications restrict management’s freedom to change job tasks, duties and responsibilities and to assign work to employees. To avoid disputes, it is critical that job descriptions and job specifications be clear, concise and understandable.

This is particularly so with jobs that have hierarchical skill and responsibility classifications (for example, machinist grade A or grade 1, highest level; machinist grade B or grade 2, next level down and so on). Such jobs must be carefully distinguished by job title and clearly involve different job content and job requirements. Precise job descriptions cannot overcome incompetent management or inadequate wage and salary administration, but they do help.

Job descriptions that are subject to award or contract negotiation can minimize the risk of disputes by attending to the following matters:

Job descriptions and job specifications for higher-level positions should include only job content and job requirements that reflect the highest level of difficulty encountered by the job holder on a regular and consistent basis. Tasks, duties and responsibilities performed occasionally should not be included if they already appear in lower-level job descriptions.

Job descriptions and job specifications for jobs at each level should use only terms and definitions that have the complete agreement and common understanding of employees, union representatives, supervisors and managers.

The job content or job requirements should not be identical for jobs covered by rival unions present on the same site.

Job description language should be kept clear and simple to avoid the union argument that the job sounds ‘difficult to do’.

Job specifications should identify the minimum requirements needed to perform the job satisfactorily, thus avoiding the union argument that the job is ‘highly skilled’.

Job descriptions for jobs at different levels should use clearly different titles and clearly different language

Criticism of Job Descriptions

The traditional job description has been criticized for being a straitjacket (limitation) suitable only for repetitive work. Being a static written description, it ignores the dynamics of the job.

Cascio, describes job descriptions as being behaviorally sterile! This is especially true for problem-solving and managerial work ‘where incumbents have a great deal of influence over their work activities, the percentage of time they allot to different work activities, and the way in which the activities are carried out’.

Peters argues that ‘it is imperative today that managers and non-managers be induced to cross “uncross able” boundaries as a matter of course day after day’. Japanese companies, for example, avoid specialization and generalize training programs to promote flexibility in the assignment of personnel. Thus, their job descriptions are merely a general guide, with everyone crossing job boundaries.

Townsend says, ‘a job description freezes the job as the writer understands it at a particular instant in the past. At worst, they are prepared by personnel people who can’t write and don’t understand the jobs.

Thus, job descriptions are seen as being appropriate only for stable, predictable and bureaucratic organisations. According to Brass, ‘there is considerable evidence that “jobs” are created by organizations and bureaucracies merely because this makes organizational life more ordered and more easily controlled from the top’.

3. COLLECTION OF JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION

I. ObservationTo understand what an employee does, along with how, why and where they do it, the job analyst observes an employee working and records a description of the tasks and duties performed. Direct observation is primarily used for standardised, repetitive short job cycle or manual jobs. In contrast, jobs that involve thinking yield almost no information to the observer.

there is often no way an observer can obtain an accurate description of the mental energy If a job cycle is irregular or extends over a long period of time, job observation will be difficult. The process of observation can also create an unrealistic situation and cause the employee to behave

differently. This problem can be particularly serious when an employee knows that a job description will be used to determine their job grade and remuneration.

This can be extremely time-consuming, requiring many hours of direct observation.

II. InterviewsInterview information is especially valuable for managerial and professional jobs that involve difficult-to-observe behavior. The interview method generally requires the job analyst to visit the job location and meet with the employee performing the job, but whether this is realistic depends on conditions such as noise, weather, safety, accessibility. Interviews can be conducted with a single employee, a group of employees or a manager who is knowledgeable about the job. Limitations of the interview method include the following:

Developing a questionnaire, establishing rapport between the job analyst and the employee and interviewing multiple job holders (especially those in managerial and professional positions) can be expensive and time-consuming.

The job analyst needs considerable skill to ensure that only accurate and unbiased information is recorded.

III. Job analysis questionnairesThe major advantage of the job analysis questionnaire method is that information on a large number of jobs can be collected within a relatively short time. Consequently, the use of questionnaires is usually the most economical job analysis method. It permits the job analyst to put standard questions to all participants.

However, there is a danger (especially with open-ended or narrative questionnaires) that employees may not complete the questionnaire,

Some questions — such as: What type of formal education do you consider to be the minimum requirement for satisfactory performance of your job? What do you think is the most complex or difficult part of your job?— allow the employee to fully describe the job as it is being performed, but may be perceived as threatening, invasive, complicated, time-consuming and annoying.

The checklist questionnaire attempts to overcome some of these problems by reducing the employees’ time and effort in completing the form. It also facilitates statistical analysis by computer.Nevertheless, there are some established guidelines to make the questionnaire easier to use:

Keep it as short as possible.

Explain how the questionnaire results are being used. Employees want to know why they must answer the questions.

Keep it simple. Test the questionnaire before using it. To improve the questionnaire, ask some employees to complete

it and to comment on its features.

IV. Critical incident reportsCritical incident reports are snapshot accounts of effective or ineffective job performance. If a large amount of incident information is collected, describing what led up to the incident, what the employee actually did and why the performance was effective or ineffective, then the job requirement can be defined. However, the critical incident technique does not identify the routine activities performed by the employee, so it is best suited for use in performance appraisal, and training and development. Critical incident reports require the employee’s supervisor to keep written records of the employee’s activities that have contributed to success or failure.

V. Using a combination of data collection methodsA combination of methods increases the probability of better results, so multiple methods are frequently used. The job analyst ultimately must decide which method or combination of methods is required to produce a thorough job analysis. It is critical that the purposes of the job analysis (for example, recruitment and selection, performance appraisal or job evaluation) be clearly stated before the data collection method is determined

4. JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

VI. The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Is a job analysis instrument and scoring/reporting service that is marketed commercially. Developed by Purdue University, the PAQ is a structured questionnaire for quantitatively assessing jobs. It contains 194 questions divided into six major categories: Information input: Where and how does the employee get the information needed to perform the job? Mental processes: What reasoning, decision-making, planning and information-processing activities are

involved in performing the job? Physical activities: What physical activities does the employee perform and what tools or devices are

used? Relationships with other people: What relationships with other people are required in the job? Job context: In what physical or social contexts is the work performed? Other job characteristics: What activities, conditions or characteristics, other than those described, are

relevant to the job?

The big advantage of the PAQ is that it can be used to analyses almost any type of job. In addition, it has been widely used and researched and appears to be both valid and reliable.

VII. The Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ) Is a 197-item, behaviorally oriented, structured questionnaire for describing, comparing, classifying and evaluating management positions. The MPDQ is divided into ten sections: general information, decision making, planning and organizing, supervising and controlling, consulting and involving, contacts, monitoring business indicators, overall ratings, know-how, and an organizational chart.

VIII. The Position Classification Inventory (PCI) Is a job analysis inventory that can be used to classify occupations and to assess person–job fit. It can help the HR manager to:

Describe skills required within specialized occupations Compare employee views and supervisor views of the position Enhance person–job fit Understand sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with a position or occupation. The 84-item inventory can be completed in less than ten minutes.

Practical Problems with Job Analysis Lack of top management support The use of only one method of job analysis The use of only a single source for collecting job information Lack of participation by supervisors and job holders in the design of the job analysis exercise The fact that the job analyst, the supervisor or the job holder has not been trained in job analysis Employees’ lack of awareness of the importance of job analysis Insufficient time allowed to complete the job analysis

5. COMPETENCY PROFILING

The usefulness of task-oriented approaches to job analysis has been reduced by changes in the workplace: widespread corporate downsizing; improvements in information technology; the introduction to the workplace of flexible job design, teamwork, multiskilling and project assignments; and the demise of authoritarian hierarchies and the replacement of specialization with a new style generalist.

As a result, HR managers have increasingly focused on person-oriented approaches such as critical incident reporting and Behavioral Event Interviews to identify the skills and behaviors needed to perform a job, which is known as competency profiling. This attributes model of competencies has three key elements: underlying characteristics — the competency is an integral part of a person’s personality causality — the competency causes or predicts behavior and performance Performance — the competency actually predicts effective (that is, minimally acceptable) or superior

performance as measured on a specific criterion or standard.

Competency Characteristics

MotivesWhat drives, directs and selects behavior towards certain actions or goals and away from others. Ex: achievement-motivated people consistently set challenging goals, take responsibility for accomplishing them and use feedback to do better.

Traits Physical characteristics and consistent responses to situations or information. Example: reaction time and good eyesight are physical trait competencies of fighter pilots.

Self-conceptA person’s attitudes, values or self-image. Example: self-confidence, a person’s belief that they can be effective in almost any situation, is part of that person’s concept of self.

KnowledgeInformation a person has in specific content areas. Example: a surgeon has knowledge of the nerves and muscles in the human body.

SkillThe ability to perform a certain physical or mental task. Example: a computer programmer should be able to organised 50 000 lines of code in a logical, sequential order.62

It should be noted that knowledge and skill competencies tend to be visible while self-concept, trait and motive competencies tend to be hidden and more central to personality. Consequently, the surface competencies are easier to develop than the deeper competencies. It is therefore more cost-effective for HR managers to use training for focusing on the visible competencies and to use selection for focusing on the hidden competencies. In developing a competency standard, HR managers typically ask three questions:

What action must the employee demonstrate? (the element) What performance standards must be met? (performance criteria) What are the conditions under which the action must be carried out? (range of

variables)For example:

Element. Must type at 50 words per minute. Performance criteria. Must have a maximum ten per cent error rate. Range of variables. Must use computer, must undertake typing test.

Criticisms of competency profiling

The ambiguous meaning of competency. There is no universal agreement as to what competency means. Ex: Competency is sometimes used to refer to ‘behaviors or actions, sometimes to the abilities or characteristics underlying behavior and sometimes to the outcomes or results of actions’

Its generic ‘off-the-shelf’ nature. It is argued that particular organizational and national cultures require competencies tailored to their specific situation.

Its focus on the past, rather than the present. Many competency models are based on ‘what has made for successful performance in the past, rather than what will make for successful performance in the future’.

The emphasis on ‘technical’ competencies. Competencies such as creativity and sensitivity, which are difficult to measure, are often ignored.

The assumption of rationality. Townley argues that the political dimensions of the job along with the gender and racial imbalances present in most organisations are ignored.

Despite these criticisms, proponents argue that competency profiling, by identifying specific occupational requirements that facilitate the achievement of the organisation’s strategic objectives, fosters competitiveness and a more strategically focused approach to HRM.

6. JOB DESIGN

Are employees committed? Do they demonstrate pride in their work? Do they feel free to make decisions? Will they accept responsibility? Are they frequently absent? Are they productive? Job design is frequently the key to the answers to these questions. But when such problems arise, managers often blame employees rather than the design of the job.

HR managers must promote employee productivity by finding ways to unlock the potential that exists in the overwhelming majority of employees. Better job design is one way of doing this, because productivity, job stress and quality of work life are tied to job design.Job issues such as high work pressure, emotional demands and role ambiguity, for example, can lead to sleeping problems, exhaustion and impaired health.

Methods of Job Design

I. Job Specialization Or SimplificationInvolves using standardized work procedures and having employees perform repetitive, precisely defined and simplified tasks. The job analyst records the various movements made in performing the job, clocks the time taken for each movement and undertakes rational or ‘scientific’ job analysis to:

Redesign the job to make movements simpler and quicker to perform Develop more efficient patterns of movement so employees can do the job faster Set standards for designated jobs

Advantages

Improved operating efficiencies through the use of low-skilled and low-cost labour The need for minimum on-the-job training The easy control of production quantities Fewer errors made when workers perform simple routine jobs

Problems

Repetition. Boredom and lack of challenge to learn anything new or to improve the job quickly and cause low organizational commitment.

Mechanical pacing. Employees are restricted by the speed of the assembly line No end product. Employees find that they don’t produce any identifiable end product, so develop little

pride Limited social interaction No employee involvement. Employees complain that they have no decision-making authority over how

the job is done. Higher employee turnover Lack of flexibility. Employees cannot cover for each other, which creates problems when employees

are absent or have to leave the workplace.

II. Job EnlargementJob enlargement seeks to expand a job by horizontal loading — that is, adding to the variety of tasks to be performed. As organisations downsize and become flatter, multiskilling and increasing work interest are becoming increasingly important. However, although sometimes effective, job enlargement is often resisted because:

The enlargement is seen as just adding more routine, boring tasks to the job The advantages of job specialization are reduced

III. Job RotationJob rotation increases task variety by periodically shifting employees between jobs involving different tasks. It is closely related to job enlargement but, rather than having more tasks to do, the employee rotates between different jobs with similar skill requirements. Job rotation aims to reduce boredom by diversifying the employee’s tasks. More challenging jobs may help to develop a generalist perspective, increase skills and workforce flexibility. But, job rotation may increase training costs, disrupt work groups and lower productivity, where an inefficient worker replaces an efficient worker.

IV. Job EnrichmentJob enrichment involves making basic changes in job content and level of responsibility. The vertical loading gives the employee the opportunity to experience greater achievement, recognition, responsibility and personal growth, and the horizontal loading increases the complexity of work to promote interest.

Introducing job enrichment

Job enrichment has received wide publicity, but has not always produced favourable results in the workplace. Problems center on;

The poor research design of many supporting studies The lack of adequate cost benefit data The high cost of implementation The need to change pay schedules, supervision style and work group interactions The assumption that all employees will like it

Thus, HR managers thinking of introducing a job enrichment program should consider the following matters: Is there widespread discontentment among employees? Is it economically and technically feasible to enrich jobs? Are there natural units of work? Can employees be given control over their jobs? Do employees perceive their jobs as being meaningful to society? Is there a reward for assuming increased responsibility? Can performance feedback be given? Do employees want enriched jobs? Are the jobs easy to enrich?

Benefits of job enrichment Can lead to improvements in both job performance and job satisfaction. Can resulted in greater productivity, improved product quality, fewer employee grievances, improved worker attitudes, reduced absenteeism and labour turnover,

a. Socio-Technical Enrichment

Socio-technical enrichment focuses on the relationship between technology and groups of workers. The aim is to integrate people with technology. It is of interest to the HR manager confronted with situations where specialized group tasks exist and where technological change disrupts the social group to such an extent that the new technology becomes inefficient. Socio-technical enrichment often means creating self-managing or autonomous (Self-directed) work groups to perform a job that was previously done on an assembly line. It is usually difficult and expensive to change the technology of an existing operation, so socio-technical enrichment works best when an entirely new operation is being designed

b. Autonomous work teams

Autonomous work teams represent job enrichment at the group level. The employer sets up self-managed work teams who are responsible for accomplishing defined performance objectives. Planning and decision making are done within the group. Typically, the team sets its own output and quality standards. Team members may elect their own leader or decide to make decisions jointly. They may even establish pay levels and train and certify team members as being qualified in required job skills. As a result, supervisory positions are reduced in importance and may even be eliminated.

Team members are typically able to: Rotate their tasks to enhance skill variety Work together on a product that is a whole identifiable piece of work Relate to other members of the team Decide as a group who will belong to the team and what tasks various members will perform Obtain feedback from other team members about their performance Count on the assistance and support of other team members if and when needed

7. COMPREHENSIVE JOB ENRICHMENT: THE HACKMAN–OLDHAM

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) is an example of comprehensive job enrichment. It is a type of job design that combines both horizontal and vertical improvements to stimulate employee motivation and satisfaction. The idea is that employees perform better when they perceive their work as being meaningful, have responsibility for outcomes and receive feedback on the results of their activities. Five core job characteristics are especially important to job design: Skills Variety

Refers to the degree to which a job holder must carry out a variety of different activities and use a number of different personal skills in performing the job

Task identity The degree to which performing a job results in the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work, which can be recognized as the result of personal performance

Task significance Refers to the degree to which a job has a significant impact on the lives of other people. (That is, the extent to which the job is regarded as important to people inside and outside the organisations).

Autonomy Refers to the degree to which the job holder has the freedom, independence to work and to decide

Feedback The extent to which the job permits the employee to obtain clear and direct knowledge about how well they are doing.

These five core job characteristics, in turn, influence the extent to which employees experience three critical psychological states:

Meaningfulness of the work — the degree to which employees experience their jobs as having an outcome that is useful and valuable to them, the company and the community.

Responsibility for outcomes of the work — the degree to which employees feel personally accountable and responsible for the results of their work.

Knowledge of actual results of the work — the degree to which employees maintain an awareness of the effectiveness of their work

Skills variety, task identity and task significance, for example, influence the experienced meaningfulness of the work, autonomy affects the experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and feedback affects the knowledge of results.

8. QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

Quality of work life (QWL) programs incorporate principles of job enrichment and socio-technical enrichment in a comprehensive effort to improve the quality of the work environment.

QWL programs especially seek to integrate employee needs and wellbeing with the organisation’s desire for higher productivity. They bring management, and employees together to determine what needs to be done to improve the work environment, job satisfaction and employee productivity. The establishment of such channels of communication gives employees a much greater say in decision making. Consequently, QWL programs emphasize cooperative relationships among employees, the union and management.QWL can significantly change the way in which employee relations are conducted in an organisations

Conflict being replaced with cooperation Flexible work arrangement Minimize work–family conflict Promote work–family enrichment Improve employee functioning and performance at work and home

The Major Criteria For Improving QWL Include:

Adequate remunerationHow adequate are pay and benefits in terms of helping employees to maintain an acceptable standard of living?

Safe and healthy environmentAre physical conditions hazardous? What job conditions affect the employee’s physical and psychological wellbeing? How can furniture and equipment be designed

Development of human capabilitiesTo what extent does a job enable employees to use and develop their skills, knowledge and abilities

Growth and securityWhat career potential exists in the job?

Social integrationIs there an opportunity to relate to others? Is advancement based on merit? Does equal opportunity exist?

Constitutionalism How much dignity and respect exists for employees? Can employees give honest opinions and be treated like adults? What are employees’ rights and how are they protected?

Total life spaceIs there a balance between work and life away from work? Research shows that Australians prefer to work standard hours based on an eight hour work day. Employees prefer to work more hours over few days, because this reduces travel and childcare costs. Pressure to work unpaid hours to meet job requirements or being forced to work overtime on an irregular and unpredictable basis lead to employee dissatisfaction.

Social relevance Do employees view the organisations as socially responsible? Does the organisations account for society’s values when developing and implementing its policies and practices concerning employees, customers, competitors and the community