At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

1. Review the structure, function, activities, and role of cells, tissues, and organs in the body.

2. Identify and describe the structure and roles of each major body system

3. Indicate common surgical procedures that involve each system.

Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Reproductive Urinary and Excretory Respiratory Digestive Circulatory

They are the basic living unit of life

They vary in size, shape, and function

They are so small, microscopic

Within each cell are still smaller structures

Functions of the cell

Living cells come only from other living cells

Cells reproduce by duplication and division into two new cells

The cell prepares for mitosis. At this

stage, the chromosomes are

not clearly visible.

The chromosomes, pairs of sister

chromatids, condense and become visible.

Meanwhile, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

The centrioles begin moving to

opposite ends of the cell and start

forming the mitotic spindle.

Spindle fibersalign

chromosomes at the cell's

equator, also known as the

metaphase plate.

Sister chromatids separate and

travel to oppositeends.

After new nuclei are formed, the cell

membrane pinches the middle of the cell, gradually

dividing it into two daughter cells.

Nucleus

Interphase

Sister Chromatids

Prophase

Centrioles

Prometaphase

Mitotic Spindle

Metaphase Anaphase

Pinching

Telophase & Cytokinesis

Cell Reproduction The Development of Daughter Cells

Cell membrane: The outer covering of a cell that regulates what enters and leaves it.

Cytoplasm: The lining matter of a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus.

Nucleus: The functional center of a cell that governs activity and heredity.

Each human cell consists of three main parts:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) : Stores the information needed to build proteins essential to restore cell and also transfers messages about organisms from parent to offspring.

RNA (ribonucleic acid) : Translates the DNA messages, and guides the protein making process.

Chromosomes: comprised of DNA, and pass on the traits of parent cells to new cells.

Tissue: A group of similar cells that perform a specialized function.

The nucleus contains three important components:

A group of similar cells that perform a specialized function. Four types of tissues:

1. Epithelial tissue: Covers body’s external surface (skin) and the linings of body cavities (mouth, ears, nose, throat, etc.

2. Connective Tissue: Provides support, stores energy, and connects other tissues and parts (bones, fat, blood, cartilage)

3. Muscular Tissue: Shortens and contracts. When attached to bone, makes body movement. Also lines the inner walls of organs that contract to help food pass to even pumping blood

4. Nervous Tissue: Communication tissue located throughout the body. When stimulated carries messages back and forth between the brain and spinal cord to every part of the body

Organs: A part of the body containing two or more tissues that function together for a specific purpose.

EXAMPLES Brain Heart Stomach Skin

System: A group of organs that work together to carry out a specific activity

EXAMPLES◦ Musculoskeletal system◦ Nervous system ◦ Endocrine system◦ Reproductive system◦ Urinary and Excretory system◦ Respiratory system◦ Digestive system◦ Circulatory system

Without it, we would be just a big mass of tissue

206 bones in the body

Arranged in an orderly manner

Fastened together by connective tissue: tendons & ligaments

Cranium

Mandible

Clavicle

Humerus

RadiusUlna

CarpalsMetacarpals

Pelvis

Femur

Patella

Fibula

Tibia

TarsalsMetatarsals

Sternum

SkeletalSystem

Scapula

Rib

Phalanges

Phalanges

Maxilla{Skull

Calcaneus

Cervical Vertebrae (first 7 vertebrae)

Thoracic Vertebrae 12(next vertebrae)

Lumbar Vertebra 5(last vertebrae)

Coccyx

The five main functions of the skeletal system are to:

Give the body shape and support Allow movement Protect vital organs Reproduce blood cells Store calcium

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that provides framework to the body. Its purposes include:

To support body structures such as the ears and nose

To connect the ribs to the sternum

To serve as a cushion between bones to prevent them from rubbing together at junctures and joints

A joint is any place where two bones meet. Some immovable found in the skull and movable like knee and elbow joints. There are several types of joints:

Gliding Joints (spinal column and neck) Ball and Socket Joints (shoulder and hip) Pivot Joints (palm of the hand where it swivels) Hinge Joints (knees, knuckles and elbows)

The overall covering or lining of a joint is called a synovial

membrane. It secretes or produces a fluid called

synovial fluid to lubricate join surfaces.

Bones are comprised of living tissue, and their strength and hardness come from chemical substances called minerals. It consists of two principle materials:

A hard outer material called cortical or compact bone. Surrounded by the periosteum: a tough membrane that contains bone-forming cells and blood vessels.

The inner section of bone is porous, and is called spongy or cancellous bone. It is filled with material called marrow. A pipeline of blood vessels and nerves runs through the middle of thick bones.

Crainiotomy Anterior Cervical Fusion Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion

(PLIF) Open Reduction Internal Fixation

(ORIF) Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) Total Hip Arthroplasty (THA)

Surgical procedures that involve the skeletal system include:

More than 600 muscles in the body

Heart muscles contract to pump blood Muscles in digestive tract move food

& fluid through body

Muscles throughout the body produce heat, maintain body’s core temperature.

Muscles: Made up of long, thin cells or fibers that run parallel to one another, bundled together by connective tissue, called fascia. Have the ability to contract and shorten, cause body movements.

Muscular System

There are three types of muscle tissue:

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Surgical procedures involving muscular system include:

Fasciotomy Herniorrhaphy Rotator Cuff Repair

Vast communication network. Coordinates and carries messages

between all parts of the body. Enables us to be aware of the

changes in the environment and to react accordingly.

Complex series of nervous tissues, like electrical wiring runs from the brain and spinal cord throughout the entire body.

Functions of the Nervous System include:

Controls all body activities/ allows us to respond to stimuli

Nerve tissue carries electrical messages from brain and spinal cord that signal muscles to contract.

Other actions are more conscious and involve emotion, reason, and memory.

NERVOUS SYSTEMCerebrum

Cerebellum

Spinal Cord

Brain StemCranial Nerves12 pairs

Cervical Nerves8 pairs

Thoracic Nerves12 pairs

Lumbar Nerves5 pairs

Sacral Nerves6 pairs

The Nervous System is composed of two types of cells:

Neurons (also called nerve cells): that carry and transmit information

Neuroglia: support and protect neurons as they work.

The Nervous System is divided into two parts:

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System

The Brain:

Main control unit of the CNS

Has more than 100 billion nerve cells

Is a spongy and complex organ

Three membranes surround the brain, and provide nourishment and protection to it:

Pia mater

Arachnoid mater

Dura mater

The brain is divided into three parts:

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Brain Stem

The Sense Organs:

Eyes Ears Nose Tongue Skin

Accessory structures of the nervous system

Special sensory receptors, message-carrying structures

Respond to stimuli from outside the body

Others keep track of the body’s internal environment

Respond to light, sound, taste, chemicals, heat, and pressure

The Eyes: organs of vision.

Produce images by focusing light rays that are interpreted by the brain

The Eyes consist of three layers of tissue:

Sclera

Choroid

Retina

Eye

Choroid

Cornea

Pupil

I ris

Optic Nerve

Sclera

External Ear

Auditory Canal

Ear Drum

Middle EarInner Ear

Ear

The Nose is the organ of smell:

Consists of many sensory receptors or cells

Receptors located in the mucous membranes of the nasal cavity

Sensitive to chemicals carried through the air

Olfactory nerve endings extend to the receptors

Stimulated by different odors

OLFACTORY BULB

BONE

EPITHELIAL CELL

CILIA

NERVE FIBER

Olfaction allows us to identify food,experience sensual pleasures likethe smell of flowers, as well asdetect signs of danger (spoiledfood, chemical hazards).

Smells (odorants) are sensed bythe olfactory epithelium located inthe nasal cavity and first processedby the olfactory bulb. The odorantmust possess certain molecularproperties–it must be water solubleand have high vapor pressure andlow polarity–in order to interactwith the olfactory receptors andproduce signals that can beinterpreted as odor. The olfactorysense is able to distinguish amongan almost infinite number ofchemical compounds.

The mucous lipids assist intransporting the odorantmolecules. Each olfactory receptorneuron has 8-20 cilia that arewhip-like extensions (they markthe beginning of sensorytransduction).

MITRAL CELL

CHEMO-RECEPTORCELL

OLFACTORY RECEPTORS

The Tongue is the organ of taste:

Covered with taste buds, sensory receptors Sense of taste is a chemical sense Chemicals carried by saliva throughout the mouth Taste buds can distinguish 4 kinds of taste:

sweet, sour, bitter, and salty 80 different types of chemical odors Combination of taste and odors produces flavors

TASTE

Open mouth with tongue extended indicating areas that distinguish taste,and inset of each tongue region and their function.

Bitter Sour Sweet Salty

The Skin is the largest body organ:

Nerve endings at and below its surface Acts as an important sensory organ Touch receptors near the skin’s surface

allows us to distinguish textures Also responds to heat, cold, and moisture Further below skin’s surface are receptors,

respond to touch and pressure Sense of pain stimulates nerves and sends

messages of potential danger to the brain

Surgical procedures involving the nervous system:

Craniotomy Carpal Tunnel Repair Ulnar Nerve Transposition Cataract Extraction Corneal Transplant Bilateral Myringotomy with Tubes, (BMT) Stapedectomy Tympanoplasty Split-thickness Skin Graft (STSG)

Changes in body activities are set in motion by the hormones or secretions produced by the glands of the endocrine system. For example:

◦Muscles tensing◦Heartbeat quickening◦Breathing rhythm changes

The Endocrine System influences functions of metabolism, growth, and personality

Endocrine System

Adrenal GlandsRelease adrenalin thatincreases heart rate andphysical strength. Alsoenhance the ability tothink and respondquickly in emergencysituations.

Thyroid GlandHelps regulate the rate ofmetabolism and maintainthe body's levels ofcalcium and phosphorus.

TestesProduce the hormone,testosterone, that stimulatesthe development of masculinecharacteristics.

Pituitary GlandHelps control the activities of allendocrine glands. Also stimulatesskeletal and body growth, developmentof sex organs, regulation of bloodpressure, the reproductive process, andmuscle development.

PancreasProduces insulin whichreduces the level ofsugar in thebloodstream andglucagon which canincrease the blood'ssugar level.

OvariesProduce two hormones,estrogen which is responsiblefor the development of femalecharacteristics andprogesterone, which togetherwith estrogen, regulates themenstrual cycle.

Important information about the endocrine system:

Endocrine glands that produce hormones are not necessarily next to the organs they control.

The nervous system and endocrine system work together.

Endocrine glands are located throughout the body.

Some glands of the endocrine system secrete more then one hormone.

The major glands of the endocrine system include:

Pituitary gland: small, pea-shaped Thyroid gland: located at the base of the

neck Parathyroid gland: four pea-shaped

glands Adrenal glands: release adrenalin Pancreas: located just below the stomach

The pancreas has 2 primary hormones that it produces:

1. Insulin: which reduces the level of sugar in the blood stream

2. Glucagon: which can increase the blood’s sugar level

The ovaries (female sex glands) produce 2 hormones: estrogen and progesterone

The testes (male sex glands) produce the hormone: testosterone

Surgical procedures involving the endocrine system include:

Thyroidectomy

Oophorectomy

Orchiectomy

The male sex cell is produced by the male reproductive system called sperm

The female sex cell (egg) is called ovum and produced by the female reproductive system

Both sperm and ovum contain rod-shaped structures called chromosomes

The male reproductive system: Testes Scrotum Epididymus Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Ejaculatory duct Semen Urethra Penis Prostate gland

MALE REPRODUCTI VE SYSTEM

Bladder

Prostategland

Vas Deferens

Urethra

Penis

Testes

Scrotum

The female reproductive system:

Vagina Uterus Endometrium Fallopian tubes Fimbriae Ovaries

FEMALE REPRODUCTI VE SYSTEM

Surgical procedures involving the reproductive system include:

Orchiectomy Orchiopexy Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP) Radical Prostatectomy Hysterectomy Bilateral Salpingoophorectomy Endometrial Ablation Dilatation & Curettage (D & C) Ectopic Pregnancy Pelviscopy Tubal Ligation

The urinary system provides “pollution control” by eliminating body waste and blood is filtered by the urinary system.

Urine is a water solution consisting of various waste substances

Color from excreted bile pigments

Average adult excretes between 1000cc-1800cc of urine during a 24-hour period

URI NARY SYSTEM

Kidney

Ureters

Bladder

Uretha

Kidney (Cross-section)

Organs of the urinary system in both sexes include:

Kidneys

Ureters

Urinary bladder

Urethra: male: 20cm long, female: 4cm long

The excretory system removes toxic (poisonous) waste substances:

Kidneys

Lungs

Liver

Skin

Surgical procedures involving the urinary system include:

Nephrectomy

Lithotripsy

Cystoscopy

The respiratory system supplies the body with oxygen and

removes carbon dioxide that forms as a result of the body

using oxygen in the blood

RESPI RATORY SYSTEM

Deoxygenated bloodfrom the heart

BronchiolesOxygenated blood

to the heart

Alveoli - site of gas exchange

Respiratory System

Lungs

Nasal Cavity

Mouth

Pharnyx

Trachea

Exchange of gases is accomplished automatically as one breathes in a two step process:

1. Inspiration (inhaling air into the lungs)

2. Expiration (exhaling air from the lungs)

Air contains impurities such as dirt, dust, and microorganisms, and these are filtered out by the respiratory system

The primary organs of the respiratory system are:

Nose

Pharynx

Trachea

Lungs

More About the Lungs:

Right lung consists of three lobes Left lung consists of two lobes (room

for heart) Located in thoracic cavity Covered by thin membrane, pleura Protected by skeletal rib cage and

sternum Diaphragm, muscle located below the

lungs, causes chest cavity to expand

Surgical procedures involving the respiratory system include:

Thoracotomy Thoracoscopy Pneumonectomy Tracheotomy Laryngectomy Bronchoscopy Septoplasty

The digestive system converts food into energy for the body. The human body requires 6 basic categories of nutrients:

1. Proteins2. Carbohydrates3. Fats4. Water5. Minerals6. Vitamins

Digestion breaks food down mechanically and chemically

Pathway that food takes through the digestive system is called the alimentary canal

Alimentary canal is approximately 30 ft. Consists of:◦Mouth◦Esophagus◦Stomach◦Small intestine◦Large intestine◦Rectum◦Anus

Pancreasproducesdigestiveenzymes andassists with fatdigestion.

Stomachstores andbreaks downingested foodinto chyme.

Gall Bladderstores bile, whichaids in digestion.

Digestive System

Salivary Glandscreate mucus to softenfood and aid in digestion

SmallI ntestine(duodenum,jejunum, and ilium)digestscarbohydrates, fats,and proteins andabsorbs nutrients

LargeI ntestineabsorbs water,electrolytes and salts.

MouthChews food to make it easierto pass through theesophagus (swallow).

EsophagusMoves food tothe stomach.

Liverproduces bileneeded fordigestion.

The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system

The salivary, gastric, and intestinal glands are accessory structures to the digestive system

Review of the components of the alimentary canal:

Mouth Esophagus Stomach Small intestines Large intestine Rectum Anus

Close look at 3 Important digestive organs:

1. Pancreas2. Liver3. Gallbladder

Surgical procedures involving the digestive system include:

AppendectomyParotidectomyGastrectomyGastric BypassCholecystectomyLaparoscopic CholecystectomyColectomy

The circulatory system is the body’s primary transportation network. Delivers nutrients and oxygen to body cell, and carries away carbon dioxide and other harmful waste products from them

Accomplished as blood is pumped through 64,000 miles of blood vessels in the body

The lymphatic system is a subsidiary of the circulatory system, and it serves a vital role in the body’s defense against disease:

Consists of a series of tiny vessels, throughout body

Large numbers of lymph nodes, filter bacteria and other harmful material out of the lymph

Tonsils are one type of a lymph node Sentinel lymph nodes are frequently identified

during cancer surgery

Lymphatic Glands of the Neck

Parotid LymphaticNode

Superior DeepCervical Node

Submaxillary Node

SuboccipitalLymphatic Node

Posterior AuricularNode

Inferior DeepCervical Node

Lymphatic System

Blood is a type of connective tissue fluid that moves throughout the circulatory, system and transports many important substances:

Contains an average of five to seven liters of blood

Blood is made up of 55% of plasma Red blood cells structures rich in

hemoglobin, pick up oxygen in the lungs, transport to all over the body

Red blood cells produced in the bone marrow, life span of 120 days

White blood cells attack, destroy, and digest disease-producing organisms

Platelets traps blood cells and plasma that will harden and clot

Arteries carry blood away from the heart

Veins carry blood back towards the heart

Capillaries tiny vessels connections between veins and arteries

Circulatory System

Arteries carry blood awayfrom the heart.

Veins carry blood backtowards the heart.

The heart is the muscular organ about the size of a fist that pumps five liters of blood through the body every minute:

Four hollow chambers A thick tissue wall Upper chambers atria Lower chambers ventricles

Tricuspid valve

Right ventricleMitral valve

Left ventricle

I nterventricular septum

Papillary muscle

Right atrium

Chordae tendonae

Superior Vena Cava

Pulmonary valve

Aorta

Pulmonary Artery

Heart

Left atrium

Surgical procedures involving the circulatory system include:

Tonsillectomy Adenoidectomy Arteriovenous Abdominal Aortic Aneurysmectomy Hemorrhoidectomy CABG Carotid Endarterectomy