chapter 2 the human body: reading the map

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

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Anatomy, Physiology, and Disease: An Interactive Journey for Health ProfessionalsBruce J. Colbert, Jeff E. Ankney, and Karen T. Lee

Anatomy, Physiology, & Disease

Anatomy, Physiology, & Disease

An Interactive Journey for Health Professionals

Chapter 2The Human Body:

Reading the Map




Multimedia DirectoryMultimedia Directory

Slide 16Fowler's Positioning VideoSlide 17Lateral Positioning VideoSlide 18Prone Positioning VideoSlide 19Lithotomy Positioning VideoSlide 20Sims Positioning VideoSlide 21Supine Positioning VideoSlide 22Dorsal Positioning VideoSlide 47Body Cavity Terminology ExerciseSlide 48Body Area Terminology ExerciseSlide 73Magnetic Resonance Imaging VideoSlide 75Ultrasound VideoSlide 76Radiologic Technology Video




Multimedia Directory Multimedia Directory (cont’d)(cont’d)

Slide 77Surgical Team Video




IntroductionIntroduction

•This chapter provides you with the major external map of the human body

•Future chapters get into more depth for each particular area and begin to provide a detailed map of interior regions




Introduction Introduction (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Medical directional terms and body locations will serve as a foundation upon which to build

•By the time you finish your journey through this book you will know your own body like “the back of your hand”




Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• List and describe the various body positions

• Define the body planes and associated directional terms

• Locate and describe the body cavities and their respective organs

• List and describe the anatomical divisions of the abdominal region

• Identify and locate the various body regions

• Relate the various diagnostic tests to view the body

• Describe situations in which body position can help or hinder the disease process




Pronunciation GuidePronunciation Guide

Abdominopelvic cavity

Antecubital

Buccal

Caudal

Cephalic

Coronal Plane

Cranial

Crural

Distal

Dorsal

(ab dom ih noh PELL vik KAV ih tee)

(an tee CUE bi tal)

(BUCK al)

(KAWD al)

(seh FAL ik)

(kor ROHN al)

(KRAY nee al)

(CRUR al)

(DISS tal)

(DOR sal)

Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.




Pronunciation Guide Pronunciation Guide (cont’d)(cont’d)

Gluteal

Mediastinum

Midsagittal Plane

Pleural Cavities

Superficial

Thoracic Cavity

Transverse

(GLOO tee al)

(me dee ah STY num)

(mid SAJ ih tal)

(PLOO ral)

(SOO per FISH al)

(tho RASS ik KAV ih tee)

(trans VERS)

Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.




Map of the Human BodyMap of the Human Body

•Directional terms, like north, south, east, or west, needed for reading a map

•Maps representing a specific region have more detail, making it easier to explore

•Likewise, the human body needs its own specific directional terms




Map of the Human Body Map of the Human Body (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Likewise, scientists have created standardized body directional terms, splitting the body into distinct regions, sections, and cavities to more clearly and rapidly locate and discuss anatomical features

•Anatomical landmarks serve as needed points of reference




Importance of MappingImportance of Mapping

•Does the statement “I have pain in my stomach” tell you a lot about exact location?

•Location of pain can be determining factor in diagnosis

•Questions about type of pain, exact location, and intensity of pain can help determine etiology




Body PositionsBody Positions

•The body can assume many positions and therefore can have different orientations

•To standardize orientation for the study of anatomy, scientists developed the anatomical position

•In the anatomical position, the person is standing erect, face forward, with feet parallel, arms hanging at sides, and palms facing forward




Figure 2-1 The anatomical position.




Other Important Body PositionsOther Important Body Positions

•Supine position: laying face upward, on your back

•Prone position: laying face downward, on your stomach

•Fowler’s position: sitting in bed with head of bed elevated 45–60 degrees–This position often used in hospitals–Facilitates breathing and comfort of bedridden

patient




Figure 2-2 Common patient positions.




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Click here to view a video on the topic of Fowler’s positioning.

Fowler's Positioning VideoFowler's Positioning Video




Click here to view a video on the topic of lateral positioning.

Lateral Positioning VideoLateral Positioning Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of prone positioning.

Prone Positioning VideoProne Positioning Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of lithotomy positioning.

Lithotomy Positioning VideoLithotomy Positioning Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of Sims Positioning.

Sims Positioning VideoSims Positioning Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of supine positioning.

Supine Positioning VideoSupine Positioning Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of dorsal positioning.

Dorsal Positioning VideoDorsal Positioning Video

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Pathology Connection Pathology Connection

•Body positions relevant to certain clinical scenarios

•Patients with secretions at the base of the lungs may benefit from Trendelenburg position (which helps drain secretions)

•Patients with cerebral injury or bleeding should avoid Trendelenburg position (because it increases blood flow to brain, increasing intracranial pressure)




Pathology Connection Pathology Connection (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Patients to be placed in Trendelenburg position are at increased risk for aspirating vomitus, and should not eat within 2-4 hours of being placed in position

•Patients with orthopnea have difficult time breathing if they lie flat; propping them up with pillows assists diaphragm in working against gravity





•Changing from upright to supine position can help determine cause of distended neck veins (jugular venous distention)–If patient has distend neck veins due to heart

failure, lying down will decrease distention (heart has to work less hard against gravity, causing less “back up” of venous blood)





•Dizziness when changing from seated to standing position can indicate orthostatic hypotension–Symptoms develop because heart cannot

compensate for extra work against gravity standing requires; result is deficient blood flow to brain




Body Planes and Directional TermsBody Planes and Directional Terms

•Sometimes it is necessary to divide body, or even organ or tissue sample, into specific sections to further examine it

•A plane is an imaginary line drawn through body or organ to separate into specific sections

•Transverse or horizontal plane: divides body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) sections, also referred to as cross-sectioning the body




Directional TermsDirectional Terms

•Used to describe areas divided by transverse plane

•Superior (cranial or cephalic) means toward head or upper body

•Inferior (caudal) means away from head or toward lower part of body–Any body part can be either superior or

inferior, depending upon point of reference–Example: knee is superior to ankle and inferior

to pelvis




Figure 2-3 Transverse plane and a cross-sectional view of the upper abdominal region.




Median or Midsagittal PlaneMedian or Midsagittal Plane

•Divides body into right and left halves–Medial refers to body parts located near

middle or midline of body–Lateral refers to body parts located away from

midline




Figure 2-4 Midsagittal or median plane along with a sagittal view of the head.




Frontal or Coronal PlaneFrontal or Coronal Plane

•Divides body into front and back sections

•Anterior or ventral refers to body parts towards or on front of body

•Posterior or dorsal refers to body parts towards or on back of body




Figure 2-5 Frontal or coronal plane along with a coronal view of the chest and stomach.




Proximal and DistalProximal and Distal

•Proximal refers to body parts close to point of reference of body

•Distal refers to body parts away from point of reference–Using your fingers as reference point, your

wrist would be proximal and your shoulder would be distal




Figure 2-6 Body location terms.




External and InternalExternal and Internal

•External means on the outside–Skin is located externally and is body’s largest

organ

•Internal means on the inside–Most organs located internally




Additional Directional TermsAdditional Directional Terms

•Superficial means toward or at body surface

•Deep means away from body surface

•Central refers to locations around center of body

•Peripheral refers to extremities or outer region




Table 2-1 Directional Terms




Body CavitiesBody Cavities

•Body has two large open spaces called cavities that house and protect organs

•Dorsal (posterior) cavity located on back of body




Body Cavities Body Cavities (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Larger ventral (anterior) cavity located on front of body is divided into two smaller cavities– Thoracic cavity– Abdominopelvic cavity: further divided into

abdominal and pelvic cavities

•These two smaller cavities are divided by diaphragm




Thoracic CavityThoracic Cavity

•Contains–Heart–Lungs–Large blood vessels




Abdominal CavityAbdominal Cavity

•Contains digestive organs–Stomach–Intestines–Liver–Gallbladder–Pancreas–Spleen




Pelvic CavityPelvic Cavity

•Lower portion of abdominopelvic cavity contains –Urinary organs–Reproductive organs–Large part of large intestine




Dorsal CavityDorsal Cavity

•Located in back of body and consists of two cavities–Cranial cavity houses brain–Spinal cavity contains spinal column




Figure 2-8 Main body cavities.




Smaller CavitiesSmaller Cavities

•There are many smaller cavities that designate specific areas–Nasal cavity: space behind nose–Buccal cavity: space within mouth–Orbital cavity: houses eyes




Click here to view an interactive exercise on body cavity terminology.

Body Cavity Terminology ExerciseBody Cavity Terminology Exercise

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Click here to view an interactive exercise on body area terminology.

Body Area Terminology ExerciseBody Area Terminology Exercise

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Abdominal RegionsAbdominal Regions

•Houses a number of organs; is divided into nine quadrants

•Epigastric region (epi = above, gastric = stomach) located superior to umbilical region with right and left hypochondriac regions located on either side




Abdominal Regions Abdominal Regions (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Umbilical region located in center, with right and left lumbar regions located laterally

•Hypogastric region lies inferior to umbilical area, with right and left iliac or inguinal area flanking it




Figure 2-9 The nine divisions of the abdominal region.




Figure 2-10 Illustrations of inguinal and umbilical hernias.




Abdominal QuadrantsAbdominal Quadrants

•Simpler way to compartmentalize abdominal region is to separate into anatomical quadrants

•Helpful in describing location of abdominal pain




Figure 2-12 The clinical division of the abdominal region into quadrants with related organs and structures.




Abdominal Quadrants Abdominal Quadrants (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Knowing organs located in quadrant where pain is arising can give a clue as to what type of problem the patient has–Right lower quadrant (RLQ) pain: appendicitis–Right upper quadrant (RUQ) pain: liver or

gallbladder problems




Figure 2-11 The spinal column.




Additional Body RegionsAdditional Body Regions

•Help to further aid in locating areas or structures

•Examples include:–Axillary region–Brachial region–Femoral region–Pubic region–Patellar region




Figure 2-13 Anterior and posterior body regions.




Table 2-2 Examples of Body Regions and Their Locations




Table 2-2 (continued) Examples of Body Regions and Their Locations




X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram)X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram)

•Produced by passing X-ray radiation through specific area of body onto photographic film–Exposure to X-rays causes photographic film to

darken–Radiolucent areas of body allow X-rays to pass

through to film easily; produce dark areas on film

–Radiopaque areas of body allow fewer X-rays to pass through to film; produce light areas on the film




X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram) X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram) (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Each component of body has characteristic density (and characteristic appearance on X-ray)–Air: least dense; shows up black on X-ray–Tissue/Fat: density depends on thickness of

tissue; thicker the tissue, lighter the appearance on X-ray




X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram) X-Rays (Radiograph or Roentgenogram) (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Each component of body has characteristic density (and characteristic appearance on X-ray)–Water (blood and edema): mid-range density;

appearance on X-ray is lighter than air, but not as white as bone/metal

–Bone/Metal: highest density; appears white on X-ray




Standard X-Ray PositionsStandard X-Ray Positions

•Posteroanterior (PA)– X-ray beam passes from patient’s back to

patient’s front and then onto film– Standard view for chest X-ray

•Anteroposterior (AP)– X-ray beam passes from patient’s front to

patient’s back and then onto film– Often used in portable chest X-rays




Standard X-Ray Positions Standard X-Ray Positions (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Lateral– X-ray beam passes from one side of patient to

other, and then onto film– Often used as compliment to PA views, to get

better 3-D perspective




Computerized Tomography Computerized Tomography (CT or CAT Scan)(CT or CAT Scan)

•Produces series of cross-sectional “slices” through body

•Generates high-resolution images with more information about 3-D orientation of structures

•Exposes body to much higher levels of radiation than traditional X-ray




Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

•Uses magnetic energy to image body

•Produces cross-sectional images

•Images have much better clarity than CT




Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Cannot be used by all patients–Patients with certain metallic components in

body (like metallic aneurysm clips or heart valves) cannot be exposed to magnetic field of MRI; would make metal components shift in body

–Patients who are claustrophobic may not be able to tolerate entering small tunnel of traditional (closed) MRI; open MRIs are alternative for these patients




Figure 2-14 a Contrasts of X-ray, CT, MRI and ultrasound. a) MRI head showing large hemorrhagic lesion. (Courtesy of Teresa Resch).




Figure 2-14 b Contrasts of X-ray, CT, MRI and ultrasound. b) 3D CT scan, multiple facial fractures. (Courtesy of Teresa Resch).




Figure 2-14 c Contrasts of X-ray, CT, MRI and ultrasound. c) X-ray showing typical joint changes associated with osteoarthritis. (Source: Getty Images/Stone Allstock).




Figure 2-14 d Contrasts of X-ray, CT, MRI and ultrasound. d) Ultrasound, left kidney, and spleen. (Courtesy of Teresa Resch).




Click here to view a video on the topic of magnetic resonance imaging.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging VideoMagnetic Resonance Imaging Video

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Ultrasound (Sonography)Ultrasound (Sonography)

•Uses sound waves to image body

•Allow body actions to be imaged in real time

•Uses include:–Observing fetal development and movement–Observing actions of heart valves




Click here to view a video on the topic of ultrasound.

Ultrasound VideoUltrasound Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of radiologic technology.

Radiologic Technology VideoRadiologic Technology Video

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Click here to view a video on the topic of the surgical team.

Surgical Team VideoSurgical Team Video

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Snapshots from the JourneySnapshots from the Journey

•Body can assume many different positions; to standardize, we use anatomical position facing forward with arms at side and palms facing forward

•Other positions include prone, supine, Trendelenburg, and Fowler’s position

•Body can be divided into planes, including transverse and median plane

•Directional terms help navigate around body




Snapshots from the Journey Snapshots from the Journey (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Directions like right and left referenced from patient’s perspective

•Body has several cavities that house anatomical structures, mainly organs

•There are many different regions of body




Snapshots from the Journey Snapshots from the Journey (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Directional terms, anatomical landmarks, body regions, and body cavities are all important to know so health care professionals can communicate in specific terms that leave no room for confusion

•Detailed images of internal structures of body can be obtained from radiologic studies such as X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and ultrasound




Case StudyCase Study

•A 50-year-old female patient presents with sternal pain radiating to the left brachial area. Peripheral cyanosis is noted in the digital areas, and she exhibits pedal edema. No epigastric pain is noted




Case Study Case Study (cont’d)(cont’d)

•She reports that she became dizzy and fell, bruising the right orbital region, and she received superficial cuts to the right patellar region. The physician orders an IV to be started in the left antecubital space. Please answer the following questions in common lay terms




Case Study QuestionsCase Study Questions

•Where would you suggest placing a bandage?

•Where did her pain begin?

•Where does the pain move to?

•Does she have stomach pain?

•Where will the IV be started?

•What part of her body is swollen?




Ray’s StoryRay’s Story

•Ray’s quadriplegia will require extensive radiologic studies throughout the rest of his life




Case Study Questions Ray’s StoryCase Study Questions Ray’s Story

•Since this was initially a neck injury, on what specific portion of the spinal column would you focus your studies?




Case Study Questions Ray’s Story Case Study Questions Ray’s Story (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Due to being bedridden and inactive, Ray will be breathing in a monotonous shallow manner even with the assistance of a mechanical ventilator and therefore not fully exercising his respiratory system. This can lead to lung collapse and pneumonia. In which body cavity would you focus your study?




Case Study Questions Ray’s Story Case Study Questions Ray’s Story (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Ray will be more prone to accidental falls while being assisted in daily activities of living. What could happen that would require radiologic studies?

chapter 2 the human body: reading the map

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