Kingdom Fungi (Fungus)

is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms

that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds

These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi,

which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria

One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls

that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants, which

contain cellulose.

These and other differences show that the fungi form a

single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota

(true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common

ancestor (a monophyletic group).

Characteristics Fungi

With other eukaryotes: As other eukaryotes, fungal cells

contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that

contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and

coding regions called exons.

With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are

heterotrophic organisms, requiring preformed organic

compounds as energy sources.

With plants: Fungi possess a cell wall and vacuoles.

They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and

like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses)

produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi

typically have haploid nuclei.

Reproduction Fungi

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the

differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this

kingdom of organisms.

It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce by

different modes of propagation; for example,

reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages

within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the

anamorph.

Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined

developmental states that lead to the creation of

specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction

These structures aid reproduction by efficiently

dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

Growth and physiology Fungi The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates

or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios.

Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues.

They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, the plant pathogen Magnaporthe grisea forms a structure called an appressorium which evolved to puncture plant tissues.

Traditionally, the fungi are considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism.

Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol.

Taxonomy Fungi

The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux,

especially due to recent research based on DNA

comparisons.

These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn

classifications based on older and sometimes less

discriminative methods based on morphological features

and biological species concepts obtained from

experimental matings.

There is no unique generally accepted system at the

higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name

changes at every level, from species upwards

Animal Cells

Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed

by a plasma membrane and containing a membrane-

bound nucleus and organelles.

Unlike the cells of the two other eukaryotic kingdoms,

plants and fungi, animal cells don't have a cell wall. This

feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled

organisms that gave rise to the kingdom Animalia.

The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a

greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and organs.

Specialized cells that formed nerves and muscles --

tissues impossible for plants to evolve -- gave these

organisms mobility. The ability to move about by the use

of specialized muscle tissues is the hallmark of the

animal world. (Protozoans locomote, but by nonmuscular

means, i.e. cilia, flagella, pseudopodia.)

Anatomy of the Animal Cells

Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't essential to the process.

Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export to the outside of the cell.

Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.

Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information and administrative center of the cell.

Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen and nutrients into energy.

Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders, composed of tubulin protein, are found throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and perform a number of functions.

Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.

Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.

Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.

Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.

Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

PLANT CELL A large central vacuole, a water-filled volume

enclosed by a membrane known as the tonoplastmaintains the cell's turgor, controls movement of molecules between the cytosol and sap, stores useful material and digests waste proteins and organelles.

A cell wall composed of cellulose and hemicellulose, pectin and in many cases lignin, are secreted by the protoplast on the outside of the cell membrane. This contrasts with the cell walls of fungi (which are made of chitin), and of bacteria, which are made of peptidoglycan.

Specialised cell-cell communication pathways known as plasmodesmata , pores in the primary cell wall through which the plasmalemma and endoplasmic reticulum of adjacent cells are continuous.

Anatomy of the Plant Cell

amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores

starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants like

tubers and fruits.

ATP - ATP is short for adenosine triphosphate; it is a

high-energy molecule used for energy storage by

organisms. In plant cells, ATP is produced in the cristae

of mitochondria and chloroplasts.

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that

surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell

membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances

to pass into the cell and blocking others.

cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant

cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most of its

support and structure. The cell wall also bonds with other

cell walls to form the structure of the plant.

centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. Unlike the centrosomes in animal cells, plant cell centrosomes do not have centrioles.

chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium based and is usually green.

chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts.

christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is generated).

cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.

Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum.

mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.

nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where

ribosomal RNA is produced.

nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles,

including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of

the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis)

and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is

surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

photosynthesis - a process in which plants convert

sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food energy

(sugars and starches), oxygen and water. Chlorophyll or

closely-related pigments (substances that color the

plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.

ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich

cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.

rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of

interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that

are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the

outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that

give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through

the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are

sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).

smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of

interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that

are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the

outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER

lumen. Smooth ER transport materials through the cell. It contains

enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane

proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-

made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and membranes

stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the

inner membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana.

thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped

membrane structures in chloroplasts that contain

chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are made up of stacks

of thylakoid disks; a stack of thylakoid disks is

called a granum. Photosynthesis (the production

of ATP molecules from sunlight) takes place on

thylakoid disks.

vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space

within a plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most

plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up

much of the cell. It helps maintain the shape of

the cell.

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