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UNIT 2 VOLUNT RY SSOCI TIONS INDEMOCR TIC SOCIETY

ontents2.0 Aims and Objectives2.1 Introduction2.2 Orig ins of Dem ocracy2.3 Democratic Rights and Fundamental Freedoms2.4 Essential Tenets of Voluntary Associations2.5 Genesis and Growth of Voluntary Associations2.6 Consolidation of Voluntary Associations in a Democratic Society2 7 Essential Characteristics of Voluntary Associations in a Democratic Society2.8 Let Us Sum Up2.9 Sug gested Readings and References2.10 Model Answers2 0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVESThe main aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the important aspects related to themanifestation of voluntary associations in a democratic society. We have explainedthat emergence and growth of voluntary organisations is intrinsically tied up with thehistorical rise of modem dem ocracy. The expansion of individual rights andfreedo ms , spread of democ ratic and hum ane ideals, strengthening of democraticinstitutions of state and consequent growth of commercial economy resulted in a vastexpansion of voluntary associations. We have also explained the process related tothe transformation of religious philanthropy and charities into modem forms ofvoluntary associations. Next, we have described the nature and characteristics ofsocio-political voluntarism. Furnished is also a brief depiction of some essentialcharacteristics of modem voluntary associations. After having learnt this unit, youshould be able to:

describe the origins and rise of modem democracy;identify the historic landmarks pertaining to the emergence of individ ual rightsand fundamen tal freedoms constitutive of a democratic society;locate the manifestation of the essential tenets of voluntary associations in ademocratic society;understand the genesis and process of transformation of philanthropy and charitiesinto modem forms of voluntary associations, and their subsequent expansion indemocratic societies;appreciate the nature and characteristics of socio-political voluntarism;analyse the impact of welfare state and consequent consolidation of voluntaryassociations in a democratic society; anddepict the basic characteristics of modem forms of voluntary associations in ademocratic society.

2 1 INTRODUCTIONThe emergence and growth of voluntary associations is intrinsically tied-up with themodem concept of democracy. The idea of democracy is known since the times ofGreeks. However, democratic ideals and practices prevalent in the city-states of

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ancient Greece were not exactly the same as those found in contemporary democratic Voluntary Associations insocieties. The roots of mod em d emocracy can be traced back in history to Renaissance a Democratic Societyand Enlightenment Era in Europe. Beginning with Renaissance, the fundamentaltenets of democracy em erge d and grew out of the long-drawn struggles for powerbetween monarchy, aristocracy, commercial classes, church and general masses (ata later stage) spread over many centuries throughout Europe. Democracy as understoodin its modem sense, developed mainly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.The real consolidation of liberal and representative institutions of democracy tookplace only during the twentieth century.Broadly stated, progressive, secular and liberal ideals and principles which lie underneaththe foundation s of mod em demo cracy are the rights of individual; equality beforelaw; civil liberties; freedoms related to speech, association and peaceful assembly;freedom of religion; equal opportunity irrespective of race , caste, sex, etc., independentand impartial judiciary; a representative form of governance by the people and so on.These basic tenets of modem democracy released unlimited potential and scope forindividual action in society. Individual actions shaped by one s ow n volitions andchoice s, and further anchored in the right to freedom of association gave big impetu s

to the expression of modem forms of voluntarism in democratic societies. Infact, themost significant outcome of the rise of liberal democracy was the creation of social,economic and political conditions conducive to the immense growth of voluntaryassociations in society.In this Unit, we will explain to you the important aspects of the relationship betweendemocracy and voluntary associations. In the beginning you will learn that a certainversion of democratic ideals was practised even during ancient times. These idealsand principles of democracy were rediscovered after a gap of many centuries duringthe -Renaissance and Enli*tenment Era in Europ e. Next we will acquaint you withthe significance of Magna Carta, which is the single most important document in thehistory of democracy. After that you will learn about the nature of democratic rightsand fundamental freedoms as enshrined in English Bill of Rights (1689), US Bill ofRights (1791), Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) andConstitution of India (1950). These documents are the most important landmarks inthe evolution of mod em dem ocracy and fu mish a broad ma trix of progressive, secular,liberal ideals and principles practised in democratic societies.Next you will learn about the social base of voluntary associations in a democraticsociety. We will explain to you that important tenets such as freedom of association ,collective action , and social ethos of non-profit as practised in dem ocratic societiesprovided the necessary social base for the emergence and expansion of voluntaryassociations. In the section on Genesis and Growth of Voluntary Associations, we w illfumish an analysis of the transformation of traditional philanthropy and charities intomodem forms of voluntary associations.Further, we will also explain the basic aspects of socio-political voluntarism, whichfurther contributed to their growth in democratic societies. Next, we will describe theconsolidation of voluntary associations along with the rise of welfare state. Thediscussion on the qualitative aspects related to the emergence, growth and consolidationof voluntary sector is rooted in most representative cases of democracy. Towards theend of this unit you will find a brief depiction of some basic characteristics ofvoluntary associations as are manifest in a democratic society.2 2 ORIGINS OF DEMO CR CYIn this section, we will acquaint you with idea and basic aspects of democracy aspractised in the city-states in ancient Greece and Roman Republics. You will also

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Voluntarism State and learn that earliest known p ractice of democracy in the form of Mah ajanap adasSociety existed in ancient India. Further, you will learn that Renaissance which emerged asa cultural mov eme nt galvanized Europe. Renaissance created vast know ledge basein various fields of study. The original idea of democracy was rediscovered. Morespecifically, the philosophical and literary works generated progressive, secular andhumane principles which gradually contributed to the emergence of modern democracy.Lastly, we will furnish a discussion on Magna Carta which is the most importantlegal document in the history of democracy. You will learn that Magna Carta runslike a thread in English history around which struggles for rights and privileges werefought by monarchy, aristocracy, church and the commercial classes. Later on thisdocument became predecessor to the English Bill of Rights in 1689.2.2.1 Ancient C ity S tates and Republicsi) Greek City StatesThe original idea of democracy (literally meaning rule by the people ) is associatedwith the Greek city-states of Athens. An important institution of Athenian democracywas the Assem bly whe re impo rtant issues related to politics and governance weredebated and decisions made by a majority rule. The right to participate in assemblywas vested w ith only Athenian citizens. Further, citizenship rights were strictly limitedto male, adult, non-slave Athenians. Women, slaves, foreigners and resident-alienswere not granted the right to participate in assembly. This way almost half of thepopulation was deprived from participation in decision making and governance.Similarly, around 5 century B.C., a large number of other city-states practised someform of democratic governance in ancient Greece.Notwithstanding the differential rights and privileges granted to citizens, the Greeksgave to mankind the idea of politics as the vocation of citizens which stands n starkcontrast to the rule of absolute mon archs or despots. The gen esis of democratic ideassuch as governance accou ntable to citizens; trial by jury; civil liberties of speech,thought, writing and worship etc. lies in Greek history. The notions of liberty andindependence inspired Greeks to make rich contribution in the fields of philosophy,politics, literature and science during that era. Soon, you will learn that after a gapof many centuries, these ideas were rediscovered an d reinterpreted durin g Renaissancewhich provided the main im petus for the emergence of modem democracy in Europe.ii-) Ancient Roman RepublicRomans became successors to Greek ideas and initial inspiration for Roman republiccame from Athenian democratic principles and institutions. Ancient Romans practiseddemocratic system which consisted of three main bodies, viz., Assembly, Consul andthe. Senate. Assembly co nsisted of Rom an citizens who fu rther elected consuls. Senatewas the most powerful legislative body which approved laws and elected magistrates.There existed no real system of check and balances between three different bodies.Working at cross-purposes to demo cracy was the quasi-institution of The C lientele .Rich and powerful senator families nurtured faithful followers called clients . Theseclients were helped and protected in exchange for absolute loyalty including votes.This system of clientele gradually undermined the dem ocratic system in Rom e.With the expansion of Roman Empire which ruled much of Europe, the systemturned o ut to be an oligarchy of kingship, aristocracy, church and dem ocracy. Arbitraryrule of monarchy, feudal lords and priests gradually denied fundamental democraticrights to the general population. Th e peop le s ex istence was mad e subordinate to therigid structure of governance wherein theological doctrine became the sole arbiter oftruth. The original democratic notions of civil liberties, individual freedom, individualrights and so on were ultimately suppressed by force of religious and political

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iii Ancient Indian Republics Voluntary Associations ina Democratic SocietyIn fact, the earliest known practice of democracy existed in ancient India in the formof republics. These republics known as 'Mahajanapadas' were functioning sometimebefore 6th entury B.C. Most prominent and well known was the republic of 'Vaishali'(presently Bihar). Greek scholars noted that during the time of Alexander the Great(41h century B.C.) the states of 'Sabarcae' and 'Sarnbastai' (presently Pakistan andAfghanistan) practised a democratic form of governance.

After the decline of ancient republics and Greek city states there was no trace ofdemocracy for many centuries. This lost knowledge about democracy was rediscoveredonly during Renaissance in Europe.2 2 2 RenaissanceRenaissance (literally meaning rebirth) is considered a period of cultural change andachievement in Europe. It began as a cultural movement in central Italy (particularlyFlorence) during the last decades of 14 century and represented a reconnection ofthe west with classic antiquity. This cultural movement strived to rediscover andabsorb the lost knowledge created by ancient Greeks and Romans. Intellectuals andscholars revived and refined the study of Latin and Greek languages. This facilitatedthe rediscovery and interpretations of Roman and Greek texts. During Renaissance(end of 14 century to 1600 AD) tremendous progress was made in the fields ofphilosophy, mathematics, science, architecture, human anatomy, art, literature andpoetry all over Europe. In fact, this historical age of enlightenment effected a transitionbetween Medieval period and Early Modem Europe. Criticisms of Renaissance arethat it remained limited to a tiny section of rich and powerful, and brought about nosubstantive change in the condition of general masses. Notwithstanding this, humanistphilosophers strived to create knowledge based on progressive and secular principles,human values, scientific inquiry and the like beyond the theological dictates of thechurch. Significantly, humanists rediscovered the concept of democracy as prevalentin ancient Greece and even started implementing it (to a limited extent) in some partsof .Europe. Knowledge systems generated by this cultural movement of Renaissanceplayed a crucial role in the emergence of democratic ideals and practices duringsuccessive centuries throughout Europe.2 2 3 Magna CartaMagna Carta (Latin Great Chapter) is perhaps the most important legal documentin the history of democracy. The document was originally created in 1215 AD to sortout differences between monarchy, church and powerful barons in Engfand on theissue of excessive taxes. In terms of democratic rights and freedoms, this documentstarted a never ending process of curbing the powers of the Monarchy. The processbegan with the constitution of a committee of 25 barons, which could meet anytimeand overrule the 'will' of the king. The Committee evolved into representative 'council'of archbishops, bishops, earls and greater barons. Later 'council' became the 'GreatCouncil' and functioned as sort of proto-parliament. Representation became morewider and membership was extended to other sections of society, viz., knights,businessmen and citizens from cities (limited number). The evolution of EnglishParliament is traced back to this 'Great Council'.Magna Carta played a crucial role in granting freedoms and rights to different sectionsand institutions of society. It guaranteed the freedom of English church, contributedto evolution of English judicial rights, gave rise to jury, magisterial trial and so on.For many centuries, Magna Carta remained in the centre-stage and was repeatedlycited and referred by the social forces contending for power in English society+venduring the struggles between Lords and Commons. Beginning with the curtailmentof the power of monarchy and further loosening of the rigid feudal laws, Magna

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DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTALFREEDOMS

liberal principles and ideals, and democratic rights andwhich laid the foundations of modem democracy are enshrined

(English) Bill of Rightsf1689)United States Bill of Rights (completed in 1789 and approved in 1791)Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)The Constitution of India (1950)

and growth of voluntary associations

Bill of Rights 1689)and a significant step towards a constitutional monarchy in England.

as represented in Parliament. In fact, the

freedom of speech in Parliamentfreedom to elect members of Parliamentfreedom from royal interference with lawfreedom from taxation by royal prerogativefreedom from cruel and unusual punishmentsfreedom from fines and forfeitures without trialfreedom to petition the King and so on.

eparate kingdom of Scotland. No doubt Claim of kg h t Act was expressed insignificant historic landmark in the

Voluntary Associations ina Democratic Society

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Voluntarism, State andSociety 2.3.2 United States Bill of Rights completed in 1789 and approvedn 1791)

It differed substantially in form and intent from the English Bill of Rights which hadbasically addressed the rights of Parliamentarians against crown in Great Britain.However some of the basic tenets of English Bill of Rights were adopted in it andextended to general public in the United States.This Bill is actually an embodiment of the first ten amendments to the United StatesConstitution. The spirit of the Bill is to provide protection to the rights of the people.Fufther, it intended to prevent congress from curtailing various freedoms of citizens.These freedoms included

freedom of speechfreedom of the pressfreedom of assemblyfreedom of religious worshippreventing unreasonable search and seizure; cruel and unusual punishmentguaranteeing due process of law and a speedy public trial by an impartial juryprovision of an independent judiciary.

The U.S. Bill of Rights is the anchor sheet of American law and governance. Itremains an essential and outstanding symbol of the democratic freedoms and liberalculture enjoyed by the American people. It is noteworthy that at such an early stage

.in history, the U.S. Bill of Rights addressed most of the fundamental tenets whichcontributed to the making of modem liberal democracies in the world during nineteenthand twentieth centuries.Of particular relevance to this unit is the omission of right to freedom of associationwhile the constitution First Amendment (part of the Bill) identified as the right ofassembly. L,ater, the United States Supreme Court Jurisprudence addressed its impliedmeaning as followsi) freedom of association is recognized and may be protected as fundamentalelement of personal liberty;ii) freedom of association is recognized and may be protected for the purposes ofengaging in activities such as speech, assembly, free exercise of religion and so

on. Thus, there is constitutional freedom to associate as a means of preservingother individual liberties.2.3.3 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1789)The principles enunciated in this document were inspired by the philosophical andpolitical ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. This French declaration contained severalprovisions similar to those stated in United States Constitution (1787) and UnitedStates Bill of Rights (1789) (adopted at about the same time). An outcome of FrenchRevolution, the document aimed at the transition from absolute monarchy toconstitutional monarchy. In fact, three weeks after the abolition of feudalism, thisDeclaration enunciated the doctrine of popular sovereignty and equal opportunity.Prior to that. political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the divineright of kings.The pre-revolutionary French society was marked by a division into three estates viz.the Roman catholic church; the nobility; and the rest of the population (known as theThird Estate). The first two estates enjoyed special rights. In fact, rights, privilegesor deprivations were inherited by birth. The document was influenced by the doctrine

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of natural rights pertaining to human nature considering such rights to be universallyvalid in all times Bnd places. Law is seen as an expression of the general will andsocial contract (as theorized by Jean-Jacques Rousseau). It intended to promoteequality of rights and to forbid 'only actions harmful to society'.The document guaranteed to all French citizens the rights of 'liberty, property, securityand resistance to oppression.' It considered all citizens being equal before law havingequal opportunity of public dignities, places and employments according to one'scapacity virtues and talents. It guaranieed equality before taxation; and regardingcriminal law, the presumption of innocence prohibiting undue duress to the suspect.The Declaration provides for freedom of speech and of the press but a slightlyweaker guarantee of freedom of religion.It is noteworthy that (specially in the context of voluntary associations), similar tothe omission in the U.S. Bill of Rights, right to 'freedom of association' is alsomissing in this Declaration. The Declaration had not enunciated the principles relatedto 'freedom of assembly', 'liberty of association' or the right to strike. However, lateron, these principles acquired constitutional value from provisions made in the'Constitution of the French Fourth Republic'.2.3.4 onstitution of India 1950)The Constitution of India is one of the most refined and evolved documents in thehistory of modem democracy. It draws extensively from western legal traditions inits enunciation of the principles of liberal democracy. It is the longest writtenconstitution of any democratic nation in the world. It establishes the main organs ofgqvernance viz. the Executive. the Legslature and the Judiciary. The Constitution notonly defines 'the powers of each organ but also demarcates their responsibilities. Italso lays down the national goals of India Democracy, Socialism, Secularism andNational Integration.i) PreambleThe essential democratic ideals and broader parameters of liberal democracy areenshrined in the preamble to the Constitution as follows :We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereignsocialist, secular democratic republic nd to secure to all its citizens: Justice, socialeconomic and political; liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among thern all fraternity assuringthe dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation.ii) Fundamental RightsThe Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms which every citizenhas the right to enjoy. These rights (enshrined in Part I11 of Constitution) universallyapply to all citizens and guarantees civil liberties so that all Indians can lead theirlives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. The rights are inspired by historicalsources such as English Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (1791)and France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'. The FundamentalRights enshrine in the Constitution are:

Right to equalityRight to freedom

Voluntary Associaa Democratic

~tions nSociety

Right against exploitationRight to freedom of religionCultural and educational rights

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Stateand Right to constitutional remediesoluntarism,Society The constitution also guarantees the right to life and personal liberty which in turncites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced.

These rights guaranteed under the constitution are incorporated into law and areenforceable in a court of law. Equality before law means that state shall not discriminatea citizen on the basis of caste, creed, colour. sex, religion or place of birth. The rightto constitutional remedies ensures the protection of civil rights by means of writssuch as habeas corpus. The punishment for the violations of these rights is determinedby an impartial and independent judiciary in the light of punishments laid out in IndianPenal Code.iii Right t FreedomRight to freedom is enshrined in the constitution in order to guarantee the individualrights of Indian citizens. The right to freedom as stated in Article 19 guarantees thefollowing six freedoms:

Freedom of speech and expression enabling an individual to participate in publicactivities.Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms.Freedom to form associations and unions.Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India.Freedom to reside and settlk in any part of the territory of India.Freedom to practice any profession, occupation, trade or business subject tospecific technical or professional qualifications.

The state may restrict these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereigntyand integrity of India or in the interests of morality and public order. The right tolife and personal liberty can not be suspended. The six freedoms are automaticallysuspended during a state of emergency.In the above two sections, you have learnt that rise of liberal democracy has for thefirst time in history, made available a whole range of individual rights, freedoms andcivil liberties to mankind. It is this social matrix of rights and freedoms which isthe fertile ground for the emergence and universe growth of modern forms of voluntaryassociations in contemporary democratic societies.

Note a) Use the space given below for your answers.b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this

1 The following statements have been based on the text that you have alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4 in the relevant box. True Falsea English Bill of Rights curtailed the powers and rights of the Monarchy.

b) English Bill of Rights was a statement of positive rights and freedomsof citizens as enjoyed in a democratic society.c) US Bill of Rights is an embodiment of the first ten amendments to theUnited States Constitution.

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d) U Bill of Rights is a symbol of democratic freedoms and liberal cultureenjoyed by American people. [ [ ]

e) Declaration of 'the Rights of Man and the citizen guaranteed to allFrench citizens the rights of liberty, prosperity, security and resistanceto oppression. [ [ ]

f Right to freedom of association was included in the Declaration of Manand of the citizen. [ [ ]

g) The Constitution of India is one of the most refined and evolved documentin the history of liberal democracy. [ [ ]h) Essential democratic ideals are enshrined in the Preamble to Constitutionof India. [ [ ]

2 List the Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution of India.(Hint : see the text)

2 4 ESSENTIAL TENETS OF VOLUNTARYASSOCIATIONS

In the following section, we will acquaint you with fundamental democratic tenetswhich lie at the root of voluntary associations in a democratic society. We will explainto you that though the principle of 'association' existed since the origins of society,the right to 'freedom of association' is a hallmark only of democratic societies: Next,we will describe the historical transformation in the attributes of collective acfion. Inthe past the character of collective action was non-voluntary co-operation governedby customs or conventions in a feudal society. A significant attribute of such collectiveaction was reciprocal compulsion determined by birth, caste, occupation and so on.The rise of democracy and attendant economic transformation created conditionswhere individuals could volun ry donate free time and labour to execute collectiveaction related to social causes in 3 democratic society.Lastly, we will describe an important tenet underlying voluntary associations i.e.'social ethos of non-profit' that is borne-out of the humane democratic ideals constitutiveof a democratic society.2 4 1 Right to Freedom of AssociationPeople earned the right to 'freedom of association' during the historical evolution ofdemocratic rights and freedoms in Europe. Freedom of association as a legal right ofall individuals to combine or quit according to one's own free-will for the promotionof a common cause or purpose became a standard practice in a liberal democracy.This fundamental condition gave immense impetus to the expression of modem formsof voluntarism. Hence the emergence and growth of diverse kind of voluntaryassociations in contemporary democratic societies.

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Voluntarism State andSociety In the last section, you have learnt about the status accorded to right to freedom ofassociation in different documents (including Constitution of India) which are

considered important landmarks in the history of democracy. This right was furtherre-affirmed in various International Conventions and Declarations.Keeping in view the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany, there emerged a generalconsensus in the world community that the United Nations charter did not sufficientlyclarify the rights it protected. Therefore, a universal declaration that articulated andcodified the rights of the individual was necessary. Hence the Universal Declarationof Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December10, 1948. The document consists of a Preamble followed by thirty articles. Along withcertain additions and elaborations, the document emphasizes most of the individualrights , freedoms and civil liberties contained in the historic Bills, Declarations andConstitutions of democratic societies. Of particular interest to this unit is Article 20of this declaration which is related to freedom of association . It states1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.2 No one may be compelled to belong to an association.Furthermore, in order to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms; right tofreedom of association again found reiteration in European Convention of Human

Rights (1950) as follows:Article 11 Right to Freedom of Assembly and AssociationArticle 11 protects the right to freedom of assembly and association, including rightto form trade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are in accordaice with lawand necessary in a democratic society .2 4 2 Genesis and Meaning of Voluntary ssociationSocial existence is structured upon collective striving of people in society. Differentindividuals whether acting around some common interest or pursuing certain broadercause/goal must come together and act together. This immediately brings in picturethe element of association. But collective action and the attendant requirement ofassociation (coming-together) of individuals is not something new in history. Theexistence of collective action based on the association of a number of persons toperform certain tasks can be traced as far back as the origins of society. What is newabout association? The new aspect of it is that with the rise of democracy peoplehave earned the right to freedom of association. Freedom of association as a legalright of people to combine or quit (according to qne s own free-will) for performingcertain tasks or activities (for the promotion of a cause or purpose) is hallmark ofonly a democratic society. Now, this aspect of an individual s freedom to join or optout of some arrangement according to one s free-will brings in the element ofvoluntarism. Voluntarism means that an individual should have freedom of actionshaped by one s own volitions, desires and choices, i.e., according to one s own free-will (see Unit-I). The two fundamental tenets i.e. right to freedom of associationand voluntarism lie at the root of any voluntary association. Further, the social,political, legal and economic conditions for expression of both of these tenets, i.e.,freedom of association and voluntarism, have become available to mankind only withthe rise of democracy. The existence of a voluntary association is anchored in bothof the above discussed tenets which is further inextricably linked to the concept ofdemocracy. Hence, one witnesses the emergence and enormous growth of a diversekind of voluntary associations in liberal democratic societies during the contemporaryperiod.To facilitate your understanding let us explain this aspect further. Earlier in history,there were many activities performed by agricultural communities which requiredcollective effort and association with each other. Small farmers had always to pool

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their labour for the performance of many tasks, e.g., during harvesting season. But Voluntary Associations inthis kind of association was based upon 'reciprocity' which in turn was gov erned by a Democratic Societyconventions or customs prevalent in a community. These conventions or customswere recognized as 'obligations' by the members of the community. Associationbased on such conventions or custom s had an, in-builf mutually -unde rstoodelement of compulsion. Entry or exit in such arrangements was iot a matter of freewill. An individual who violated such a custom or convention (by opting out of acustomary association) was bound to seriously jeopardize hi sh er social and economicexistence.Again com mer cial activities and tra in towns was organized around 'guilds'. Theshared interests of persons engaged in a particular commercial activity or trade weretaken care of by the formal structure of the 'guild'. Entry into such a formal structurewas governed by birth, caste, occupation or status. Withdrawal from such anarrang eme nt again jeopardized a person's social and econo mic interests.Such association whether of rural peop le for 'collective-action' or of urban tradersn the historical past lacked two most important elements, i.e., right to freedom ofassociation and voluntarism. En try into an 'association' was not a matter of free-willand choice, and the participant could not withdraw from such arrangement withoutseriously underminingharming hisher own social and economic interests.The em ergence and existence of a modern f orm of a voluntary association has becom ea possibility because of the social thought of voluntarism and the right to 'freedomof association' which in turn are further embedded in ' individual rights' and'fundamental freedoms' guaranteed in a liberal democratic society. An individual ina democratic society is free to join an association with others for s om e collectiveaction; the person is equally free to withdraw or quit from the same without harmingown interests. Even if the basis for the voluntary association is 'uncond itional' altruismor reciprocity, the volunteer always has the freedo m to join or quit such an arrangementaccording to own free will in a democratic society.2.4.3 Modern Attributes of Collective ActionThe collective action, as mentioned above, in feudal society was convention-governedand was in the form of non-voluntaristic, co-operation gmong individuals in history.Association w ith others was reciproeal in nature, dictated by traditional social structure.Th e exit from a particular social arrangement was not cost-free in social and econo micterms . Similarly trade or commercial activities in cities were organized around 'guilds'.Th e need for volunteer labour became apparent only when customary and conventionalco-operation am ong rural com mu nities and pow er of 'guilds' in cities declined.

With the advent of commercial capitalism in Europe rational self-interest requiredcertain kinds of co-operation among economic actors who were often unable toprovide for all the contingencies themselves. The long standing conventions weregradually replaced by m utual-benefit initiatives. Such initiatives were based on informalassistance as well as financial benefits. The primary motive for joining such co-operatives efforts were still economic since these provided some insurance againstthe future uncertainties. No doubt some degree of independence for rational choicehad come into operation but still the 'exit' was not entirely cost-free.The industrial mode of production radically altered the market and attendant socialrelations. Market could not cater to each and every need of the individual which washitherto taken care of by the community. The working class simply lacked capital andresources with which to combine their labour so as to generate 'collective goods' orservices. The contradictions between capital and labour and the subsequentresolutions brought radical changes in social and moral values in European societies.

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Voluntarism State and secul n social thought and modern democratic ideals and political awarenessSociety about rights and freedoms was simultaneously emerging and asserting throughout

Europe.A critical component of the new social philosophy was the thinking and realizationthat simple economic int erest was not sufficient for the healthy functioning of thesocial system. Consequently emerged this fundamental tenet that people should devotetheir time and labour to corn,, unity affairs. Thus phenomenon of modem voluntaryassociations rooted in voluntary labour got established in the late nineteenth centuryand thrived subsequently in the twentieth century in Europe. By now you should bt:in a position to relate these developments with the simultaneous emergence ofdemocratic principles and institutions more or less during the same period in Europeanhistory. Greater diversification of voluntary associations, however, took place onlyafter the birth of the Welfare State in democratic societies.2 4 4 Social Ethos of Non-ProfitA crucial aspect of voluntary associations in a democratic society is the modem viewof the volunteer as an unpaid actor, in contrast with the paid-employee ora professional worker of t business organization. Volunteer offers his labour or timewhile worlung for a voluntary association without seeking salary, payment or financialprofit. Hence a voluntary association can exist and function only when there issufficient economic surplus in society so that individuals can choose to donate theirtime and labour free of cost. Only surplus economy can ensure the people in societyhave surplus labour and time beyond the requirements of regular jobs or professionalpursuits mandatory for survival. This needs to be distinguished from the situation inpeasant societies where the individual cannot survive for long without conforming tocustomary co-operative practices related to agriculture etc. The rise of democracyand the orientation of capitalist economy created existential conditions conducive forthe donation of time and labour by individuals in society. Thus this tenet of socialethos of non-profit that lies at the root of voluntary associations is borne out ofhumane democratic ideals and can be nurtured better only in a democratic society.

In the last analysis, it is because of the diverse kind of democratic struggles anddemands that forced industrial capitalism to effect a radical reformation of economyin democratic societies.It may be noted that the above discussed modem view of volunteer as an independentand unpaid actor simply conveys the ideal and purest sense of the term volunteer. npractice, the situation, however. is different. Notwithstanding the metaphysical aspectsthere is seldom a free-will of the actor in the social and economic sense. Formal andinformal controls influence individual choices and actions in society. An individualdecides to participate in a particular sphere of activity (e.g. joining a voluntaryassociation) only after having assessed the advantages or disadvantages of one choice:over the other.Regarding payments for voluntary work, the reality on the ground is again differentand uneven. There are volunteers who never receive any payment for their labour,time or professional skills. Some voluntary associations make modest payments forparticularly difficult or time consuming work. Further, there are large voluntaryorganisations which employ paid workers, salaried specialists and professionals likeall other modem corporations. However, keeping in view the theoretical essence ofvoluntarism, there is general agreement that a voluntary association on the wholeshould strive to abide by the social ethos of non-profit in order to maintain its credibilityand legitimacy in a democratic society.

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Check Your Progress I11Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Cheek your answ er with the model answ er given at the end of thisUnit.1) The follow ing statements have been based on the text that you have alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4 in the relevant box. True False

a ) Individual Right to freedom of association is a characteristic ofdemocratic society. [ [ ]b) Article 20, of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is devoted tofreedom of association. [ [ ]c ) Association for performing agricultural tasks in feudal society were notbased on reciprocity . [ [ ]

d) In an association governed by customs or conventions the exit wassimply a matter of free-will of the individual. [ [ ]e ) The need for volunteer labour became apparent when conventionalcooperation among rural com mu nities and power of Guilds in cities

declined. [ [ ]f The fundamental tenet that people should devote their free time andlabour to community affairs is unrelated to voluntary associations.

[ [ ]g) The modem view of the volunteer as an un-paid actor is characteristic

of voluntary associations in a democratic society. [ [ ]h) Th e social-ethos of non-profit underlying voluntary associations isnurtured by humanistic ideals and concerns about common goal in ademocratic society. [ [ ]2) Describe briefly the basic nature of Universal Declaration of Human Rights(1948).

(Hint : see the text)

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Voluntary ssociations ina Democratic Society

2 5 GENESIS AND GROWTH OF VOLUNTARYASSOCIATIONS

We will, in this section, explain to you the process of transformation of religiousphilanthropy and traditional charities into modem voluntary associations. This processwas influenced by the new social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire whichemerged with the spread of dem ocracy and rise of com mercial capitalism in WesternEurope. We will also acquaint you with the nature and characteristics of socio-

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Voluntarism State andSociety political voluntarism. Voluntary associations emerged to take up social causes orissues of semi-political nature, which normally remained unattended by conventional

political parties. Both these developments resulted in the vast growth of voluntaryassociations in democratic societies in Western Europe. However, the following analysisis mainly rooted in one of the oldest and most important example of democracy inthe world, i.e., Great Britain.Lastly, in this section, we will describe the nature and characteristics of socio-politicalvoluntarism.2.5.1 Transformation of Traditional Philanthropy and Charities in

a Democratic SocietyThe modern view of voluntary associations developed along with the establishmentof democratic institutions in Western European societies. Like mutual benefit activities,historically, the major strands of voluntary action emanated from traditionalphilanthropic and charitable pursuits. Philanthropy and charity was the sole concernof religion, landed gentry and rich and wealthy merchants since the medieval period.Philanthropic and charitable pursuits in feudal society and later on in commercial erahad far more to do with giving away of land or money than personal voluntaryservice to the people. The philanthropist during those times was one who donatedland, money or assets to civic causes rather than devoting personal time or labour tothe well being of society. In fact, the modem notion of contributing personal time orlabour was absent during that era.The transformation in the character of traditional philanthropy and charities hadoccurred during the last two centuries concomitant with the rise of democracy. TheReport of the Wolfenden Committee (1978) depicts this transformation of ReligiousPhilanthropy and Charities patronized by aristocracy in feudal economy leading tothe emergence and growth of voluntary associations in the context of Great Britain.For the purposes of explaining the transition of traditional philanthropy and charitiesinto modem voluntary associations we will rely extensively on the perspectivefurnished in this Report.2.5.2 Transition from Feudalism to Commercial Economy

Expansion of Voluntary AssociationsHistorically, the first source of help for most people in times of need or distress usedto be an informal system comprising family, friends, neighbours and so on. Beyondthe informal system, the next source of help was religious philanthropy. Religiousphilanthropy and charities remained closely intertwined with civic services duringthat era. Perhaps most important of all, in the context of Great Britain, was thesystem of paternalism and patronage practised by aristocracy over the masses(including their own workforce). Aristocracy controlled local charities and exercisedconsiderable influence on the functioning of Poor Law administration to strengthentheir own system of paternalism and patronage. However, the rise of new commercialand industrial class along with progressive democratic ideals posed a serious challengeto the old order during the earlier decades of the nineteenth century. The new thinkingattacked the system of wage regulation, indiscriminate charities, and poor-relief,since this arrangement was mainly serving the interests of aristocracy and was furtherdetrimental to the system of laissez-faife. Thus, the system of protection of wageswas dismantled, and the relevance of the old Poor Law along with indiscriminatecharities was seriously questioned in the emerging socio-economic and political scenarioin British society.The new social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire triumphed and the Poor LawAmendment Act 1834) introduced a centrally controlled system of relief to the poor

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in society. The new developments influenced the functioning of philanthropy andcharities. It was soon realised that policies of running charities require fresh reorientationso as to remain consistent with the new thinking that underlied the poor-reliefadministration. A requirement of critical importance arose that deserving poor needto be distinguished from the undeserving ones. Hence, the attempts to rationalisecharities on these lines resulted in the founding of the Charity Organization Societyin 1869. Its aim was to coordinate activities in each area and to encourage scientificevaluation of each individual case so that no one received excessive help and nodeserving poor was left outside the fold of charities.These developments triggered the real turning point in the history of voluntaryassociations. Hence onwards, a large number of voluntary organizations emerged todeal with a wide range of different categories of deserving and needy people throughoutthe latter half of the nineteenth country. Special voluntary organisations wereestablished to help the orphan, the blind, the deaf, the mentally challenged, and others.Several of the churches set up voluntary organisations for disseminating moral valuesthrough social work in society. Voluntary initiatives even entered the arena ofestablishing community settlements which may now be considered as a predecessorto the modern notion of community work. On the whole, a vast growth of voluntaryassociations took place during this period.2.5.3 Socio Political Voluntarismi) Notion of Volunteer LabourReligious philanthropy and feudal charities, as discussed above, remained limited todonating land or money for patronizing poverty stricken masses in society. Thenotion of voluntary service by donating personal time or labour was absent duringthat era. However, during the last decades of the nineteenth century, the idea ofscientific charity (mentioned above also), became popular in both Britain and UnitedStates of America. The idea of scientific charity recognized the principle of a rigorousdistinction between the deserving and undeserving poor. Separation of differentcategories of claimants for relief neGessitated detailed information about individualcases.The organisation of charities around this principle required such information as couldbe obtained only by labour intensive programmes involving interviews and visits to thepeople. Volunteer labour was most conducive for this work and it was not justbecause of economic reasons. Selfless image of the volunteer was best suited todisseminate moral guidance which helped to exercise a form of social legitimacy andcontrol over the masses.While scientific charity provided an initial stimulus for this kind of voluntary actionrooted in volunteer labour, there occurred several developments which further alteredits character. Among the expanding new middle class, there emerged the notion thatit should participate in such community activities as may bring it into contact withother classes. Such a social ethos opened a broader front for the growth of voluntaryassociations. While some voluntary associations aimed simply at enhancing legitimacyor social control, there emerged many more which were established on progressivesocial philosophy.

Voluntary Associations ina Democratic Society

Further, professionals started participating in voluntary associations and attended toindividual problems in their spare time within the community. Even after the welfarestate was established in Great Britain (and later on a quasi-welfare state in the UnitedStates of America) volunteer labour was not discarded as simply a hangover from anearlier era. Rather, the welfare state encouraged voluntary associations in many areassince it was virtually impossible for the welfare state to provide for all the essentialservices to all sections of society.

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Voluntarism State andSociety ii Socio-Political Voluntarismmajor thrust for volunteer labour came from social and political struggles fordemocratic rights. fhdustrialization had produced significant changes in the classstructure of emerg ing democratic societies. It created a working class whic h, thoughlacking in political resources, enjoyed some of the civic freedoms as compared topeasantry or agricultural labour in feudal societies. At least they had some rights(though very limited yet) of association and assembly and numerical strength. They

also mostly lived in close proximity. These initial advantages, available in the matrixof dem ocratic ideals and principles, helped in the association and mobilisation ofurban industrial working class. A whole range of democratic struggles relied heavilyon such participants as were willing to voluntarily devote their time and labour fororgaaising meetings and demonstrations. Availability of volunteer labour graduallyensured increasing participation of working class in social and political struggles.During the nineteenth century, working class political voluntarism was graduallyharnessed by mainstream political organisations. Political parties required memberswho were willing to donate their time and labour to political activities and-were alsomotivated enough to maintain the social front of the party. Voluntary associations inthe form of working class societies and unions flourished during the last half of thenineteenth century along with the rise of industrial capitalism.Towards the end of the nineteenth century, there occurred a vast increase in thememb er of well educated mem bers of middle class in western societies. This expandingurban educated middle class (new middle class) increasingly had enough time todevote to other activities of a social kind. n addition , the process of industrialisationeffected drastic social transformation of western societies, thus throwing up a largenumber of issues which usually fell outside the boundaries of conventional politicalparties. These furnished a fertile ground for m iddle class ~so cial nd political voluntarismand the attendant growth of voluntary associations.The new social philosophy placed a high value on the public regarding socio-politicalactivities in which people sacrificed their private personal interests while working forthe common good of society. The independent minded volunteer who offeredtime and labour for social and political activities when circumstances demanded, butotherwise lived as a normal citizen, turned out to be an ideal model . Middle classprefetred to do voluntary work in the transient and informal political voluntaryassociations. This led t o an upsurge of middle class participation in voluntary associationsdevoted to socio-political affairs. Social an d political change s in first half of twentiethcentury further led to an increase in this type of voluntary associations in democraticsocieties.Greater economic resources further created conditions for the growth of a diversekind of voluntary activities. Transformation of modem economies have created aclass of people capable of devoting free time and labour to issues of social andpolitical relevance in society. Hence there occurred an enormous growth of vo lun tar-associations devoted to political, cultural, developmental, environmental and leisureactivities. Though focal issues of voluntarism have changed throughout history, thefundamental conditions and basis for the existence of voluntary associations remainthe same in a democratic society.Check Your Progress IVNote: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answer with the model answ er given at the end of thisUnit.

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1 The following statements have been based on the text that you have alreadyread. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark 4 in the relevant box.True False

a) Philanthropy and charity was the sole concern of religion, landed gentryand welfare merchants prior to the rise of democracy. [ [ ]b) Aristocracy patronised and controlled local charities during the era ofPoor Law in England. [ [c) Poor Law Amendment Act 1834) effected a change in the functioningof philanthropy and charities. [ [ ]d) The social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire brought radicaltransformation in the character of charities previously controlled byaristocracy. [ [ ]e) Transformation of traditional philanthropy and charities did not take placewith the rise of democracy in Great Britain. [ [ ]f The notion of volunteer labour became popular with the emergence ofscientific charity in Great Britain and United States of America.

[ [ ]g) Political voluntarism emerged because a large number of social issuesremained unattended by conventional political parties. [ [ ]h) Mainstream political parties did not harness the potential of politicalvoluntarism to their advantage. [ [ ]

2 Describe briefly the essential features of traditional philanthropy and charities.Hint : see the text)

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Voluntary Associations ina Democratic Society

2 6 CONSOLID TION OF VOLUNT RYSSOCI TIONS IN DEMOCR TICSOCIETY

In the last section we will explain to you the dynamics of a welfare state vis-A-visthe voluntary sector. The rise of welfare state brought into picture a whole range ofwelfare measures related to social services. It seemed, in the beginning, that welfarestate will appropriate the temtory of social services occupied by voluntary associations.However, interestingly, after facing some retreats here and there in certain sectors,the voluntary associations very soon adapted to the new role of the welfare state. Youwill learn that during the past few decades of twentieth century, voluntary associationsconsolidated their position as an institution of extreme relevance to a democraticsociety. Keeping continuity with our discussion in the last section, the analysis in thissection is again furnished in the context of Great Britain. Lastly, we will describe theessential characteristics of voluntary associations as are manifest in contemporarydemocratic societies all over the world.

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Voluntarism State ndSociety 2.6.1 Welfare State and Voluntary Associations

Democratic ideals were further influenced by the progressive vision of socialism (re-born under the influence of Marxism) during the past few decades of nineteenthcentury. The new democratic discourse offered a comprehensive criticism of theexisting socio-economic conditions in society. Working class perspectives identifiedthe causes of poverty, misery, degradation, disease and ignorance in the exploitativecharacter of industrialisation and Industrial capitalism. The new discourse vehementlyattacked the doctrines underlying the charity organisation society, the Poor Law andso on, and demanded radical reforms of the social and economic structure of society.In the very first decade of twentieth century, democratic state initiated legislativemeasures (initially limited in scope) related to the provision of social services. Graduallythe scope of these services broadened along with their extension to other sections ofsociety.Notwithstanding the changed stance of the State towards social services, voluntarysectw continued to act (throughout this period) as a major provider of services. Thevoluntary sector remained a major provider of care of children and the handicapped.,The new national insurance scheme was implemented partly by voluntary associations.It was envisaged that voluntary sector should assume further major responsibilities.Royal Commission on the Poor Law (1909) recommended that voluntary aid councilsshould be set-up in every county in England. Further, efforts to coordinate the activitiesof voluntary associations at local level through Guides of Help and Councils ofVoluntary Service became increasingly a common phenomenon.However, very soon these voluntary associations providing or sharing in the provisionof basic services became a subject of criticism. This criticism stemmed from the factthat voluntary organisations were functioning as an extension ladder to the statutoryservices provided by state. It was realised that it is important to create proper linksbetween statutory and voluntary sector so as to ensure that the work done by voluntaryassociations is truly supplementary rather than an unsatisfactory substitute of servicesprovided by the welfare state (a more detailed discussion on welfare state is availablein Block 1, Unit 3 Section 3.5).During the period 1945-51, the Poor Law was finally removed from the statute bookand the obligation of the democratic state to provide basic social services for thewelfare of its citizens as a matter of right, to a greater extent, got established. Themodern history of voluntary sector (for about three decades after the second worldwar) is predominantly marked by the problems of adaptation vis-a-vis the new roleof the welfare state. After the second world war the following two views emergedabout the future of voluntary sectori) The establishment of a comprehensive system of social services by the welfare

state might appropriate the space occupied by voluntary action; hence witheringaway of voluntary associations.

ii Voluntary action might undergo transformation in its nature and characteristics.Hence, by rediscovering their potential, voluntary associations may continue toremain important and relevant to the needs of a democratic society.

For about fifteen years after second world war, it seemed as if the voluntary sectorwas marking its time. In fact voluntary associations required time to assess anda bs ~ r bhe effects generated by the welfare state s substantial involvement in socialservices rendered to democratic soclety. What is more, voluntary sector awaited thejudgment of democratic society about the adequacy or inadequacy of the socialservices provided by the welfare state. Except some retreats here and there, withouthaving lost much ground, voluntary sector retained the same position as it was at theend of the war.

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Voluntarism, State ndSociety Voluntary associations differ in terms of size, structure, sources of finance andrelationship with state. Some are small, and function within local communities inan informal manner. Others are large, extend their activities on a national scaleand usually acquire a formal organisational structure. Again, some receive fundsfrom the state or enjoy different forms of state patronage; others are independentof the state and raising finance through voluntary contributions. Voluntaryassociations also pursue a variety of interests of purposes such as mutual-aid,promotion of some common interest, service to community, advancement ofcentral social cause viz. civil liberties, developmental concerns, environmentalprotection and so on.Notwithstanding these aspects, a qualitative distinction among them has beencited in literature. The associations which exist simply to express or satisfy theinterests of their members in relation to themselves are called ExpressiveVoluntary Associations . Examples are recreational and sports associations,social and hobby clubs, professional societies and so on. The associations whichact as instruments of social change are called Instrumental VoluntaryAssociations . They intend to achieve some condition or bring some change insociety. They take up issues of social concern and their activities influence thefunctioning of society. Examples are voluntary associations devoted to socialwork; development, environmental, humanitarian causes, economic activities forthe uplift of poor and family and health related issues. Such associations arerarely found outside modem democratic societies. Totalitarian 'regimes do nottolerate their existence and consider them detrimental to their interests.So long as voluntary associations remain small, they continue to function in ninfonnal manner. Members retain sufficient independence, freedom of opinionand action. The interaction is not structured. Rules regulations are not welldeveloped and there is hardly any specialized activity. In fact, democracy existswithin the association. However, as voluntary associations grow and expand theiractivities, they tend to acquire all the structural and organisational characterfound in large bureaucracies or business corporations.

b) Objective Base of Voluntary Associations in a democratic society: Someof the main explanations for undertaking voluntary work have generally beenthought of as follows

Felt needs, often bypassed or overlooked by the state, require urgent attentionand provide the motivation.Voluntary action can also be started to question' or challenge the rule andpolicies of state and of market forces.There are jobs to be done which can not or at least will not be done by paidpersonnel.The opportunity to give service and to do good to others, satisfies a personalneed felt by an individual or group.Voluntary action is a powerful force for social progress and so on.

However, these are not sufficient explanations. There are concrete objective conditionswhich are responsible for the existence of voluntary associations in democratic societies.i) As discussed in previous sections, the most important among them is the 'freedomof association'. This principle is ectly linked to the nature and character of

state. Democratic state recognizes the right of citizens to create and joinassociations. A state which tolerates different opinions, interests, activities and soon, is conducive to the growth of voluntary effort.ii Donation of Labour The existence of voluntary associations is dependent onthe availability of 'voluntary labour' in society. The question of 'voluntary labour'is directly linked to the state of economy. An economy which generates sufficient

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Voluntarism S tate andSociety b) The democratic discourse based on working class perspective identifiedthe causes of poverty and degradation in the exploitative character of

industrial capitalism. [ [ ]c) The work done by voluntary associations need to be truly supplementaryrather than an unsatisfactory substitute of services provided by a welfare

state. [ [ ]d) During the last decades of twentieth century voluntary associations hadnot diversified their activities in response to the policies and practices of

a welfare state. [ ] [e) Associations which act as agents of social change are called instrumental

voluntary associations. [ [ ]f) The existence of voluntary associations is unrelated to economic conditions

of a democratic society. [ [ ]g) Voluntary associations respond to the gaps in need-provision left out bythe democratic state and market. [ [ ]h) Socio-political space left out by the conventional political structure forms

a fertile ground for the expansion of voluntary associations.[ [ ]

LET US SUM UPThe phenomenon of voluntary associations is inseparably tied-up with the rise ofmodern democracy. In this unit, we have traced the origins and evolution of democracy.To begin with we have furnished the basic idea of democracy as practised in Greekcity-states and ancient republics. After a break of many centuries, the idea ofdemocracy was rediscovered during Renaissance and Enlightenment Era in Europe.We have explained the significance and role of Magna Carta in origins and evolutionof democracy. Magna Carta curtailed the power of monarchy, granted freedoms tochurch and aristocracy thus opening the path for the emergence of individual rightsand freedoms during many centuries in England. Magna Carta is the predecessor toEnglish Bill of Rights (1689). Further, we have described United States Bill of Rights(1791), Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and Constitutionof India (1950). We have explained the broad matrix of individual rights and freedomswhich are constitutive of modern democracy.Next we have determined the genesis and location of the fundamental tenets underlyingvoluntary associations within the matrix of democratic rights and freedoms . The,enets which laid the foundations of modern democracy are the right to freedom ofassociation: modern attributes of collective-action; and social ethos of non-profit,volunteer labour and so on. A fruitful discussion of essential characteristics of thesetenets is furnished.After that we have furnished an analysis of the historical process of the transformationof religious philanthropy and charities dominated by aristocracy and the cbnsequentemergence of modern forms of voluntary associations. The discussion on expansionand consolidation of voluntary associations is contextualised in the democratic processesof Great Britain (since it is the most important case of liberal democracy). We haveexplained, that rise of commercial capitalism, emergence of the social and economicphilosophy of laissez-faire and further spread of democratic ideals and principlescreated social conditions for vast expansion of voluntary associations in society. Wehave also described the important features of socio-political voluntarism which gavefurther impetus to the growth of voluntary associations.

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Later, we have analysed the dynamics of welfare state vis-A-vis voluntary associations. Voluntary Associations inDemocratic state initiated welfare measures in the filed of social services and posed a Democratic Societya serious threat to the existence of voluntary associations. But soon voluntaryassociations adapted to the new conditions created by welfare state. We have discussedthat during the last decades of twentieth century voluntary associations consolidatedtheir position as an institution of extreme importance and relevance to a democraticsociety. Lastly, we have described the essential characteristics of voluntary associationsas are manifest in contemporary democratic societies.

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCESBirch, H.Anthony, The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy London:

Routeledge 1995 reprint).Frazer, Derek, The Evolution of the British WelfQre State 2 * Edn., London

Macmillan 1984.Lefort, Claude, Democracy and Political Theory trans. By David Macey), Oxford:

Basil Blackwell Ltd.. 1988.Mellor, Hugh W., The Role of Voluntary Organisations in Social Welfare London

Croom Helm, 1985.Owen, David, English Philanthropy 1660-1960),Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press

of Harvard University, 1965.Pennock J. Ronald and John W. Chapman eds), Voluntary Associations New York,

Atherton Press, 1969.Pifer, Alan, ~ h i i h n t h r o ~ ~n an Age of Transition New York Foundation Center,

1984.Przeworski, A., Capitalism and Social Democracy Cambridge Cambridge University

Press, 1985.Ware, Alan, Between Projit and State Intermediate Organisations in Britain and

the United States Cambridge : Polity Press, 1989.Wolfenden Committee Report, The Future of Voluntary Organisations London :

Croom Helm, 1978.e sources

http:Nen.wikipedia.org see for various Bills, Declarations, Acts. Conventions.Magna Carta. and Constitution of India.http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm see for Universal Declaration of HumanRights.

2.10 MODEL ANSWERSCheck Your Progress1) a) True b) False c) True d) False e) True

f True g) False h) True

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Voluntarism State and Check Your Progress I1 a True b False c True d True e True

f False g True h TrueCheck Your Progress I1 a True b True c False d False e True

f False g True h TrueCheck Your Progress IV1 a True b True C True d True e False

f True g True h FalseCheck Your Progress V1 a True b True c True d False e True

f False g True h True