iaaas socialscience grade7 q1lesson-2

SOCIAL SCIENCE7th Grade Interdisciplinary African and African American Studies Quarter 1 Launch Lesson

THEME: Culture, Dignity, and Identity

CONCEPT: Africa, Us, and the World

African Americans in early America: contributions and challenges in the development of the Atlantic world

CONTENT TOPIC: Investigating and researching contributions and challenges faced by Africans and African Americans in the development of the Atlantic world through fiction and nonfiction texts

UNIT TITLE: Worlds Meet: Conflict, Challenges and Change in Early Colonial America

Launch Lesson: Discovering America

Time Frame: 1 week

Unit Description: Students will be able to challenge traditional assumptions about the role of Africans in the “discovery” and exploration of the Americas by exploring the stories of Africans who sailed before Columbus, Africans who sailed with Columbus, and the Black Conquistadors who were instrumental in the Spanish conquest of the Americas. African technology and science surpassed that of Europe centuries before Columbus. When the Spanish did come, they did so with the support of Moorish technology from North Africa and the Moors themselves. The first Africans came to the New World as equals and contributed much to the “discovery” and exploration of various sections of Central and South America. When the Spanish finally did attempt to subjugate Africans in the New World, the Africans actively and often successfully resisted their enslavement, developed thriving communities, and led or supported rebellions against Spanish control of the land.

Traditional history teaches students of the European dominance over two cultures while portraying the natives and the Africans as passive victims. The reality was far more complex. First, evidence supports the claim that an African king, Abubakari II, “discovered” America almost 200 years before Columbus. At the time of Columbus, Spain and Portugal found themselves in the position to attempt trans-Atlantic exploration only because of the technological advances brought to the Iberian peninsula by African Moors. Moors also accompanied the first explorers, including Columbus, to the Americas as equals and made significant contributions to even the most famous voyages. When Spanish did force the first African slaves to accompany them to the New World, many actively resisted their bondage and developed free settlements of their own, including the Cimmerons in Panama, the Black Caribs in the Caribbean, and the town of Yanga in Mexico.

Length of Unit: 5 WeeksEnduring Understandings

History: Knowledge of history can directly affect an individual’s and a community’s self image. Identity: Identity is cultivated over long periods of time through shared experiences, beliefs, and culture. Geography: Movement and migration of people and ideas affects the past, present, and future.

Essential Questions

Guiding Essential Questions: I) How do culture and identity influence who we are? II) How do time, culture, and history influence works of art and/or the

advancement of science and technology?

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III) What can I do to positively impact my community? Common Core Standards

Primary RH.6-8.1 Write arguments focused on the discipline-specific content

RH.6-8.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.

RH.6-8.7 Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.

WHST.6-8.9 Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis reflection, and research.

WHST.6-8.2 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.

Cognitive Skills Memory Procedures (e.g. draw a right triangle)

Attention Selective attention: filter out distractions, ignore irrelevant information

Executive functions

Strategy use: ability to reflect on strategy and select appropriate strategy

Language skills Reading: recognition of sight words and decoding new words Comprehension: understanding what is read or said

Formulation: ability to access and organize information to express it

Thinking skills Analyzing/evaluating arguments Developing a logical argument

Deductive reasoning: use stated general premise to reason about specific examples

Self-reflection: ability to think about oneself in relation to the material

Added during discussion:

Communicating whatever has been processedContent Building Knowledge Through Texts

Students will learn textual analysis skills, the ability to find and cite specific evidence, and the ability to write a short argumentative essay (Mel-con). Students will learn these skills through readings about Christopher Columbus, Abubakari II, and other early visitors to the Americas.

AssessmentsDiagnostic None

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Formative Text specific questions, pair share and class discussion.Summative Mel-Con Paragraph (see below)Text/Resources

1. Baxter, Joan. “Africa’s Greatest Explorer.” BBC News. Dec. 13, 2000: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm.

2. “The Battle for the Americas: Mansa Abubakari II – 181 years before Columbus.” Born Black Magazine. Feb. 2009: http://www.bornblackmag.com/discovery.html

3. Keegan, William F. “One New World, Many Claimants: If Columbus didn’t get here first, who did?” Vista. Sept. 8, 1991: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm.

4. Keegan, William F. “Columbus, Hero or Heel?” Vista. March 24, 1991: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm.

Learning Activities

Learning activity 1: (Day 1)

Bellringer:

Picture #1: Diego Duran. “History of Indians.” 1579. http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Meso_America.htm

Who do you think are in these pictures? (Cortez –European/Spanish Conquistador, Probably African servant, and Aztecs)

What is happening? (Cortez is greeting the Indians, clearly in a position of power over both the Indians and the African.)

Introduction: Some events in history are so important to how the world developed that students tend to learn about them over and over. One of these event centers around a pretty famous guy named Christopher Columbus. By show of hands, who has heard about Christopher Columbus at school? (Pause for students to raise hands.) At the very least, you should be excited about Columbus in October because he gets you a day of vacation from school. Columbus is important because he marks the beginning of a ton of interactions between people in three very different parts of the world: Africa, Europe, and the Americas, that changed how the world works. The traditional view most students learn of this first interaction looks a lot like the picture. Europeans dominate both groups and take over the Americas. In this unit we will explore this history, and question this traditional view. We will begin with an activity that asks you to decide whether a statement is myth (a fictional story of what happened that is not really accurate) or reality (the way things actually happened). As an introductory exercise I will read a few statements and if you think it is a myth point your

Differentiated Strategies for Varied Learning Profiles

(Example)

Informational texts will be available in a variety of formats including audio, visual and tactilely.

Tasks will have components that allow for students to use visual, oral and tactile as well as kinesthetic skills to express knowledge gained.

Students will be able to take ownership of tasks through the use of “Choice Boards” and “Learning Centers

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http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Meso_America.htm

http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Meso_America.htm

http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm


http://www.bornblackmag.com/discovery.html

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm


thumb down, and if you think it is reality, point your thumb up. I want to see what you think and have been taught before we get too far into learning about this first interaction. Here are the statements:

At the time of Christopher Columbus:

Europeans were the most advanced people in terms of science and technology in the world. (Myth)

Christopher Columbus was the first non-native American to “discover” the Americas. (Myth)

Africans (black people) shared ideas and technology with Europeans (white people) that Europeans did not have before. (Reality)

The first Africans (black people) in the New World were brought to the Americas as slaves. (Myth)

Black people on the first voyages to the New World were treated as inferior (not as good as) white people. (Myth)

Black people had important roles in exploring the Americas. (Reality)

Black people lived in the Americas only in white settlements. (Myth)

Why might schools teach things that are not completely accurate all the time?

Who wrote “histories” that we use to learn about this first encounter?

If you text someone about something that happened to you or post a picture of an event on Facebook, how do you try to make yourself and your friends look?

Let’s end today by looking at another picture to begin to expose some of these myths. Modern historians think that one trans-Atlantic encounter before Columbus looked more like this.

Show image #2.

Walter Passos. "A SAGA DO REI ABUBAKARI II - AFRICANOS NA AMÉRICA ANTES DE COLOMBO” November 6, 2010. http://cnncba.blogspot.com/2010/11/saga-do-rei-abubakari-ii-africanos-na.html

Who is present in this picture?

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http://cnncba.blogspot.com/2010/11/saga-do-rei-abubakari-ii-africanos-na.html





Who is absent?

What does this picture say about the role of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in this first encounter?

Day 2-3 Read “One New World, Many Claimants” by William F. Keegan as a class and discuss the following questions.

What was different about the voyage of Leaf Ericson and the Vikings? Why is this important?

What does pre-Columbian mean? What other evidence do historians use to suggest other pre-Columbian contact with the New World?

What does the last line, “though Christopher Columbus was certainly not the first to discover the Americas, he was definitely the last” mean?

Out of all of the people and groups mentioned as possible visitors to the New World, why does Columbus get the most credit?

What is the main claim of the article?

Then students in pairs should read the article, “The Battle for the Americas: Mansa Abubakari II – 181 years before Columbus” and answer the following questions:

Why was Mansa Abubakari II important?

Why did Abubakari II attempt to cross the Atlantic?

When he decided to leave, what unusual decision did Abubakari II make? For what reason did he decide to do this?

How does the article depict Abubakari II?

After allowing students to discuss in pairs and write their answers, discuss the answers as a class. Be sure to focus on how students found the answer to the last question and what clues in the text allowed them to draw this reasonable conclusion.

Introduce the short writing project that students will complete by the end of the week.

Supply the material with the varied amount of print, varied text structures and extensive graphic support based on students’ instructional levels

Use videos to enhance comprehension through auditory and visual modes

Allow brief, cooperative brainstorming to activate prior knowledge and make predictions

Adjust the complexity, abstractness, type of response necessary, and connections required between topics based on readiness and learning profile

Establish clear criteria for success

Use wait time before taking student answers

If appropriate, give students a chance to talk to partners or write down their answers before responding

Provide clear guidelines for group functioning that are taught in advance of

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http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm#claim


group work and consistently reinforced

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Day 4-5 The class will analyze an essay on Christopher Columbus (Keegan’s “Columbus, Hero or Heel?”) and write a MEL-Con as a class to demonstrate how a student should analyze a biographical essay and write a MEL-Con paragraph. While reading the essay, students should underline evidence that shows Columbus to be particularly good or bad and write the + or – symbol next to the evidence (students could also use different color highlighters). Then the teacher will ask the class to vote on a thesis (i.e. “History should remember Columbus as a great explorer who made invaluable contributions to the world.” Or “History should remember Columbus as a crazy fanatic who destroyed an entire continent.) The teacher will then model how students should write out evidence and explanation (link) to support their evidence. The class will then write a conclusion sentence and use the rubric to grade the class’ essay. Teacher will then explain the class’ first MEL-Con project.

Students will read Baxter’s “Africa’s Greatest Explorer,” analyze the article identifying positive and negative evidence like the class analyzed the Columbus article, and write a MEL-Con paragraph to answer the question: How should history remember Mansa Abubakari II?

After completing the essay, students will exchange papers with a peer and complete the Peer Editing Checklist to identify issues with one another’s essays. The teacher should pre-teach giving and receiving constructive criticism respectfully and hold students accountable for their behaviors during peer editing. Student will then use the checklist to correct any errors in their drafts, and rewrite the essay without the scaffolding.

Examples of possible pacing/mini-lesson topics for cooperative learning

Students will reflect and create a list of what creates a good discussion.

Students will develop and practice skills of listening well (active listening).

Students will increase participation through discussions

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Examples of Resources

Picture #1: Diego Duran. “History of Indians.” 1579.

http://www.afropop.org/wp/7401/historian-ben-vinson-iii-on-afro-mexican-history/

Image 2. Walter Passos. "A SAGA DO REI ABUBAKARI II - AFRICANOS NA AMÉRICA ANTES DE COLOMBO” November 6, 2010. http://cnncba.blogspot.com/2010/11/saga-do-rei-abubakari-ii-africanos-na.html

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http://www.afropop.org/wp/7401/historian-ben-vinson-iii-on-afro-mexican-history/


Keegan, William F. “One New World, Many Claimants: If Columbus didn’t get here first, who did?” Vista. Sept. 8, 1991: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm.

ONE NEW WORD, MANY CLAIMANTS

If Columbus didn't get here first, who did?A historian rounds up the usual -- and unusual -- suspects.

by William F. KeeganPublished in VISTA, September 8, 1991

Marco Polo's travels in Asia, and Portuguese expansionism in Africa, bear testimony to how little fifteenth-century Europeans knew about their neighbors. It is generally assumed that they knew even less of the continents that lay across the great oceans. In the 2nd century A.D., the Hellenistic scholar Claudius Ptolemy drew a map of the world that would survive until Columbus's voyage. He depicted the world as a northern hemisphere comprised of a single Euro-Asian continent and northern Africa. The Americas were not depicted. Yet if various avocational historians are to be believed, the American continents had been known for almost two millennia.

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Olmec carved stone head from Mexico is seen by some as having Negroid features.

Christopher Columbus is credited with the first successful round-trip transatlantic voyage, but even his priority has been questioned. In his day it was rumored that he simply followed a course disclosed to him by a Spanish sailor who died shortly after completing the circuit in 1484. Another story is that the King of Portugal told Columbus of trade between Africa and the Americas -- a route that the Mandingo traders from Guinea had somehow managed to keep quiet for more than 150 years. Whether or not such expeditions took place, the Old and New Worlds were poised for contact by the close of the fifteenth century.

English fishermen from Bristol were fishing on the banks off Newfoundland by the 1490s, and John Cabot, sailing for England, reached northern North America in 1494 and cruised the coast of New England in 1497. The Portuguese were also capable mariners whose attempted crossings at the middle latitudes failed because the winds ceased a short distance out into the Atlantic. Their discovery of Brazil would have occurred even if Columbus had never sailed. The fastest course for rounding Africa is to follow the counterclockwise circulation of winds in the southern hemisphere. By sailing first toward Brazil, the Cape of Good Hope could be rounded with a following wind.

But what of encounters before the fifteenth century? The only well-documented case is that of the Vikings. The Norse established colonies on Iceland (A.D. 874), Greenland (A.D. 986), and Newfoundland (by A.D. 1000). An archaeological site called L'Anse aux Meadows has been identified as the short-lived Newfoundland colony. The dates for the site correspond to Norse sagas about Leif Ericson's Vinland colony. The site was occupied for only a few years, apparently due to hostilities with the Native peoples. The Greenland colony was abandoned shortly after in the face of a deteriorating climate, the end of supply voyages from Europe, and hostilities with the Inuit.But even Leif Ericson was a late-comer in the northern latitudes according to some. Irish legend holds that in the 6th century A.D. Saint Brendan sailed an oxhide boat westward over the ocean to "where God ruled supreme." Evidence for the Brendan voyage is an apocryphal Latin text, and a recent recreation of the voyage. Furthermore, according to Harvard Biology Professor Barry Fell, King Woden-lithi of Norway established a permanent trading colony on the St. Lawrence River near Toronto in 1700 B.C. Evidence for this Bronze Age colony is a series of

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inscriptions in the bedrock that Fell likens to an early Scandinavian alphabet. The supposed colony was abandoned as the climate turned colder at the close of the Bronze Age.

All proposals concerning early trans-oceanic contacts use the same form of argument. Superficial similarities in materials (be they Olmec heads, symbols carved in rocks, pyramids, or even religious and social practices) are identified and are then explained as resulting from contacts (diffusion) between the areas. The distance separating these areas and the mode of transportation between them are rarely important concerns. [An early diffusionist argument had people walking across Antarctica to reach South America!]

Egypt provides an excellent example of how diffusionist arguments work. In the 1920s the distinguished anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith proposed the Pan-Egypt theory, which stated that civilization arose only once, in Egypt, and then spread across the globe. One part of this theory had civilization carried across the oceans by Phoenicians searching for the Egyptian Sun stone, gold. The theory was based on superficial resemblances between such things as Egyptian, Cambodian, and Aztec pyramids, and ignored often dramatic differences. In the final analysis all of the evidence points to independent origins and distinct sequences of development for these cultures.The second involves demonstrating that contact, often against all odds, was possible. Thor Heyerdahl's Ra expeditions showed that Egyptians could have crossed the Atlantic in reed boats and that Americans could have sailed reed boats to Polynesia. Likewise, Tim Severin showed that St. Brendan could have crossed the Atlantic in an oxhide curragh. Such recreations have demonstrated that people with a simple maritime technology could have successfully crossed expanses of ocean. They demonstrate what could have been, but can never prove what was.A final case for Atlantic crossings was proposed on the basis of superficial resemblances between the physical appearance of black Africans and artifacts of the Olmec culture of Gulf-coast Mexico. According to Rutgers Professor Ivan Van Sertima, the Olmec's colossal stone heads, terracotta sculptures, skeletal remains, and pyramids, along with ancient European maps, all point to contacts between Africans and Central Americans between 800 and 600 B.C.

On the Pacific coast, it is possible that Polynesians reached the Americas. Having succeeded in sailing between islands separated by more than 1000 miles of open ocean, it is reasonable to assume that they could have made the relatively short water-crossing to reach the Americas.

In addition, archaeologists working in Ecuador have noted a number of similarities in the decorations on pottery from the Valdivia site and from Jomon in Japan. Jomon pottery is among the earliest in the world (circa 5000 B.C.), and Valdivia pottery (circa 3000 B.C.) is among the earliest in the Americas. On the basis of this coincidence it was proposed that pottery making was introduced into the Americas by Asians. Earlier pottery-bearing sites away from the coast make an Asian source both less likely and unnecessary.

Speculations concerning contacts between widely dispersed peoples, captures the imagination and challenges conventional wisdom. However, with the exception of Leif Ericson's colony, pre-Columbian contacts between the Americas and Asia, Africa, or Europe have not been proved. And though Christopher Columbus was certainly not the first to "discover" the Americas, he was definitely the last.

“The Battle for the Americas: Mansa Abubakari II – 181 years before Columbus.” Born Black Magazine. Feb. 2009: http://www.bornblackmag.com/discovery.html

The Battle for the AmericasMansa Abubakari II – 181 years before Columbus

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http://www.bornblackmag.com/discovery.html


Mansa Musa on a 1335 map of Africa and Europephoto source: http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Mansa-Musa

Christopher Colombus

In any basic history lesson, the Italian Sailor/explorer Christopher Columbus has a famous name as the discoverer of the new world. Till date, this has been of global acceptance as for over 500 years. Education has been in the hands of the Europeans, who many believe imposed what profited them while scorning or amending what did not.

As the waves of knowledge keep spreading, the acclaimed achievements of a number of “European” expeditions are now being observed with scepticism. One of such expeditions is the true ownership to the discovery of America.

Citing the book written by the famous Egyptian scholar, Ibn Fadi Al-Umari in 1342, there were two large voyages across the Atlantic Ocean preceding that of Columbus. Both Expeditions were pioneered by one man, Abubakari or to give him his rightful name, Mansa (King) Abubakari II.

In the time of the Malian Empire, the general conception was that on the other end of the Atlantic lied the end of the world. This delusion took its roots from then primitive Europe. Abubakari on the other hand was far from convinced. If the Niger had its beginning and its end, then the Atlantic Ocean must have its end with people living on its shores. He also felt this could be a sea root to Mecca.

With the quest for knowledge burning in him, Abubakari sent out 200 ships. Their duty was to sail across the Atlantic, with the aim of finding out what lied beyond. It was recorded that only one of the ships returned. Its captain claiming to have turned around when he saw the other ships disappear into the wild ocean.

Abubakari was not convinced by the captain’s testimony. This further increased his thirst to discover what lied on the other end of the Ocean.

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13th century Mali was a centre of excellence in Abubakari’s time, though reaching its peak after his era with Timbuktu having the second oldest University at that time with students numbering more than that of the University of New York. Courses such as mathematics, geography, history, astronomy, chemistry as well as Islamic studies flourished in Timbuktu. Mali was a center for trade, the exact spot to meet all who made the world spin. With the aid of the ship builders from Egypt and Mali, Abubakari built ships off the coast of Senegambia. His ships were 2000 in number. With this, he was to use to discover the end of the ocean. Abubakari was no coward. He insisted on accompanying the ships across the ocean.

In the year 1311, Abubakari abdicated his thrown to Mansa Musa. Not a son of his (contrary to contemporary literature). Abubakari equipped 1000 of his ships with the finest men, sorcerers, physicians, sailors and navigators. Every ship had supply ship attached to it. The number of ships totalled 2000. The other 1000 ships were loaded with foodstuffs, drugs, fruits and drinks to last his team for 2yrs. It was believed that Abubakari arrived on the other end of the Atlantic in the year 1312. Proof of the Malian expedition can be noted in the names given to places in Haiti as the Malians renamed places after themselves. Examples of such are Mandinga Port, Mandinga Bay and Sierre de Mali.

Lots of other proof abounds and many more keep unfolding. There is also a Malian folktale which gives reference to this great expedition.

How could this be possible in Abubakari’s time? From a scientific point of view, the Atlantic is governed by 2 currents, which usually remain the same irrespective of month or season. These are the Guinea Current and the Canary Current. Both possess currents powerful enough to pull a ship form the coast of West Africa to the Americas. It is at end of these currents that you see the signs of negroid presence in the Americas.

It would therefore be suspected that Columbus employed similar knowledge of the currents of the Atlantic to sail across to the Americas. Such could only have been possible through the help of someone familiar with the rout. Hence the speculation that Columbus was accompanied by an African, Pedro Alonso Nino, who helped him navigate the Atlantic, appears more credible. It must be made clear that Columbus recorded seeing blacks in America. He also recorded seeing a building which looked like a mosque. The Malians were Muslims and hence there is a possibility that the mosque could have been erected by Malians. Columbus also recorded seeing a ship, filled with goods just departing the coast of guinea and heading in the direction of America.

In addition to the above, another proof of this voyage comes from words of Mansa Musa, the successor to the thrown. Upon his arrival in Egypt, it was obvious the Egyptians were expecting to see Abubakari for the Hajj. On arriving in Egypt, Mansa Musa was quoted as explaining how ascended the thrown of Mali. Once again citing the manner King Abubakari had given up his thrown to contribute to global knowledge. A trait lacking in present day African rulers.

The presence of the Malians on American soil may thus be the reason for the presence of African crops such as Banana Plants and mango to mention a few.

This incredible history of Abubakari’s adventure should be a great area of interest to all black educators, especially in rewriting world history which has been focused on imposing Eurocentric perspectives. Anything short of this would be depriving not just the black youth but the entire world of true history.

I must add before drawing the curtains, this article is not meant to scorn Columbus. Columbus till date ranks amongst the finest explorers of all time. Christopher Columbus was great, but the discovery of the Americas belongs to King Abubakari II.

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Keegan, William F. “Columbus, Hero or Heel?” Vista. March 24, 1991: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/caribarch/columbus.htm.

COLUMBUS, HERO OR HEEL?

500 years after his epoch-making trip, The Great Navigator remains an enigma

by William F. Keegan

Published in VISTA, March 24, 1991

This "heroic" scene of Columbus "discovering" Americaerroneously depicts the event that led to the demise ofTaino culture in less than one generation.

Christopher Columbus. Admiral of the Ocean Sea. The Great Navigator. Renown as the champion of the belief that the earth was round. The man who sought the riches of the Far East by sailing to the west, and who happened instead upon a New World. The man who discovered America. Removed from Hispaniola in chains in 1500 and wrongly persecuted in his later years. His story typifies that of a tragic heroic figure.Yet how accurate is the portrait of Columbus that is painted today? How much of what we know comes from the deification of a long-dead hero whose personal attributes have been shaped to reflect the greatness of his discoveries? And how much of what we are being told today is simply a revisionist backlash that demands attention by attacking dead heros?

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A century ago Columbus was a hero who was feted in the Columbian world expositions as a man whose single-minded pursuit of his goals was to be emulated. Today he is being reviled as a symbol of European expansionism, the forbearer of institutionalized racism and genocide who bears ultimate responsibility for everything from the destruction of rainforests to the depletion of the ozone layer. Impressive accomplishments for someone who died five centuries ago.

When one peels back the shroud of myth that today surrounds him we find that his portrait embodies a period of history more than an individual man. Professor Robert Fuson, a Columbus admirer, described him as a man of the Renaissance, whose sensibilities were still firmly rooted in the Middle Ages.An example of the Columbus mythology illustrates those points. Columbus is often credited with being the first to accept that the earth was round. Yet this fact was first proved by the Greek mathematician Pythagoras in the 6th century B.C. Moreover, when Columbus obtained contradictory navigational readings off the coast of South America during his third voyage in 1498, he quickly abandoned his round earth. Instead he proposed that the earth was shaped like a pear with a rise "like a woman's breast" on which rested the "Terrestrial Paradise" (Garden of Eden) to which no man could sail without the permission of God. To his detractors, such beliefs are those of a mentally unbalanced religious fanatic; to his promoters, they are remarkably prescient (the earth does in fact bulge along the equator) and they illustrate his steadfast and consuming faith in God.Beyond historical attributes, his personal characteristics and life history add to the intrigue. What was his real name? Kirkpatrick Sale notes the following possibilities: Christoforo Colombo, Christofferus de Colombo, Christobal Colom, Christóbal Colón, and Xpoual de Colón. Columbus himself, after 1493, chose to sign himself Xpo ferens, which glosses as "the christbearer." As St. Christopher had before him, he saw himself fulfilling God's plan by bringing Christ to a new world.

His place and date of birth are also uncertain. He was a Virgo or Libra (he was versed in Astrology), born between August 25th and October 31st, 1435 to 1460, with 1451 the most frequently given year. He claims to have been born in Genoa, although Chios (a Greek island that was a Geonoese colony), Majorca, Galicia, and other places in Spain have also been suggested. Wherever his place of birth, he seems to have thought of himself as a Castilian, the language in which he wrote.

His son Fernando described him as having a reddish complexion, blonde hair (white after age 30), blue eyes, an exceptionally keen sense of smell, excellent eyesight, and perfect hearing. A man of relatively advanced age in 1492 (at least forty years old) the description of him as having been in perfect physical condition must be an exaggeration. He was also reported to be moderate in drink, food, and dress and never swore!!He was of the Catholic faith, although some claim a Jewish background on one side of his family. He expressed his faith in his choice of a Franciscan friar's robes for an appearance before the Spanish Court, in leaving his son at the Franciscan monastery of la Rábida between 1481 and 1491, and in his eschatological Libro de las profecías, an array of prophetic texts, commentaries by ancient and medieval authors, Spanish poetry, and Columbus's own commentaries.

He is said to have gone to sea at age 14. On the Atlantic coast to the north he made at least one voyage to England and possibly one to Iceland, while to the south he sailed as far as the Gold Coast of Africa. He is reputed to have been involved in a naval engagement between Franco-Portuguese and Genoese fleets in 1476. He made four voyages to the New World. Until recently, anything about Columbus character, except his skills as a mariner, was open to criticism. Recently, revisionist historians are unwilling to grant even that. Kirkpatrick Sale claims that Columbus never commanded anything larger than a rowboat prior to the first transatlantic crossing. Yet it remains a fact that he succeeded in crossing the Atlantic Ocean and, more important, he returned safely. It was Columbus's voyage that set the stage for European expansion.

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Columbus married Doña Felipa Perestrello e Moniz in 1479, and their son Diego was born in 1480 in the Madeira Islands. Doña Felipa died sometime between 1481 and 1485, after which Columbus consorted with Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. A second son, Fernando, was born to Beatriz in 1488. While Governor of Hispaniola, he was assisted by his younger (or older) brother (or uncle) Bartholomew Columbus. Christopher, Bartholomew, and their other brother Diego, were arrested in July, 1500, for mismanagement of the colony. They were sent to Spain in chains in October and released in December of that year.

As one looks behind the historical facade that has been built to represent the "discoverer" or "destroyer" of America, one encounters many more questions than answers. The story seems to begin with Columbus seeking financial sponsorship for a voyage to Asia and the Indies. But was Asia really Columbus's objective? Henry Vignaud and others have maintained that Columbus pursued more personal goals. Upon reaching the islands Columbus spent two weeks searching for gold in the Bahamas. Why did he waste time in the Bahamas when his stated objective lay a short distance to the southwest? Why did Columbus bring trinkets for trade if the gold of the Grand Khan (in Latin "king of kings") was his primary objective? Why did Columbus claim lands for the Spanish Crown, and himself as the Crown's representative, if these belonged to an Asiatic Kingdom? Why is there no mention of Asia or the Indies in the titles awarded to Columbus by his royal sponsors?

Christopher Columbus died on May 20, 1506 in Valladolid, Spain of age-related causes. He was about 54 years old. Even in death Columbus left us wondering -- Sevilla, Santo Domingo, and Havana all claim to be his final resting place. A fitting twist to the end of his story.

For 500 years there has been only one answer to the question, who was Columbus?That answer is another question. Who do you want him to be?

Baxter, Joan. “Africa’s Greatest Explorer.” BBC News. Dec. 13, 2000: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm.

Wednesday, 13 December, 2000, 22:27 GMT Africa's 'greatest explorer'

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http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm


Abubakari gave up his kingdom to pursue knowledgeBy Joan Baxter in Mali

An African emperor who ruled Mali in the 14th century discovered America nearly 200 years before Christopher Columbus, according to a book to be launched this month.

Abubakari II ruled what was arguably the richest and largest empire on earth - covering nearly all of West Africa.

According to a Malian scholar, Gaoussou Diawara in his book, 'The Saga of Abubakari II...he left with 2000 boats', the emperor gave up all power and gold to pursue knowledge and discovery.

Abubakari's ambition was to explore whether the Atlantic Ocean - like the great River Niger that swept through Mali - had another 'bank'.

In 1311, he handed the throne over to his brother, Kankou Moussa, and set off on an expedition into the unknown.

His predecessor and uncle, Soundjata Keita, had already founded the Mali empire and conquered a good stretch of the Sahara Desert and the great forests along the West African coast.

Gold fields

The book also focuses on a research project being carried out in Mali tracing Abubakari's journeys.

"We are not saying that Abubakari II was the first ever to cross the ocean," says Tiemoko Konate, who heads the project

"There is evidence that the Vikings were in America long before him, as well as the Chinese," he said.

The researchers claim that Abubakari's fleet of pirogues, loaded with men and women, livestock, food and drinking water, departed from what is the coast of present-day Gambia.

They are gathering evidence that in 1312 Abubakari II landed on the coast of Brazil in the place known today as Recife.

"Its other name is Purnanbuco, which we believe is an aberration of the Mande name for the rich gold fields that accounted for much of the wealth of the Mali Empire, Boure Bambouk."

Another researcher, Khadidjah Djire says they have found written accounts of Abubakari's expedition in Egypt, in a book written by Al Omari in the 14th century.

"Our aim is to bring out hidden parts of history", she says.

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Our aim is to bring out hidden parts of history

Khadidjah Dire

Most Griots are beginning to divulge Abubakari's secrets


Black traders

Mr Konate says they are also examining reports by Columbus, himself, who said he found black traders already present in the Americas.

They also cite chemical analyses of the gold tips that Columbus found on spears in the Americas, which show that the gold probably came from West Africa.

But the scholars say the best sources of information on Abubakari II are Griots - the original historians in Africa.

Mr Diawara says the paradox of Abubakari II, is that the Griots themselves imposed a seal of silence on the story.

"The Griots found his abdication a shameful act, not worthy of praise," Mr Diawara said.

"For that reason they have refused to sing praise or talk of this great African man."

Mr Diawara says the Griots in West Africa such as Sadio Diabate, are slowly starting to divulge the secrets on Abubakari II.

'Hard-nosed historians'

But the research team says an even bigger challenge is to convince hard-nosed historians elsewhere that oral history can be just as accurate as written records.

Mr Diawara believes Abubakari's saga has an important moral lesson for leaders of small nation states in West Africa, which were once part of the vast Mande-speaking empire.

"Look at what's going on in all the remnants of that empire, in Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea.

"Politicians are bathing their countries in blood, setting them on fire just so that they can cling to power," says Mr Diawara.

"They should take an example from Abubakari II. He was a far more powerful man than any of them. And he was willing to give it all up in the name of science and discovery."

"That should be a lesson for everyone in Africa today," concludes Mr Diawara.

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Mali was a gold kingdom, but most families live in poverty


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iaaas socialscience grade7 q1lesson-2

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