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UNIT 1 VOLUNTARISM THEORETICALISSUES

on t en t s

Aims and Objectives

IntroductionFundamental Aspects of Voluntarism

Schopenhauer Generalised Form of VoluntarismRousseau General Will and Praxis of Voluntarism

Nietzsche s Will to Power Negation of Voluntarism

Freud s Concept of Unconscious Unclear State of VoluntarismVoluntarisrn and Sociological Theories of ActionMax Weber s Theory of Social Action

Talcott Parsons The Voluntaristic Theory of Action

Let s Sum Up\

Suggested Readings and ReferencesModel Answers

1 0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with theoretical foundations and essential tenetsof voluntarism. We will explain to you the fundamental assumptions of voluntarism asavailable in western philosophical traditions. Later we will describe the manifestationof voluntarism in sociological theories of action. After studying this unit, you should

be able to:understand the essence and meaning of voluntarism;

identify the theoretical assumptions of voluntarism;

locate origins, basis nd attributes of voluntarism in western philosophical traditions;

describe Schopenhauer s generalised form of voluntarism;

appreciate the potential for praxis of voluntarism inherent in Rousseau s conceptionof General Will ;

assess the constraints on voluntarism in Nietzsche s Will to Power ;

identify manifestation of voluntarism in sociological theories of action;explain Max Weber s theory of Social Action; and

describe Talcott Parson s voluntaristic theory of action.

1 1 INTRODUCTION

The social thought of voluntarism is the product of western philosophy. Voluntarismemerged from those philosophical traditions which consider human will as the ultimatesource of individual emotions, feelings, thoughts and actions. To begin with, theexistence of will is presupposed and later on it is considered as the source of our

understanding and awareness about the existence of our own being and surroundingreality. Human will is conceived as the basic nature and cause for understanding andthrough action, realization of the whole material and non-material world.

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Voluntarism tate and

SocietyRooted in such philosophical traditions are sociological theories which emphasize thepractical manifestations of voluntarism in real life situations in society. The fundamentalassurnptioi underlying these theories of social action is that an individual S capableof conscious thought and self-awareness. Individual action is not simply a reaction toexternal stimuli; rather, it is the result of conscious meanings, motives, interpretationand choices brought into a situation by the individual's expression of free-will. Thisvoluntary approach that gives central importance to the role of 'free-will' and

subsequently to individual's voluntary actions has found expression in the building ofsociological theories of action.

At the very outset, you will learn about the meaning, essence and definitional aspectsof voluntarism. we will explain to you that an ideal state of natural existence, asconceived by Hobbes, entertained vast scope and potential for the realization ofvoluntarism. However, by positing centralized authoritarian state Hobbes' curtailedthe theoretical scope for the true expression of voluntarism. Next, you will learn thatthe philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer is a highly generalised form of voluntarismin which the ultimate source of reality is conceived to be the nature of 'will'.Schopenhauer considered human 'will' as the source of individual volitions, emotidns,desires and consequent actions. His philosophy represents the true spirit of voluntarismand contains an unlinlited scope and potential for the existence and expression ofvoluntarism in society.

After that we will furnish a discussion on some more philosophical interpretationsof human 'will' and the consequent praxis of voluntarism. Of particular significanceis Rousseau's philosophy which has profound potential and unlimited possibilitiesfor the praxis of voluntarism in real life situations in modern society. In utter contrastto Rouseeau, is Nietzsche's conception of 'will to power' which contains potentialfor the aggressive praxis of voluntarism. Nietzsche's 'will to power' is germane tocreate authoritarian structures inimical to the true expression of voluntarism. Next,you will find discussion on Freud's understanding about the constitution of the

unconscious mind which broadly falls within the domain of psychoanalysis.At this stnge you will find that leaving the philosophical terrain behind, the discussionenters into the domain of sociological theories of action. You will leam that animportant stream in sociological theory emphasizes the practical manifestation ofvoluntaridm in society. t is devoted specifically to the study of 'individual' withinsociety. These social theories rest on underlying assumptiolls that thinking andconscious individuals are creators of society as they act and inter& (according totheir own free-will) in socially meaningful ways in society. The central focus of suchtheories is on the 'social actor' i.e. the uniqueness of an individual in social relations.Two noteworthy and outstanding sociological theories of action which have stressedthe role of 'free will' and individual voluntary actions in their theories belong to MaxWeber and Talcott Parsons. Thus, in the end, we will explain to you the most salientfeatures of Max Weber's 'theory of social action' and Parsons' voluntaristic theoryof action. The theoretical issues involved in both these theories will help you tounderstand the real basis of the expression of voluntarism and attendant manifestationof voluntary action in society.

1.2 FUND MENT L SPECTS OF VOLUNT RISM

In this section we will explain to you the meaning, essence and definitional aspectsof voluntarism. We will also acquaint you with Hobbes' philosophy of an ideal stateof natural existence of mankind. Based on absolute natural rights, Hobbes visualizedall kinds of individual freedom, liberty and choice of action in natural conditions ofexistence. Such a thinking entertained vast scope and potential for the realization ofvoluntarism. However, you will learn, that by positing centralized authoritarian stateto contain the natural problem of aggression i.e. 'war of all against all', Hobbes, inpure theoretical sense, eclipsed the true spirit of voluntarism.

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1.21 Meaning and Essence Voluntarism Theoreticalssues

The fundamental tenets of modern form of voluntarism are the product of westernphilosophy. The essence of voluntarism is that an individual's actions should beshaped by his own volitions, desires, feelings and choices. An individual should havethe freedom and choice of independent action. Individuals have goal seeking creativeurges and these can be realized if they have the liberty of opinion and action insociety. The fundamental philosophical assumption involved here is that human willis the source of a person's thought, feeling and emotions. All actions basically

emanate from the expression of 'free-will' of human beings. Therefore, only people'sactions nurtured by expression of 'free-will' can create a humane world. Socialevolution is the product of people's own struggles and strivings. History of mankindis basically a repository of the cumulative actions of individuals in society. Socialactions rooted in the expression of 'free-will' contribute to the growth of voluntarism,bringing about democratic and progressive social changes in societ*.

Voluntarism is opposed to any kind of deterministic and mechanical thinking aboutsocial life. Social controls and rigid rules (characteristics of bureaucratic orauthoritarian structures) subdue the expression of free-will, hence suppressing theexistence of voluntarism. Such social conditions alienate people from their own

actions. They neither understand nor become aware of the consequences of their ownactions. They simply become mute witness to social life. Therefore, social actionsinitiated and directed by any outside agency (for instance state) suppress the expressionof people's free-will and limit the growth of voluntarism. The result is eithermaintenance of 'status-quo' or, at worst, bringing about such social change as maybe retrogressive in nature.

1.2.2 Definitional Aspect

Voluntarism (Latin voluntas : the will, the desire) is the principle which regards the'will' as the fundamental basis of individual feelings,, emotions, thoughts and actions.

The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought refers to voluntarism as any theorythat emphasizes the role of the will in mental life, especially thinking and the pursuitof knowledge, or, again in decisions about conduct. n historical, political and socialtheories about the behaviour of man, voluntarism emphasizes the individual choicein decision making, which it considers as not entirely determined by externalconditions . It stands in contrast to deterministic model of human behaviour whichexcludes 'will' and voluntary action as causative factors in individual experience andin society.

Voluntarism assumes that source of person's thinlung, feeling and emotions lies inhumin 'will'. Subsequently, such thought and feelings which originate from 'free-will' give shape to actions of a person. To begin with, the existence of 'will' ispresupposed and later on it is considered as the source of our understanding andawareness about the existence of our own being and surrounding reality. Human willis conceived as the basic nature and cause for understanding and through action,realization of the whole material and non-material world.

1.2.3 Hobbes Natural State of Existence

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in his famous book 'Leviathan' proposed a model ofearly human development and set the agenda for almost all subsequent westernpolitical philosophy. He described an ideal state of nature in which every individualhad equal right to every resource available in nature. Every person was free to use

any means to acquire such natural resources. However, in the natural condition ofexistence, some individuals might be physically stronger or more intelligent thanothers. But no person could be as strong or smart enough as to outlive the dangerof a violent death. Faced with such a threat of violent death a person had the right

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Voluntarism State and to defend himself. Thus, for Hobbes, individual rights were borne out of the necessitySociety of self-defence.

Now, constant struggle for acquiring resources and the necessity of self-defencewould create a situation of a war of all against all in natural conditions of mankind.But this perpetual condition of aggression and war was not to be in the bestinterests of human beings. As a solution to this problem of aggression, Hobbesproposed the creation of centralized authoritarian state which he called Leviathan .

According to Hobbes, individuals would surrender just enough of their natural rightsin bargain for having certain protections from the authority of state. By giving upabsolute rights for protection against violent death, individuals would enter in asocial contract. Thus entering into a social contract they would create peacefulsocieties. For Hobbes, in an ideal condition of nature, society is simply a vastpopulation living beneath a very strong authority. The absolute authority, i.e. aLeviathan state (whether monarch, aristocracy or democracy) is the sovereign thatwould ensure internal peace and common defence.

No doubt, Hobbes posited an infinitely authoritarian Leviathan state but below thathe granted freedom, liberty and choice of behaviour or action to individuals insociety. The sovereign should be ruthless while dealing with violence and aggression(individuals waging war against each other) and matters related to cohesiveness ofstate. Beyond that, sovereign should keep its hands off people and say little aboutwhat an individual does in society. So long as individuals do not harm or pose threatto each other s life, the sovereign should not interfere in their social conduct orbehaviour. Further, sovereign should maintain equality of all individuals. Law, forHobbes, is simply the enforcement of social contract.

From the above discussion, it becomes amply clear that Hobbes granted all types offreedom, liberties, choices of behaviour and actions to individuals based on theirnatural rights in society. As explained in the beginning of this unit, voluntarismmeans that individuals have freedom to shape their actions according to their ownvolitions, desires, feelings or choices available to them. Thus Hobbes philosophycontains vast potential and scope for the emergence and growth of all kinds ofinitiatives related to voluntarism. But he also simultaneously conceived the necessityof a state where no power should be above the sovereign. Again, as noted earlier, anyauthoritarian structure subdues the expression of free-will o individuals and suppressesthe essence of voluntarism. Hence, by positing an authoritarian state and thus curtailingthe absolute natural rights of individuals, Hobbes philosophy eclipses or diminishes,in pure theoretical sense, the true spirit of Voluntarism.

heck your Progress I

Note a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of thisunit.

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4) n the relevant box.

True False

a) The essence of voluntarism is that an individual s actions should be

shaped by his own volitions, desires, feelings and choices. [ ] ]

b) Voluntarism is opposed to any kind of deterministic and mechanicalthinking about life. [ [ ]

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c ) Voluntarism is the principle which regards will as the funda men talbasis of human feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions. [ ] [

d) Th e starting point of Hob bes philosophy is that all individuals haveabsolute natural rights on all the resources available in nature.

[ I [ ]

e ) According to Hobbes, struggle for acquiring resources and the necessityof self-defence will not create situations of a war of all against allin natural conditions of mankind. [ I [ ]

f As a solution to end the problem of violent aggression in naturalconditions of mankind, Hobbes did not entertain the necessity ofcentralized authoritarian state, called Leviathan. [ I [ ]

g) By surrendering just enough of absolute natural rights for protectionagainst violent death, individuals would enter into a social contractwith the state. [ I [ ]

h) hesovereign should be ruthless while dealing with violence and

aggression i.e. individuals waging war against each other. Beyond thatthe sovereign should not interfere in their social conduct or behaviour insociety. [ I [ ]

i) By granting all kinds of freedom, liberties, choices of behaviour andactions to individuals, Hobbes philosophy created vast potential for thegrowth of voluntarism in society. [ I [ ]

j By positing centralized authoritarian state Hobbes did not eclipse thetrue spirit of voluntarism. [ I [ ]

2 List the essential aspects of voluntarism.(Hint : see the text)

..........................................................................................................................

Voluntarism - TheoreticalIssues

1 3 SCHOPENH UER - GENER LISED FORMOF VOLUNT RISM

In this section we will discuss the real philosophical foundations of voluntarism. Thephilosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer is considered as a highly generalized form ofvoluntarism in which ultimate source of reality is conceived to be the nature of will.How ever, the starting point of Scho penh auer s philosophy was K ant s understandingabout reality. In the beginning of this section w e will explain to you Kant sunderstanding of Noum enon and Phenom enon . Later on you will learn howScho penh auer adapted Kant s N oumen on and identified it with will . We will alsodiscuss how Scho penh auer considered will as the source of individual volitions,emotions, feelings, desires and subsequent actions. His philosophy represents thetrue spirit of voluntarism and has an unlimited scope and potentialqor the existenceand expansion of voluntarism in society.

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Voluntarism State andSociety

1.3.1 Kant s Understating of Noumenon and Phenomenon

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German Philosopher, in his famous book 'The Critiqueof Pure Reason' postulated the division of Universe into 'noumenon' and'phenomenon'. He called the 'noumenon' as the actually existing entity i.e. 'Thingin Itself' (Ding an Sich). Noumenon is the reality which is the foundation of oursensory and mental representations of an external world. Noumena (or things inthemselves, German, Dinge-an-Sich) refer to all the things that underlie our experienceboth of physical and of our own mental states. Kant held that the immediate objectsof perception are due partly to external things and partly to our own perceptiveapparatus: For Kant, the sensory and mental representations of external reality aremere phenomena. Bertand Russell in his book A History of Western Philosophy'noted

What appears to us in perception, which he (Kant) calls a 'phenomenon' consistsof two parts that due to the object, which he calls the 'sensation' and that due toour subjective apparatus, which he says causes the manifold to be ordered in certainrelations. This part he calls the form of the phenomenon. This is not itself; sensation,and therefore not dependent upon the accident of environment; it is always the same,

since we carry it about with us, and it is priori in the sense that it is not dependentupon experience. A pure form of sensibility is called a 'pure intuition' (anschauung);there are two such forms, namely space and time, one for the outer sense, one forthe inner.

Kant maintained that a study of moral law can take us behind phenomena and provideus with the knowledge whlch our sense perceptions are unable to do. For him morallaw iS essentially concerned with the will. Kant noted that the difference between agood man and bad man is basically a difference in world of '-things-in-themselves',and iS also a difference as to volitions. Therefore, according to Kant, volitions mustbelong the real world i.e. 'noumena'. Volitions do not belong to the world of phenomena

i.e. our sensory and mental representations of external reality.

1.3.2 Arthur Schopenhauer Human Will and Voluntarism

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) also a German philosopher, in his book The Worlds ill ahd epresentation posited that human beings living in the world of 'objects'

are essentially living in the realm of desire. He claimed that Kant's 'noumenon' wasessentially the same as that in us which we call 'will'. He retained the 'thing-in-itself' and identified it with 'will'. Schopenhauer's systgm is basically an adaptationof Kant's philosophy. He argued that Kant's demarcation between external objects(knowable only as phenomena) and the 'thing-in-itself' (noumenon) contains asignificant omission. This omission is our own body. In fact, human body as physicalobject is known more intimately to us than any other known object of sense perception.Thus Schopenhauer held that what appears to perception as my body is really my'will' . The phenomenon corresponding to a volition is a bodily movement, that iswhy, according to him, the body is the appearance of which 'Will' is the reality.

Schopenhauer argued that human bodies have boundaries, occupy space and displaysome of the properties the same way as other physical objects. In this sense, humanbody is similar to other physical objects which are known only through our sensesi.e. only known as phenomena. Now our consciousness inhabits such a physical body(objects). Yet this consciousness is not commensurate with our body. To make thisdifference explicit, Schopenhauer noted our motion is voluntary; we usually are not

aware of or have any idea about the functioning of our organs such as lungs, heart,liver, kidneys a& so on at any given moment of time. Our ability and power tocontrdl the functioning of these organs is limited. Our organs have an agenda whichthe conscious mind did not choose. The conscious mind is the servant and not themaster of these organs. Thus, on the one hand, our physical body as an outer entity

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(similar to all other objects), can be known through sense perceptions and treated as VO untarismIssues

phenomenon. This aspect known through senses is assessable to and constitutive ofconscious min d. .On the other hand, its inner essenc e determined by m ysterious andunknow n ag enda of our organs lies beyond the com prehension of ou r sense perceptions

hence cannot be given the treatment as phenomenon. This aspect dictated bymysterious agenda lies beyond the comprehension of consciousness and is notconstitutive of conscious mind.

Schopenhauer visualized that human beings participate in the reality of outside worldexisting beyond the con scious mind (unachievable through senses) through will .Therefore, he identified K ant s noumena with the desires, needs and impulses whichhe called will . He further elaborated that by thinking or reasoning, we can not provethat our understanding of an o utside world corresponds with reality. How ever, withoutthinlung for a mo me nt, through will , we at onc e become aware that outside worldstimulates us. Natural feelings and emotions such as suffering, pain, fear or desirearise instantly and involuntarily. Such an unconscious state of emotion take placeprior to any reflection, or inkling of thought and are beyond the control of consciousmind. Thus, for Schopenhauer, the thinking, conscious and rational mind is borne outof pre-reflective and largely unconscious volitions. These unconscious pre-reflectivevolitions em otions, feelings and desires, are cons titutive of will . H um an will hasontological primacy over thought and intellect. Desire is understood to be prior tothought and, in a parallel sense, will is said to be prior to being. Will is the innercontent and diiring force of the world. Thro ugh will human beings can participatein reality underlying the outside world which otherwise exists beyond m ere phenom ena.

Thus philosophy of Schopenhauer rooted the whole project of human enquiry,knowledg e and constitution of rational and conscious mind in human will . Hum anthought, con scious mind an d subsequ ent actions are the product of a person s ow nvolitions, desires, feelings and emo tions i.e. expression of human will . Suc h human

thought and actions which originate or emanate from human will are consideredvoluntary in nature. The source and essence of voluntarism lies in the free expressionof hum an will . Individual actions based on the unhindered ex pression of free-willrepresent the true spirit of voluntarism. This way Schopenhauer s philosophy laid thefirm and sound foundations of generalized form of voluntarism. It created unlimitedscope, potential and space for the existence and expansion of voluntarism in society.Such voluntarism is free from all such constraints or limitations as are associatedwith sys temic or author i tar ian s t ructures . In broader phi losophical sense ,Scho penh auer s voluntarism is considered as generalized metaph ysical voluntarism.However, it may be noted that his methodology is resolutely empirical ratherspeculative or transcendental.

Check Your Progress I1

Note a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Check your answ er with the model answers given at the end of thisunit.

1 The following statements have been based on the text that you hav e alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4 in the relevant box.

rue False

a) Schopenh auer adapted Kant s noumenon and identified it with will .[ [ ]

b) T h e s t a rt i n g p o i n t o f S c h o p e n h a u e r s p h i l o so p h y w a s K a n t sunderstanding about reality. [ [ ]

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Voluntarism, State andSociety c) Schopenhauer noted that Kant s demarcation between external objects

(knowable only as phenomena) and the thing-in-itself (noumenon)contains no such significant omission as our body. [ [ ]

d) Schopenhauer visualized that human beings participate in the reality ofthe outside world existing beyond the conscious mind (unachievablethrough senses) through will . [ [ ]

e) Human will has no ontological primacy over thought and intellect.[ [ ]

f Human thought, consciousness and consequent actions are the productof a person s volitions desires, feelings and emotions, i.e. expressionof human will. [ [ ]

g) Human thought and actions which originate from human will are notconsidered voluntary in nature. [ [ ]

h) Individual actions based on the unhindered expression of free-will are

represent the true spirit of voluntarism. [ [ ]

2) Explain in brief, Schopenhauer s notion of will and its significance in relationto voluntarism.

(Hint see the text)

1.4 ROUSSEAU S NOTION OF GENERAL W ILLPR AX IS O F VOLLTNTARISM

In this section, we will explain to you that in order to overcome the inherent existentialcontradictions borne out of the original human nature, Rousseu proposed the idea ofSocial Contract for the smooth functioning of society. Rousseu s social contract is

based on the assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his

own will to the general will of all the people in society. In the following, we willacquaint you with basic tenets of Rousseau s philosophcal argument and its implicationsfor the expression of voluntarism.

1.4.1 Rousseau s Social Contract, General Will and Voluntarism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a Franco-Swiss Philosopher of theEnlightenment era whose political thought influenced French Revolution and thedevelopment of socialist theory. Rousseau s basic contention is that there exists afundamental division between human nature and society . In the natural conditionsof existence, human nature was good, noble and full of compassion and pity forfellow human beings (Rousseau called him a noble savage). The emergence ofsociety and subsequent expansion of civilization has imparted harmful, hostile andcorrupting influences to human nature. Rousseau in his Discourse on Inequality ,traced the evolution and degeneration of human nature from primitive stage to modernsociety as follows:

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In the beginning, humans were isolated just like semi-apes but were differentiatedV 1untari5m

from other animals by their capacity of free-will and completeness of survival-potential vis-8-vis nature. They had a basic instinct and drive for self-preservationand natural disposition of compassion towards fellow beings. Population growth andattending compulsions of associating more closely with each other brought in radicalpsychological transformation and self-awareness among primitive humans. Theylearned the importance and value of the good o pinions of others as an essentialrequirement for their own survival and well-being. Rousseau considered thisdevelopment as the ushering in of a golden era of vigorous growth, of humanevalues.

However, later on, with the advent of agriculture, there occurred an increasedinterdependence and acute inequalities among human beings. Consequent conflictsled the rich and powerful to invent the idea of first State at some stage of developm ent.Rousseau argued that idea of such a State was conceived as a kind of social contractbetween most powerful mem bers and general population. H e considered this originalcon tract as fraudulent form of association since the wealthiest and powerful sectionstricked the general population hus institutionalizing inequalities as fund am entalfeature of society. He further noted that such an unequal social contract was inimicalto the progress and well being of general population. Advancement in arts andsciences occurred not in response to human needs but because of pride and vanity.The resulting idleness and luxury contributed to thecorruption of human beings.Progress in know ledge m ade governments powerful thus crushing individual liberties.Material progress in reality undermined sincere bonds of comradeship, and replacedit with jealousy, fear, suspicion and so on.

Rousseau, in his most important work The S ocial Contract posited his own versionas an alternative to the above discussed fraudulent form of associa tion . Retainingmost of the evolutionary arguments noted above, he opined that reason for thedegeneration of original primitive human nature (good, noble and compassionateetc.) is to be attributed to a central contradiction inh erent in society. The co ntradiction

is on the one hand human beings are pitted against each other ina fierce, continuous,cut-throat competition; while on the other han d, they are simultaneously becom ingmore and more dependent on each other. This two-pronged contradictory process isthreatening both their survival and freedom. Roussedu proposed a novel solution toresolve thls contradiction.

By entering into a social contract among themselves and abandoning their naturalrights, individuals could both preserve them selves an d retain their freed om . Rousseau ssocial con tract is based on the assumption that each individual is under imp licit

contract to submit his ow n will to the general will of all the peoplein the society.Subm ission to the authority of the general w ill of the people wo uld guarantee that:

i) no individual can be subordinated to the wills of others;

ii) people would obey themselves since they have collectively and willingly enteredinto such a social contract ; an d

iii) sovereignty would be in the custody of the people since they themselves becomeauthors of law. .

Rousseau claimed that, in the absence of law o r morality, original human nature hastendency to deg enerate into brutish conditions. Therefore, it is of paramoun t importancethat human race mu st adopt institutions of law rooted in the authority of the generalwill or perish forever. Since lack of law entails a form of ignorance and succum bingto one s passions, certain constraints of law wouldbe beneficid for individuals in

This of general w ill is not the simple of individual wills,rather it is Onceived for funherin g and maximizing the interests and freedomsof anindividual in society.

Theoretical

lssues

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Voluntarism, State an d Rousseau's concept of submission of an individual will to the authority of the generalSociety will and subsequent constraints of mutually agreedlauthored laws, in a pure theoretical

sense, again eclipses the essence and true spirit of voluntarism. However, since theauthority of sovereignty is invested in the 'general will' of the people (not alien toindividuals) and individuals have entered into 'social c ontract' through the expressionof 'free-will'; Rousseau's philosophy has immense profound potential and unlimitedpossibilities for unleashing the praxis and growth of voluntarism in real life situationsin modem society.

1 5 NIETZSCHE S WILL TO POWERNEGATION OF VOLUNTARISM

In this section, we will acquaint you with the basic aspects of Nietzsche'sconceptulisation of 'Will to Power'. You will learn that such an expressionof humanwill is fraught with aggressive praxis of voluntarisln having potential to subdue otherbeings in society. Hence this conckption isa serious obstacle to the true expressionof voluntarism.

We will also explain to you essential tenets of Freud's pathbreaking concept of

'constitution' of the . unconsc ious m ind. You will learn that Freud's conception of'unconscious' is not ex pl ~c it bout the potential and expression of voluntarism in reallife situations in society.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was an elusive, complex and highlycontroversial German Philosopher. His concept 'will to powe r' is amenable to diverseinterpretations. notoriously deliberate and woefu lly distortive interpretation (becauseof selective editing and false projection ofhis work by his sister Elisabeth Forster-Nietzsche) was given by Nazi intellectuals to justify their political agenda.

Nietzsche, in his youth, was influenced and motivated by S chopen hauer's philosophy;

however, he later on turned outto be an ardent critic of him. Ni et ~s ch e rgued thatSchopenhawer's notion of 'will' was simplya 'will to live'. Th is understanding is builtupon the idea that survival, sustenance and development of one's own life is the olemotivation for human beings. Contrary to this, Nietzsche posited his own version of'will' as 'will to power'. Th e human beings are not just driven by the sinlple needof survival. Rather, they are motivated by a higher need to acquire and use powerin order to dominate over other beings. In the process they also intend to make othersweaker and subjugate them to their own will. Therefore, Nietzsche considered hisversion of 'will to power' as 'primary' while regarding Schopenhauer's 'will to live'as secondary in nature.

Notwithstanding other versions,n elementary interpretation of 'will to power' is asfollows : The sole driving force in nature is creative energy. The releasing andexpansion of creative energy is the fundamental causal power behind all the naturalphenomena in Universe. All other causalitiesare reducible to the essential causalpower of creative energy. Nietzsche's 'will to pow er' is not limited to psychologicalor subjective aspects; rather, it has cosmic dimensions. Nietzsche visuaIized his

. theory of 'will to power' has sufficient potential to furnish, ultimate foundation forexplaining everything, i.e., societies, individuals or even nature of matter in universe.

Let us understand the manifestation of Nietzsche's 'will to power' with regard toliving beings. An animal's most basic instinct is considered by Nietzsche as 'will to

pow er'. It is &onsidered even more fundamental than the survival instinct andsubsequent acts of self-preservation. Survival instinct is merely considered as anepipheno~nenonof the basic drive of 'will to power'. According to Nietzsche, thevery initial interaction of living beings with the outside world is through the,basicinstinct of 'will to power'. Subsequently, the understandingand interpretation of

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world also emanate from the exercise of will to power . Hence, all manifestation ofthe outside world are nothing else but will to power .

In rudimentary form the will to power is a sort of desire to exert one s will in theact of self-otrercoming . This preliminary urge to exert one s will, to begin with,may be unconscious effort of willing. However, initial unconscious desire is built upso intense that it is like a kind of pent-up frustration of the will. Release of thisintense frustration (energylpower) caused human beings to become conscious, in thefirst place. Subsequently, all other instincts including the survival instinct (will tosurvive) of a person are manifestations of this basic instinct of will to power .

For Nietzsche, even aggression is the energy which a person channelizes towardsself-mastery. He considered consciousness itself to be a form of instinct. Furthermore,both negative (violence, lying, domination etc.) and positive (love, praise etc.) actsare again caused by will to power . All higher forms of human behaviour can bereduced to the will to power . Even a philosopher s claim of will to truth a desireto b e a dispassionate seeker of objective truth) is nothing else but a manifestation ofthe will to power .

Nietzsche s concept of will to power contains the spirit and immense potential ofVoluntarism. The concept, at the same time, is impregnated with a fierce and aggressivedrive for the expression of voluntarism. Because of this aspect, an individual svoluntaristic expressions or actions may come into direct confrontation with others.Such excessive voluntaristic expressions intend to make others weak with the soleaim to dominate over them. This kind of aggressive praxis of voluntarism by anyindividual negates and neutralizes the very essence of voluntarism since it subjugatesand subordinates other beings in the over-jealous pursuit of will to power . Theconcept is also germane to create authoritarian structures inimical to the idea ofindividual freedom of thought, creations, choices etc., i.e., true expression of voluntarismin society.

1 6 FREU D S CONCEPT OF UNCO NSCIOUS MINDUNCLEA R STATE OF VOLUNTARISM

Sigmund Freud (1 856- 1939), an Austrian, was the founder of psychoanalytic schoolof psychology. He argued that all declarations about human thoughts and actions asexpressions of free-will are in fact delusions. Individuals are never aware of the realreasons underlying their conscious thoughts and actions. He proposed the path breakingconcept of the unconscious . It meant that origins of the thoughts lies somewherebelow the surface of the conscious mind. And the awareness about reality exists inthe form of various layers constituting the unconscious mind. According to himdreams, provided an access to working of the unconscious mind.

In his famous work, The Interpretations of Dreams he proposed the existence of theunconscious and even elaborated a method to study it. According to Freud, the

category of repression is of critical importance and relevance to the understandingand working of the unconscious. People generally experience painful and unbearablethoughts, emotions and feelings. Such unpleasant memories could be. removed fromthe immediate consciousne~s ut could not be banished from mind. As people try torepress and banish these thoughts and feelings, their memories gradually constitute

and become part of the unconscious . Freud considered, the process of repressionas a non-conscious act and choice, and decision regarding what is to be repressed

was made by the unconscious . In fact unconscious was, for Freud, both a causeand effect of repression .

He opined that there was a layer called pre-conscious in between the conscious andunconscious. Furthermore, the three variants of unconscious were considered asfollows:

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f Neitsche s will to power becomes an obstacle to the true expressionof voluntarism in society. [ [ ]

g) Freud propounded the pathbreaking concept of the Unconscious .

[ [ ]

h) In Freud s constitution of the unconscious mind the actual nature andtrue expression of voluntarism remains unclear. [ [ ]

2 List the essential features of Rousseau s notion of general will and socialcontract.

(Hint see the text)

1 7 VOLUNT RISM ND SOCIOLOGIC L

THEORIES OF CTION

In the preceding sections we have discussed the philosophical foundations of voluntarism.We have explained the fundamental aspects of those philosophical traditions whichconsider human will as the ultimate source of individual emotions, feelings, thoughtand actions. Rooted in such philosophical traditions are sociological theories whichemphasise the practical manifestations of voluntarism in real life situations in society.The fundamental assumption underlying these theories of social action is that : anindividual is capable of conscious thought and self-awareness. Individual action is notsimply a reaction to external stimuli; rather, it is the result of conscious meanings,motives, interpretations and choices brought into a social situation by the individual sexpression of free-will. Such voluntary approach that gives central importance to therole of free-will and subsequently to individual s voluntary actions has foundexpression in the building of theories of social action. In the following text, we willexplain in brief, the inherent distinctions in sociological theory so that you are able toidentify the nature of action theories which are oriented towards subjectiveconsciousness and consider it as a means of explaining the roots of social action.

a) An important and predominant stream in sociological theory is devoted to thestudy of society as a whole. Such theories are interested in examining the broadsocietal dynamics which influences and shapes the behaviour of individuals.These theories are mostly structural is nature, and give central importance to theimpact of society (as a whole) or its constituent structures on the activities andactions of individuals or sections of people. For instance, Karl Marx s analysisis devoted to the study of such structures as modes of production, capitalism,state, class-structure, class-struggle and so on. Similarly, Ernile Durkheim in hissocial theories has given importance to such structures or concepts as socialsolidarity, social facts, division of labour and so on. These theories mainly analysethe nature and characteristics of structures and the crucial relationship amongthese structures in society. They generally tend to ignore the individual or actualreal people and various aspects of actionslinteractions in which individuals arenormally engaged in society.

b) Another equally important stream in sociological theory is devoted specifically tothe study of individual within society. These social theories rest on the

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Voluntarism State andSociety

underlying assumptions that thinking and conscious individuals are creators ofsociety as they act and interact (according to their own free-will) in sociallymeaningful ways in society. The central focus of such theories is on the socialactor , i.e. on the uniqueness of an individual in social relations. The mainimportance and emphasis is given to the study of interactions among social actorsin society.

For such theories of social action, the key to the real understanding of society liesin the analysis of:

i) the distinctiveness of an individual actor;

ii individual s freedom and choice (free-will) of actions;

iii individual s own understanding and interpretations of the meaning of socialaction; and

iv) the consequent relationships among individuals in society.

Sociological theories of action can be broadly classified further into two types asfollows:

Theories of action which are oriented towards subjective consciousness andconsider it as a means of explaining the roots of social action. Action Theoriesof Max Weber and Talcott Parsons belong to this kind of understanding of socialaction. Both entertain the voluntaristic image of the individual actor and havestressed the role of free-will and individual voluntary actions in their theories.Essential aspects of these important theories will be discussed in the next twosections of the unit.

Theories of social action which are oriented more towards the human activitiesand pragmatics of action or performance of action seen as social conduct. Thesetheories are concerned with the nature and description of action, details of

performance of action, and subsequent interactions and value judgment of othersin society. The perspectives of symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodologyhave been developed to provide alternative explanations for such social actions.Because of limitation of space and specific concerns of this unit, these perspectiveswill not be discussed here in the text.

1.8 MAX WEBER S THEORY OF SOCIALACTION

Max Weber, a German social thinker, extensively analysed various structures ofsociety, viz., religion, authority, bureaucracy, capitalism and so on. He also developedconcepts such as domination, class, status and power which deal with structuralaspects of society. However, the real foundation underlying the vast corpus of hisacademic work is the theory of social action . Weber attempted to develop acomprehensive understanding of an individual actor and nature and characteristics ofdifferent types of actions in society. His ultimate unit of analysis remained theuniqueness of a concrete individual actor. The central theoretical focus remained onthe subjective meanings which conscious human beings attach to their actions orintdractions within specific social contexts. For Weber, actions or behaviour devoid

of an individual s own subjective understanding fall outside the purview of sociologicaltheory.

In the context of our earlier discussion (see preceding sections) regarding the essenceand roots of voluntarism in some prominent philosophical traditions, the most importantaspect to be noted here by the learner is that Inherent in Weber s theory of socialaction is the voluntary approach which emphasises the individual s voluntary actionsand places stress on free-will . It means that a human being is capable of conscious

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hough t and self-awareness. Hum an action is not simply a reaction to external stimuli;rather, it is the result of the subjective mean ings, motives and interpretations broughtnto a social situation by the actions of an individual actor. Social reality is continuously

evolving because it is created by indiv idual s ow n actions and expression of free-will . It is not som ething fixed and inevitable where an ind ividual is simply a mutewitness to the existing social conditions.

Voluntarisrn TheoreticalIssues

1 8 1 Ideal Types Verstehn and Rationalisation

Before w e explain to you Weber s Ideal types of social action, it is of paramoun tmportance for you to learn about the elementary aspects of three significant concep ts

which are intertwined with Weberian approach to social action viz. Ideal Types ,Verstehn and Rationalization .

) deal wpes

Weber developed the notion of ideal types as a conceptual and methodological toolo understand and analyse social reality. A social scientist always faces a typical

dilemma while choosing conceptual apparatus. If the concepts chosen are too generaln nature, there is likelihood of m issing distinctive specific details of a phenom enon.Again, if concepts are too specific, chosen to explain the particularities of aphenomenon, they leave no room for comparison with other related phenomena. Toavoid this difficulty, rather to escape this dilemma, Weber conceptualized the notionof Ideal Types .

An Ideal Type is conceived as an abstraction which is an approxim ation to anaverage or pure type . Ideal Typ e is developed to capture the essence of some socialthought, activity, action or phenomenon. Such ideal type can later on be referred tofor exp laining similar or related social thoughts or activities or actions or phenomena.In fact, an ideal type is an analytical construct which serves the investigator as ameasuring rod to ascertain similarities as well as deviations in concrete phenomenaor case-studies. Ideal type is a methodological device in the form of abstractionswhich emphasize the core or central elements of a phenomenon. Other similar orrelated phenomena can be analysed with reference to the core or central elementsof such an ideal type. Weber did not attach any positive or negative value judgmentsto ideal types. For him, ideal types basically offered guidance for the constructionof hypothesis. They also furnished a fundam ental method for conducting comparativestudies.

Weber developed a model of an ideal-type bureaucracy as a rational form ofadministration that performs with maximum efficiency . The essential characteristicsof an ideal type bureaucracy are rational and efficient methods of administration,standardised rules, well-defined hierarchy, legitimate forms of authority, objectivzdecision making (no space for arbitrariness or favouritism), hiring and promotion tooccur on the basis of merit, rewards to be given for performance and so on. ForWeber, a good example of an ideal type bureaucracy having m ost of such charac teristicsis a University . Besides that, no bureaucracy in the real social world may conformexactly to this ideal type since there is often favouritism, bending of rules or inefficientadministration and so on. But there may e many bureaucratic structures in societydisplaying large number of characteristics attributed to an idea-type bureaucracy.

Thus, the analytical construct of an ideal-type bureaucracy becomes a referencemod el for the stud y of other bureaucratic structures of society. Thus, Weber postulatedmany m ore ideal types such as ideal types of action, ideal types of authority, notionof Protestant Ethic as an ideal type for understanding evolution of capitalism andso on. The construction of such ideal-types facilitated Weber s extensive analysis ofsociety.

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Voluntarism State andSocietv

ii Verstehn

This approach called Verstehn is very much important and central to Weberiananalysis. Literal translation of Verstehn (German Pron. Ferstehn) is understandingor sympathetic understanding. Weber postulated that by putting oneself in the placeof others, sociologists can better understand the subjective meanings which socialactors attach to their actions. This method of Verstehn (sympathetic understanding)

facilitates a social scientist to take on the role of other social actors in society so asto develop an understanding of their actions from their own vantage position. Theaim is not to pass positive or negative value judgment on the actions of others, butrather to understand the motives and meanings which individual actors attach to theiractions. This helps to discern and examine the perceptions, motives, views andinterpretations the same way as individual actors perceive their own actions in society.Such an approach does not rely just on empirical data; rather it uses it creatively toconsider how social actors actually perceive their action and social situation. Weberthroughout employed this approach of interpretive understanding (Verstehn) whileextensively analysing social action, social relationships, social structures, culturalsignificance and historical causes of events and so on.

iii) Rationalization

Max Weber argued that one of the most important characteristics of modem societiesis rationalization. He considered traditional forms of conduct or actions as irrationalor non-rational. Traditional thought or actions are generally guided by unknownmysteries of nature, viz., magical, supernatural or religious beliefs. People s actions,in earlier era, were mostly nurtured by non-rational thinking. Weber argued thatrationalization is a long drawn historical process that has transformed modelm

societies. The social conduct or actions of individuals within modem structures ofsociety are governed by rationalization. According to Weber, rationalization meansthat individual s thoughts or actions are rooted in reason and based on enlightenedassessment or calculation of situation. Following aspects are associated with Weber sunderstanding of rationalization

Calculability By choosing certain sound assumptions and methods, individualactions can be based on a prior calculation for achieving the desired results.

Efficiency Individual actors desire to achieve certain ends or goals; hence theychoose the best available means to achieve such ends or goals.

Predictability ndividuals working in organizations are subject to certain norms,ethos, rules, regulations and structure of authority. By adhering to establishedprocedures, the outcome or results of actions can, to a greater extent, be predicted

in advance.

Tools and Technology The application of scientific method, tools, technologies,contemporary information technology and so on ensures greater predictability ofdesired ends or goals.

Control over Uncertainties The uncertainties about the achievement ofdesired ends or goals can not be completely eliminated. However, by the applical.ionof sound scientific assumptions, methods, tools and procedures, uncertaintiesabout the outcome of ends or goals can be brought under control and chancesof occurrence of uncertainties can be substantially reduced.

These above noted principles of rationalization are inherent to most of the actions/activities taking place in modem social and economic organisations. Actions governedby rationality result in efficiency and produce sound gainful end results within suchmodem organisations. Weber considered rationality as a prerequisite necessity for theefficient functioning of any organisation. He visualised that rationalization isprogressively talung over more and more spheres of society. However, he cautionedthat though rationalization contributes to efficiency and predictability, it alsosometimes. stifles individual initiative. innovation and spontaneity in social life.

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1 8 2 Weber s Ideal Types of Action

Weber classified all social actions into four types with different consequences for theindividual and society. He considered these ideal types of action very important forunderstanding human behaviour. We have explained here the essential aspects andunique features of each type of action.

i) Goal Oriented Rational Action

This type of action is distinguished by the fact that individual actor conceives hisgoal clearly. Accordingly, the individual selects appropriate rational means with aview to achieve the desired end or goal. Individual employs the most effective meansfor attaining an immediately practical end-result. For example, an architect conceivesan idea, prepares the design and executes the plan to build a house. He makesinformed decisions regarding materials, costs, time and other inputs based on rationalchoices. This way the building plan is successfully implemented to achieve the desiredgoal. More examples of this type are an entrepreneur s actions to increase profits;rational actions of bureaucracy; a consumer exercising rational choices while purchasingdesired commodities in market. Weber noted that this type of actions based onrationalization are the hallmark of modem societies.

ii Value Oriented Rational Action

This type of action is an end in itself rather than a means to achieve some practicalor gainful result. The desired end in such an action is simply to fulfill a sociallydetermined commitment to a particular value system pertaining to religion, faith,honour, sacrifice and so on. Weber noted that individual actions belonging to thiscategory are dictated by the conscious belief in ethical, aesthetical or religious valuesystems prevalent in society. The action is independent of the immediate prospectsof gain or the notion of success or failure. For example, a soldier will sacrifice hislife in the battlefield in defence of motherland. caption of a ship will prefer to sink

along with the sinking ship. The consideration in such actions is not thepracticality, or gainful pursuit of an actor. Despite all the risks and sacrifice, theindividual action is very much considered rational. In such a situation, the individualacts not to obtain an extrinsic result but to remain faithful to a society nurtured ideaof duty and honour.

iii Emotional or Affectual Action

This type of action is determined by an individual s affective or emotional state ofmind. The action may be impulsive and emotional but the whole behaviour certainlyhas some meaning associated with it. The method of achieving the end is not carefullycalculated and rational choices are not exercised in this type of action. Such action

is not considered rational in any sense of the term as for example, the impulsiveslapping of child by a mother. The action is dictated immediately by the emotionalstate of mind of the mother. The action takes place without any careful calculationor prior consideration of exercising rational choices. The action has some meaningassociated with it, in the sense, that mother s intention is to correct the behaviour ofthe child.

A recent example is the famous head-butt administered by Zinedine Zidane (France)hitting an Italian player in the chest in the final Football Match during World Cup,Germany, 2006. Such action is not to be judged with reference to a goal or systemof values but by the emotional state of an actor in a given set of circumstances.

iv) Traditional Action

This type of action is determined by social beliefs and customs. With the passage oftime, beliefs and customs prevalent in society become almost a second nature of aperson. Thus individual actions are more or less habitual, dictated by various traditions.

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Voluntarism State and An individual need not imagine a goal; rather he simply acts according to givenSociety beliefs, customs or traditions. Further, such actio n is neither determined by any value-

system nor is dictated by impulsive emotions. T he individual simply obeys the reflexeswhich have been nurtured and conditioned by already existing traditions. Weberconsidered that this type of actions are utmost important because they form the basisfor the perpetuation of authority and legitimacy of the social system. People feel duty-bound to abide by customs and traditions. Consequently social order is created,maintained and acquires legitimacy in the minds of people.

1.9 THE VOLUNT RISTIC THEORY OF CTION

The voluntaristic theory of action was developed by American sociologist, TalcottParsons (1902-79). He attempted to build an action theory by integrating the work sof h s predecessors such as Emile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto and Max Weber. Theoutcome was the voluntaristic theory of action which, for Parsons, represented asynthesis of useful assumptions and co ncepts of utilitarianism, positivism an d idealism.Th e most significant aspect to be noted here is that this single action theory wasbased on the fund amen tal assumption that individual action is voluntary, intentionaland symbolic in nature.

Th e theoretical system of Parsons accorded central place to the subjectiveconsciousness of an individual s o as to build a general theory of action systems. Thestarting point of his analysis is the unit act performed by an individual. H e furtherexam ined the ways in which various unit acts orient and com bine together in orderto create the institutions and structures of society.

1 9 1 Unit ct

Parsons noted that every scientific analysis begins by taking into consideration somesmallest unit viz. atom, molecule, metre and so on. Similarly for the analysis of

social action the basic entity is the unit act performed by an individual. Essentialcharacteristics of unit act are

i) An actor, i.e., in individual with a mind and body who is able to perform somekind of action.

ii) An end, i.e., outco me or result of an action. Each individual act must havesome purpose or end a future process related to the orientation of the action .

iv) Situation An actor initiates an act w it h n a particufar situation. Two aspectsof the situation are

The conditions of actions over which the individual actor has little or no

control. For instance, the pre-given natural environment or social structurewithin which an action is being performed; and

Means of action over which the individual does have some control. Forinstance in a workplace situation, individual actor (worker/employee) hasno eontrol over the structure of an enterprise. But the actor certainly canexercise certain degree of control on the specific tasks performed or inrelating with customers, subordinates or superiors and so on.

v) Normative Orientation According to Parsons, the mean s can not be selected atrandoin since the orientation of a particular act to meet certain ends is determinedby norms. The actor always has some prior understanding of framework of

values or norms prevalent in a social structure. Since society provides actorswith a normative set of rules for concrete behaviour, there is always a normativeorientation to social action.

Hen ce, for Parsons, the e-ssential com pone nts of the unit act are an active consc iousactor (individua l) with particular ends (goals), a range of available cho ices, a situation

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imposing certain constraints (environment or social structure), and a normative Voluntarism Theoreticalorientation. Such an Action, according to Parsons is rational but he cautions that it Issues

need not be ascertained objectively by the social scientist. Rather, the frame ofreference must remain subjective, i.e., a social scientist must take into account thepoint of view of the actor whose actions are being examined in a particular situation.

1 9 2 Essential Elemeqts of Voluntaristic Action

Parsons conceptualised voluntarism as the subjective decision-making process ofindividual actors but he considered such decisions as the partial outcome of variouskinds of normative and situational constraints imposed by a social structure. Broadlystated, voluntaristic action has the following essential elements :

Actors are individual persons;

Actors are seen as having goal seeking urges;

Actors give due considetxtion to alternative means in order to achieve the goals;

Actors are faced with a variety of situations such as biological and environmentalconstraints which affect the selection of means of goals;

Actors are governed by values and norms which in turn influence the decisionsabout selection of a goal and choices to be made regarding means; and

Action involves actors; actors make subjective decisions about suitable means toattain particular goals; the overall process is influenced by normative set of rulesand conditions available in a situation. Figure 1.1 depicts this basicconceptualization of voluntarism. The process shown in the diagram is termedas the Unit Act. Social action involves a succession of such Unit Acts by oneor more actions within a social situation.

Norms, Values and other Ideas

Means,

Means,

Actor Means, Goal

Figure 1 1: The Units of Voluntaristic Action

Source onathan, H.Turner, The Structure of Social Action 1987) p-61

1 9 3 Social ActionThe action systems which Parsons attempted to develop are basically built upon theaction approach of ax Weber. As discussed earlier in this unit, Weber s ultimateanalysis remained embedded in the uniqueness of a concrete individual actor. Heplaced emphasis on the subjective meanings which conscious individuals attach totheir actions or interactions with others in order to achieve an end or goal withinspecific social contexts.

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Voluntarism State and For Parsons, social actions has the following characteristicsSociety

Social action is voluntary or voluntaristic. No doubt social action is constrainedby a limited number of available choices in a situation but social actor has theoption to choose a particular action he or she intends to follow to meet certainends. Thus in the ultimate sense, the voluntaristic character remains manifest inthe social action performed by an actor.

Social action is subjective in that social action has an internal orientation. Similarto Weber s actor, it attaches subjective meanings to individual social action andattaches due consideration to others in a social situation. However, at the sametime, the actor has his or her preferences and goals. Again, such voluntaristicaction is oriented by individual preferences and attempts to meet individualgoals.

Social action is governed by framework of norms and values of a culture andsocial structure.

Thus Parsons attempted to furnish a more evolved explanation of social action thanprovided by his predecessors in earlier theories. This approach to social action isconsidered more inclusive than that of Max Weber since it is contextualised within

the culture and social order. Further, Parsons envisaged the actor as determininggoals, choosing between alternatives, and acting in the context of norms and valuesavailable in a social situation. Since social action takes place within a social system,the social action itself contributes to define, create and maintain the social system.

Later on Parsons developed n exhaustive and elaborate analysis of various socialstructures of society in his work The Social System. Further analysis of Parson swork falls beyond the scope of this unit, since our sole aim is to acquaint you withthe essential aspects of voluntaristic theory of action.

Check Your Progress IV

Note a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of thisunit.

I The following statements have been based on the text that you have alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4 in the relevant box.

True False

a) An important stream of sociological theory rests on the assumption thatthinking and conscious individuals are creators of society as they actand interact according to their own free-will in socially meaningful waysin society. [ [ ]

b) Action theories of Max Weber and Talcott Parsons have stressed therole of free-will and voluntary action in sociological theory. [ ] [ ]

c) Weber s theoretical focus was never on subjective meanings whichconscious human beings attach to their actions and interactions withinspecific social contexts. [ [ ]

d) Weber developed the notion of Ideal Type as a conceptual andmethodological tool to understand and analyse social reality. [ ] [ ]

e) The approach called verstehn is very much important and central toWeberian analysis. ] [ I

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f) Weber did not consider rationalisation as an imp ortant characteristic ofmodem societies. [ [ ]

g) Weber classified all social actions into four main types with differentconsequences for the individual and society. [ [ ]

h) Parson s action theory is based on the fundam ental assumption thatindividual action is voluntary, intentional and symbolic in nature.

[ [ ]

i) Th e starting point of Parson s general theory of action is not the UnitAct performed by an individual. [ [ ]

j) Parson s co nceived that each individual act must have some purposeor end or goal. [ [ ]

2 List the main fe atures of Parson s notions of voluntaristic action.

(Hint : see the text)

Voluntarism Theoretical

Issues

1 10 L T US SUM UP

The fundamental tenets of voluntarism lie embedded in the western philosophicaltraditions. In this Unit, we have explained to you, the theoretical issues inherent involuntarism as retrieved from the social thought propounded by some eminentphilosophers in the West. We have furnished a very limited and focused discussionof the relevant ideas of Thomas H obbes, Arthur-Schopen hauer, Jean-Jacques Rous seau,Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. Later, we have described the salientfeatures of a particular stream of sociological theory that emphasized the practicalmanifestations of voluntarism in the analysis of society.

At the very outset, we have described meaning, essence and definitional aspects ofvoluntarism. Next, we have furnished a d iscu ssio i on Hobbes s conception of anideal state of natural existence in which every individual had equal right to everyavailable resource in nature. Hobbes granted all types of freedoms, liberties, choicesof behaviour and actions to individuals based on their natural rights in society. Hisphilosophy contained vast potential for the emergence and expression of all kinds ofinitiatives pertaining to voluntarism. However, by positing an infinitely authoritarianstate in order to contain the ensuing situation of War of all against all , Hobbes inpure theoretical sense, curtailed the scope for the true expression of the essence ofvoluntarism.

We have also explained the fundamental tenets of voluntarism as retrieved from thephilosophy of Arthur Scho penh auer he true architect of voluntarism. Schopenhau erretained Kant s notion of noumen on and identified it with human W ill . Hen ce, heanchored the project of human enquiry, knowledge and constitution of conscious andrational mind ultimately in human will. For him, human thought, consciousness, andconsequent actions are the product of individual s own vo litions, desires, feelings andemotions, i.e., expression of hum an Will . Such human thought o r actions whichoriginate or emanate from human will are considered voluntary in nature. Th e

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Voluntarism State and source and essence of voluntarism lay in the free expression of human will. IndividualSociety actions based on the unhindered expression of free-will represent the true spirit of

voluntarism. Thus Schopenhauer s philosophy laid the firm and sound foundations ofgeneralized form of voluntarism.

Next, we have discussed Rousseau s conception of social contract that is based onthe assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his ownWill to the General Will of all the people in society. Now, submission of an

individual will to the authority of the general will and consequent constraint ofmutually agreedauthored laws, again in pure theoretical sense, eclipses the essenceand true spirit of voluntarism. However, since the authority of sovereignty is investedin the general will of the people (not alien to individuals) and individuals haveentered into social contract through the expression of free-will , Rousseau sphilosophy contains immense profound potential and unlimited practical possibilitiesfor unleashing the praxis and growth of voluntarism in real life situations in modemsocieties.

Further, we have explained that Nietzsche s concept of Will to Power contains theessence as well as immense potential for the expression of voluntarism. But the

concept, at the same time, is impregnated with a fierce and aggressive drive for theexpression of voluntarism. Hence, an individual s voluntaristic expressions of actionsmay come into direct confrontation with others in real life situations. Such excessivevoluntaristic expression intend to make others weak with the sole aim to dominateover them. This aggressive praxis of voluntarism by an individual negates andneutralized the very essence of voluntarism. It subjugates and subordinates otherbeings itl the over-jealous pursuit of Will to Power . The concept in also germaneto create authoritarian structures inimical to the true expression of voluntarism insociety.

Though somewhat unrelated, we have furnished a d iscussion of Freud s

conceptualisation of the constitution of the unconscioii: mind , since it broadly fallswithin the domain of psycho-analysis. Since it represents a reverse movement fromconscious to the constitution of unconscious , the nature and potential for the

expression of voluntarism in society remains unclear.

We have further explained that rooted in the above philosophical traditions aresociological theories which emphasize the practical manifestations of voluntarism inreal life situations in society. The fundamental assumption underlying such theoriesof social action is that an individual is capable of conscious thought and action.Individual action is not simply a reaction to the external environment; rather it is theoutcome of conscious meanings, motives, and choices brought into situation through

the expression of free-will by an individual. This approach gives cerltral importanceto the role of free-will and consequently to the individual s voluntary action insociety. Hence, in the last, we have discussed sociological theories of action whichare oriented towards the individual s subjective consciousness as a means of explainingthe roots of social action. The most significant and outstanding action theories are thatof Max Weber and Talcott Parsons, which have stressed the role of free-will andindividual voluntary actions in sociological analysis. We have explained the essentialfeatures of Weber s theory of social action and Parson s voluntaristic theory ofaction.

1.11 SUGGESTED RE DINGS ND REFERENCESAdams, Bert N and Sydie, R.A., Sociological Theory, Thousand Oaks Pine Forge,

2001.

Aron, Raymond, Main currents in Sociological Thought, Harmondsworth PenguinBooks Ltd. 1979 (Reprint).

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Deleuze, Gilles, Nietzsche and Philosophy (trans, by Hugh Tomlinson), London : Voluntarisrn - TheoreticalThe Athlene Press, 1983. ssues

Easthope, Antony, The Unconscious London : Routeledge, 1999.

Freud, Sigmund, (Trans. by James Strachey, Edited by James Strachey and AugelaRichards), Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis Vol-I, Harmondsworth :Penguin Books Ltd. (1987 ed.).

Parsons, Talcott, The Social System New York : Free Press, 1951.

Parsons, Talcott, The Structure of Social Action New Delhi : Amerind PublishingCo. Ltd. 1974.

Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory (3d edition), New York : McGraw Hill, 1992.

Russel., Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy London : Simon and Schuster,Inc. Copyright 1972, (year of pub. not given)

Simpson, David, (Ed.), The Origins of Modem Thought German Aesthetic andLiteracy Criticism from Lessing to Hegel Cambridge : University Press 1988(chap 13 Schopenhauer from the World as Will and Representation pp. 331-358.

Turner, Jonathan H., The Structure of Sociological Theory (4 Indian Edition), Jaipur:Rawat Publications. 1987.

Weber, Max, Economy and Society n Outline of Interpretive Sociology New York:Bedminster Press, 1968.

1 12MODEL ANSWERS

Check Your Progress I

1) a) True b) True c) True d) True e) False

f False g) True h) True i) True j) False

Check Your Progress

1) a) True b) True c) False d) True e) False

f True g) False h) True

Check Your Progress I

1) a) True b) False c) True d) False e) True

f True g) True h) True

Check Your Progress IV

1) a) True b) True c) False d) True e) True

f False g) True h) True i) False j True