bronchiectasis

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Bronchiectasis Etiology and Pathogenesis Bronchiectasis is a consequence of inflammation and destruction of the structural components of the bronchial wall. Infection is the usual cause of the inflammation; microorganisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Haemophilus influenzae produce pigments, proteases, and other toxins that injure the respiratory epithelium and impair mucociliary clearance. The host inflammatory response induces epithelial injury, largely as a result of mediators released from neutrophils. As protection against infection is compromised, the dilated airways become more susceptible to colonization and growth of bacteria. Thus, a reinforcing cycle can result, with inflammation producing airway damage, impaired clearance of microorganisms, and further infection, which then completes the cycle by inciting more inflammation. Infectious Causes Adenovirus and influenza virus are the main viruses that cause bronchiectasis in association with lower respiratory tract involvement. Virulent bacterial infections, especially with potentially necrotizing organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and anaerobes, remain important causes of bronchiectasis when antibiotic treatment of a pneumonia is not given or is significantly delayed. Infection with Bordetella pertussis, particularly in childhood, has also been classically associated with chronic suppurative airways disease. Bronchiectasis has been reported in patients with HIV infection, perhaps at least partly due to recurrent bacterial infection. Tuberculosis, a major cause of bronchiectasis worldwide, can produce airway dilatation by a necrotizing effect on pulmonary parenchyma and airways and indirectly as a consequence of airway obstruction from bronchostenosis or extrinsic compression by lymph nodes. Nontuberculous mycobacteria are frequently cultured from patients with bronchiectasis, often as secondary infections or colonizing organisms. However, it has also been recognized that these organisms, especially those of the Mycobacterium avium complex, can

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Page 1: Bronchiectasis

Bronchiectasis

Etiology and Pathogenesis

Bronchiectasis is a consequence of inflammation and destruction of the structural components of the bronchial wall. Infection is the usual cause of the inflammation; microorganisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Haemophilus influenzae produce pigments, proteases, and other toxins that injure the respiratory epithelium and impair mucociliary clearance. The host inflammatory response induces epithelial injury, largely as a result of mediators released from neutrophils. As protection against infection is compromised, the dilated airways become more susceptible to colonization and growth of bacteria. Thus, a reinforcing cycle can result, with inflammation producing airway damage, impaired clearance of microorganisms, and further infection, which then completes the cycle by inciting more inflammation.

Infectious Causes

Adenovirus and influenza virus are the main viruses that cause bronchiectasis in association with lower respiratory tract involvement. Virulent bacterial infections, especially with potentially necrotizing organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and anaerobes, remain important causes of bronchiectasis when antibiotic treatment of a pneumonia is not given or is significantly delayed. Infection with Bordetella pertussis, particularly in childhood, has also been classically associated with chronic suppurative airways disease. Bronchiectasis has been reported in patients with HIV infection, perhaps at least partly due to recurrent bacterial infection. Tuberculosis, a major cause of bronchiectasis worldwide, can produce airway dilatation by a necrotizing effect on pulmonary parenchyma and airways and indirectly as a consequence of airway obstruction from bronchostenosis or extrinsic compression by lymph nodes. Nontuberculous mycobacteria are frequently cultured from patients with bronchiectasis, often as secondary infections or colonizing organisms. However, it has also been recognized that these organisms, especially those of the Mycobacterium avium complex, can serve as primary pathogens associated with the development and/or progression of bronchiectasis.

Impaired host defense mechanisms are often involved in the predisposition to recurrent infections. The major cause of localized impairment of host defenses is endobronchial obstruction. Bacteria and secretions cannot be cleared adequately from the obstructed airway, which develops recurrent or chronic infection. Slowly growing endobronchial neoplasms such as carcinoid tumors may be associated with bronchiectasis. Foreign-body aspiration is another important cause of endobronchial obstruction, particularly in children. Airway obstruction can also result from bronchostenosis, from impacted secretions, or from extrinsic compression by enlarged lymph nodes.

Generalized impairment of pulmonary defense mechanisms occurs with immunoglobulin deficiency, primary ciliary disorders, or cystic fibrosis (CF). Infections and bronchiectasis are therefore often more diffuse. With panhypogammaglobulinemia, the best described of the immunoglobulin disorders associated with recurrent infection and bronchiectasis, patients often also have a history of sinus or skin infections. Selective deficiency of an IgG subclass, especially IgG2, has also been described in a small number of patients with bronchiectasis.

Page 2: Bronchiectasis

The primary disorders associated with ciliary dysfunction, termed primary ciliary dyskinesia , are responsible for 5–10% of cases of bronchiectasis. Primary ciliary dyskinesia is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion. Numerous defects are encompassed under this category, including structural abnormalities of the dynein arms, radial spokes, and microtubules; mutations in heavy and intermediate chain dynein have been described in a small number of patients. The cilia become dyskinetic; their coordinated, propulsive action is diminished, and bacterial clearance is impaired. The clinical effects include recurrent upper and lower respiratory tract infections, such as sinusitis, otitis media, and bronchiectasis. Because normal sperm motility also depends on proper ciliary function, males are generally infertile (Chap. 340). Additionally, since visceral rotation during development depends upon proper ciliary motion, the positioning of normally lateralized organs becomes random. As a result, approximately half of patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia fall into the subgroup of Kartagener's syndrome, in which situs inversus accompanies bronchiectasis and sinusitis.

In CF (Chap. 253), the tenacious secretions in the bronchi are associated with impaired bacterial clearance, resulting in colonization and recurrent infection with a variety of organisms, particularly mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa but also S. aureus, H. influenzae, Escherichia coli, and Burkholderia cepacia.

Noninfectious Causes

Some cases of bronchiectasis are associated with exposure to a toxic substance that incites a severe inflammatory response. Examples include inhalation of a toxic gas such as ammonia or aspiration of acidic gastric contents, though the latter problem is often also complicated by aspiration of bacteria. An immune response in the airway may also trigger inflammation, destructive changes, and bronchial dilatation. This mechanism is presumably important for bronchiectasis with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), which is due at least in part to an immune response to Aspergillus organisms that have colonized the airway (Chap. 249).

In 1-antitrypsin deficiency, the usual respiratory complication is the early development of panacinar emphysema, but affected individuals may occasionally have bronchiectasis. In the yellow nail syndrome, which is due to hypoplastic lymphatics, the triad of lymphedema, pleural effusion, and yellow discoloration of the nails is accompanied by bronchiectasis in approximately 40% of patients.

Page 3: Bronchiectasis

TRANSLATE

Bronkiektasis

DefinisiBronkiektasis merupakan dilatasi abnormal dan permanen pada bronkus, baik fokus, dengan melibatkan saluran udara yang memasok wilayah terbatas parenkim paru, atau difus, dengan melibatkan saluran udara dalam distribusi yang lebih luas. Penelitian terbaru memperkirakan sekitar 110.000 pasien dengan bronkiektasis di Amerika Serikat. Bronkiektasis biasanya terjadi pada orang yang lebih tua, sekitar dua-pertiga dari pasien adalah perempuan.

Etiologi dan Patogenesis

Bronkiektasis terjadi akibat peradangan dan penghancuran komponen struktural dari dinding bronkus. Infeksi merupakan penyebab utama peradangan. Mikroorganisme seperti Pseudomonas aeruginosa dan Haemophilus influenzae menghasilkan pigmen, protease, dan racun lainnya yang merusak epitel pernapasan dan menurunkan klirens mukosiliar. Host respon inflamasi menginduksi terjadinya kerusakan epitel, terutama sebagai akibat dari mediator yang dilepaskan dari neutrofil. Sebagai perlindungan terhadap infeksi, saluran udara melebar sehingga menjadi lebih rentan terhadap kolonisasi dan pertumbuhan bakteri. Sehingga akan terjadi siklus yang dapat mengakibatkan inflamasi saluran nafas dengan peradangan kerusakan saluran napas, kegagalan klirens mikroorganisme, dan infeksi lebih lanjut, yang kemudian memicu siklus peradangan.

Penyebab InfeksiAdenovirus dan virus influenza adalah virus utama yang menyebabkan bronkiektasis berkaitan dengan saluran pernapasan bawah. Infeksi bakteri virulen, terutama organisme yang berpotensi menyebabkan nekrosis seperti Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, dan bakteri anaerob, merupakan penyebab penting bronkiektasis pada pasien pneumonia tanpa pengobatan antibiotik atau tertunda secara signifikan. Infeksi Bordetella pertussis, terutama pada masa anak-anak, kemungkinan berkaitan dengan penyakit saluran napas kronis supuratif. Bronkiektasis juga dilaporkan pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV, kemungkinan akibat infeksi bakteri berulang. Tuberkulosis sebagai penyebab utama bronkiektasis di seluruh dunia, dapat menyebabkan dilatasi saluran nafas karena efek nekrosis pada parenkim paru dan saluran udara dan secara tidak langsung mengakibatkan obstruksi saluran napas dari bronchostenosis atau kompresi ekstrinsik karena kelenjar getah bening. Mikobakterium nontuberculosis sering didapatkan dari kultur pasien dengan bronkiektasis, dari infeksi sekunder atau kolonisasi organisme. Namun, juga diketahui bahwa organisme ini, terutama kompleks Mycobacterium avium dapat berfungsi sebagai patogen utama yang terkait dengan perkembangan bronkiektasis.Gangguan mekanisme pertahanan host sering terlibat dalam faktor predisposisi terhadap infeksi berulang. Penyebab utama penurunan pertahanan lokal host adalah obstruksi endobronkial.

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Bakteri dan sekret tidak dapat dibersihkan dengan baik dari saluran napas yang terhambat, sehingga berkembang menjadi infeksi berulang atau infeksi kronis. Perlahan-lahan tumbuh neoplasma endobronkial seperti tumor karsinoid yang berhubungan dengan bronkiektasis. Aspirasi adalah penyebab lain dari obstruksi endobronkial, terutama pada anak-anak. Obstruksi jalan napas juga bisa terjadi akibat bronkostenosis, efek dari sekret, atau dari kompresi ekstrinsik karena pembesaran kelenjar getah bening.

Penurunan mekanisme pertahanan paru general terjadi dengan defisiensi imunoglobulin, gangguan silia primer, atau fibrosis kistik. Oleh karena itu, infeksi dan bronkiektasis lebih sering menyebar. Pada panhypogammaglobulinemia, digambarkan sebagai gangguan imunoglobulin yang berhubungan dengan infeksi berulang dan bronkiektasis, pasien sering juga memiliki riwayat sinus atau infeksi kulit. Defisiensi selektif dari suatu subklas IgG, terutama IgG2, juga didapatkan pada sejumlah kecil pasien dengan bronkiektasis.

Gangguan utama yang terkait dengan disfungsi silia disebut primaryciliary dyskinesia, menyebabkan 5-10% kasus bronkiektasis. Primary ciliary dyskinesia diturunkan secara resesif autosomal. Banyak cacat tercakup dalam kategori ini, termasuk kelainan struktur lengan dynein, jari-jari radial, dan mikrotubulus, mutasi menengah hingga berat pada rantai dynein telah didapatkan pada sejumlah kecil pasien. Silia menjadi diskinetik, terkoordinasi, efek pendorong berkurang, dan pembersihan bakteri terganggu. Efek klinis termasuk infeksi berulang saluran pernapasan atas dan bawah, seperti sinusitis, otitis media, dan bronkiektasis. Karena motilitas sperma normal juga tergantung pada fungsi silia yang tepat, menyebabkan ketidaksuburan pada laki-laki. Selain itu, karena rotasi visceral selama pengembangan tergantung pada gerak silia yang tepat, posisi organ lateral biasanya menjadi acak. Akibatnya, sekitar setengah dari pasien dengan primary ciliary dyskinesia masuk ke dalam subkelompok sindrom Kartagener, di mana situs inversus menyertai bronkiektasis dan sinusitis.

Pada fibrosis kistik, sekresi kuat bronkus berhubungan dengan gangguan klirens bakteri, sehingga kolonisasi dan infeksi berulang dengan berbagai organisme, khususnya mukus strain seperti P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, H. influenzae, Escherichia coli, dan Burkholderia cepacia.

Penyebab non infeksiBeberapa kasus bronkiektasis dikaitkan dengan paparan zat beracun yang memicu respon inflamasi berat. Contohnya menghirup gas beracun seperti amonia atau aspirasi isi lambung, meskipun masalah tersebut sering dipersulit oleh aspirasi bakteri. Respon imun pada saluran napas juga dapat memicu peradangan, perubahan, dan dilatasi bronkus. Mekanisme tersebut penting pada bronkiektasis dengan bronkopulmoner alergi aspergilosis yang disebabkan respon imun terhadap organisme Aspergillus yang berkolonisasi pada saluran napas.

Pada defisiensi antitrypsin-1, komplikasi pernapasan yang biasa ditemukan adalah perkembangan awal emfisema panasinar, tetapi individu yang terkena biasanya memiliki bronkiektasis. Pada sindrom kuku kuning, karena limfatik hipoplasia, dengan trias limfedema, efusi pleura, dan perubahan warna kuning kuku, pada sekitar 40% pasien juga disertai bronkiektasis.

Pappalettera M, Aliberti S, Castellotti P, et al.Bronchiectasis: an update. Clin Respir J 2009;3:1752–6981.

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HARRISON