Business Leadership and

Organizational Behavior

Business Leadership and

Organizational Behavior

Communication

Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D.

What is Communication? What is Communication?

Communication

•The transference and the understanding of meaning.

• Language is a sign and symbol system. It involves a set of rules regarding the linking of symbols to referents and their meanings and the linking of symbols to each other.

The Importance of CommunicationThe Importance of Communication

Communication helps

organizations

Accomplish individual and organizational goals

Implement and respond to organizational change

Coordinate activities

Engage in virtually all organizational relevant behaviors

The Importance of CommunicationThe Importance of Communication

• Today’s complex business environment depends on effective communication

• Managers spend 80% of their day communicating

• 48 minutes of every hour is spent:• In meetings• On the telephone• Communicating online• Talking informally

• In short, communication permeates every management function

Elements of the Communication ProcessElements of the Communication Process

The sender

Encoding

The message

The channel

Decoding

The receiver

Noise

Feedback

A Perceptual Model of CommunicationA Perceptual Model of Communication

NoiseSender

Receiverdecodes

Receivercreates

meaning

Transmittedon medium

MessageEncoding

EncodingMessageTransmittedon medium

Sourcedecodes

Feedback

Barriers to Effective CommunicationBarriers to Effective Communication

Filtering

A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Information Overload

A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.

Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)

Emotions

How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted.Language

Words have different meanings to different people.Semantics

The different understanding and interpretations of the words we use to communicate

Communication ChannelsCommunication Channels

Channel– The medium selected by the sender through

which the message travels to the receiver. Types of Channels

– Formal Channels• Are established by the organization and transmit

messages that are related to the professional activities of members.

– Informal Channels• Used to transmit personal or social messages in the

organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices.

Choice of Communication ChannelChoice of Communication Channel

Characteristics of Rich Channels

1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.

2. Facilitate rapid feedback.

3. Are very personal in context.

Characteristics of Rich Channels

1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.

2. Facilitate rapid feedback.

3. Are very personal in context.

Channel Richness

The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode.

Information Richness of Communication Channels

Information Richness of Communication Channels

Low channel richness High channel richness

Routine Nonroutine

Source: Based on R.H. Lengel and D.L. Daft, “The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,” Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 225–32; and R.L. Daft and R.H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design,” Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 554–72. Reproduced from R.L. Daft and R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.

• Informal, not controlled by management.• Perceived by most employees as being more believable and

reliable than formal communication• Faster than formal channels• About 80% accurate• Used when people are insecure and faced with organizational

change• Used by employees to acquire the majority of their on-the-job

information

• The Grapevine: represents the unofficial communication system of the informal organization.

Informal Communication – The GrapevineInformal Communication – The Grapevine

Y

D

C

B

A

Single strand—each tells one other

A

JB

D H I

K

F

GE

C

Gossip—one tells all

A

F B D

J

H

CE

K

G I

X

Probability—each randomly tells others

A

C

D

F

J

IB

Cluster—some tell selected others; most typical

Grapevine PatternsGrapevine Patterns

Direction of Organizational CommunicationDirection of Organizational Communication

Upward

Downward

Lateral

Downward CommunicationDownward Communication

• Managers provide five types of information through downward communication

• Job instructions• Job rationale• Organizational procedures and practices• Feedback about performance• Indoctrination of goals

Upward CommunicationUpward Communication

• Upward Communication• Communicator is at lower level than receiver• Includes: brief meetings, memos, e-mails,

suggestion boxes, group meetings, and appeal or grievance procedures

Functions of Upward CommunicationFunctions of Upward Communication

– Is management’s primary source of feedback operational issues

– Provides managers feedback about problems, organizational issues, day-to-day operations

– Relieves employee tension by allowing lower-level organization members to share relevant information with superiors

– Encourages employees’ participation and involvement, thereby enhancing organizational cohesiveness

Lateral(Horizonal) CommunicationLateral(Horizonal) Communication

Overlooked in most organizational designs

Necessary for coordination and integrationof diverse organizational functions

Often necessary for coordination

Can provide social need satisfaction

Facilitation often left to individual managers

Communication StylesCommunication Styles

Direct and unambiguous language No attributions or evaluations of other’s behavior Use of “I” statements and cooperative “we” statements

Good eye contact Comfortable, but firm posture Strong, steady, and audible voice Facial expressions matched to message Appropriately serious tone Selective interruptions to ensure understanding

Pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome: expressive and self-enhancing without intruding on others

Assertive

Communication StylesCommunication Styles

Swear words and abusive language Attributions and evaluations of others’ behavior Sexist or racist terms Explicit threats or put-downs

Glaring eye contact Moving or leaning too close Threatening gestures Loud voice Frequent interruptions

Taking advantage of others; expressive and self-enhancing at others’ expense

Aggressive

Communication StylesCommunication Styles

Qualifiers Fillers Negaters

Little eye contact Downward glances Slumped posture Constantly shifting weight Wringing hands Weak or whiny voice

Encouraging others to take advantage of us; inhibited; self-denying

Nonassertive

Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

Men talk to:

– Emphasize status, power, and independence.

– Complain that women talk on and on.

– Offer solutions.

– To boast about their accomplishments.

Women talk to:

– Establish connection and intimacy.

– Criticize men for not listening.

– Speak of problems to promote closeness.

– Express regret and restore balance to a conversation.

Messages expressed by other than linguistic means Messages transmitted by vocal means that do not involve language Sign language and written words are not considered nonverbal

communication Experts estimate 65 to 90% of every conversation nonverbal

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

Common Types of Nonverbal CommunicationCommon Types of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication– Proxemics– Haptics– Facial Expressions– Eye Contact– Paralanguage

Proxemics (or Personal Space) - HistoryProxemics (or Personal Space) - History

1966: Edward Hall wrote “The Hidden Dimension”

Introduced the concept of “proxemics” Definition: “the scientific study of human

spatial behavior”

Commonly cited observations of PROXEMICS Commonly cited observations of PROXEMICS

Different cultures have different comfort levels of distance

Men tend to take up more space than women

Example: When you sit in the movies or on an airplane with someone of the opposite sex who usually gets the armrest?

Four zones of Proxemics

– Intimate Distance– Personal Distance – Social Distance – Public Distance

PROXEMICS - Personal SpacePROXEMICS - Personal Space

Personal Space in U.S.Personal Space in U.S.

Public DistancePublic Distance

Public distance– 12-25+ feet– Very formal– Evasive or defensive

action can easily be taken

– Used with strangers– Deference when

approaching important public figures

Social DistanceSocial Distance

Social distance– 4’ – 12’– Closer distance (4-7’)

used by people who work together/informal business

– Longer distance (7-12’) requires raising the voice – more formal business and social interaction

Personal DistancePersonal Distance

Personal Distance– 18” – 4’– Sensory cues begin to

fade here– More aware of

person’s body rather than just the face

– Touching is still possible

– Common distance for casual conversation between friends

Intimate Distance– 0-18”– Head and face are

all that is seen– Can get additional

sensory signals– Usually not OK in

public except for sports

Intimate DistanceIntimate Distance

HAPTICS (Touch)HAPTICS (Touch)

The power of touch: A (1997) study found that strangers that were

touched were more likely to return change left in a phone booth(Klienke)

A (1992) study found that food servers who used touch received larger tips (Hornick)

Library study (1976) found that students who were slightly touched by clerk while checking out library books evaluated the library much more favorably than those who were not touched.

Facial expressionsFacial expressions

The face is capable of conveying 250,000 expressions (Birdwhistle, 1970)

Smiling increases sociability, likeability, and attraction(LaFrance & Hecht, 1995)

Food servers who smile more often earn increased tips (Heslin & Patterson, 1982)

Studies conducted on students caught cheating found that students who smiled were treated with more leniency (LaFrance & Hecht, 1995)

Eye contactEye contact

Eye contact conveys a sense of sincerity Eye contact establishes a connection between

persons Successful pan handlers establish eye contact

(Beebe, 1974) People are more likely to comply when more eye

contact is used Eye contact that is “too long” causes discomfort

• The set of properties of speech used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning:

• Vocal pitch• Tone/intonations• Tempo of speak

ParalanguageParalanguage

BASE LINE: Behavior before judging

MOVEMENT– Hand-to-face (cover

mouth)– Nose rub– Lip biting– Foot tapping– Open gestures show

comfort.

DRESS– Close and open coat– Play with collar– Picking at lint on

clothing PROXEMICS

– Moving away

Nonverbal Leakage of Deception—Lying Nonverbal Leakage of Deception—Lying

“Politically Correct” Communication“Politically Correct” Communication

Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals.

In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive to how words might offend others.– Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly – Replaced with: physically challenged, visually

impaired, and senior. Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes

it harder to communicate accurately.– Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.– Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,

postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and people of gender.