Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 479 – 488

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1877-7058 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction 2015doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.458

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International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction

Assessment and Strategies to Reduce Light Pollution using Geographic Information Systems

Mohamed Elsahragtya, and Jin-Lee Kimb* aGraduate Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering and Construction Engineering Management, California State University, 1250 Bellflower

Blvd., Long Beach, CA, 90840, U.S.A. bAssociate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Construction Engineering Management, California State University, 1250 Bellflower

Blvd., Long Beach, CA, 90840, U.S.A.

Abstract

Light pollution is a negative lighting condition because it prevents views of the night sky from the general population and astronomers. As a solution to light pollution, proper lighting system design is vital. The location, mounting height, and aim of exterior luminaries need to be taken into consideration for efficient use of lighting energy. In line with the effort, this paper presents the assessment results on light pollution at the port area, which is one of the brightest spots on Earth. In doing so, a GIS model is created to determine the level of light pollution at the study areas. The lighting power densities of ASHRAE 90.1-2007 are applied in order to find a way to reduce the level of light pollution. The effect of light pollution generated from the Long Beach Port area is examined by comparing against the sky glow generated from the Port of Long Beach area and other areas throughout the coast of Southern California, as well as comparing how deep the sky glow penetrates the ocean. The results are validated by comparing against the lighting specification used in the study areas. The lighting strategies proposed include the decreased height of light poles and increased spacing between light poles. This study will serve as a platform in which future researchers may continue and expand on the designs of heights and spaces of lighting poles in order to make severe light pollution areas better sustainable places. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction 2015.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-562-985-1679; fax: +1-562-985-2380.

E-mail address: jinlee.kim@csulb.edu

© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction 2015

480 Mohamed Elsahragty and Jin-Lee Kim / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 479 – 488

Keywords: Sustainability; Light Pollution; GIS; Sky glow; Lighting Analysis

1. Introduction

Light pollution can be defined as the brightening of the night sky caused by street lights and other man-made sources that hinder the observation of stars and planets. According to the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), which is a US non-profit organization to preserve and protect the nighttime environment, light pollution is defined as any adverse effect of artificial light. This definition encompasses sky glow, glare, light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and energy waste [1]. The awareness concerning light pollution did not emerge until the late 1970’s and, at that time, the only concern was about its effect on astronomy. Only recently have scientists began researching the diverse effects that light pollution can have on our lives. First, all this unnecessary lighting is considered to be an energy waste. According to the IDA, about one-third of all lighting in the US is wasted. Gallaway et al. [2] presented the fact that 6% of the US’s 4.054 million megawatt hours are used for outdoor lighting, and an estimated 30% of the usage is wasted as light pollution. This is proof enough that light pollution is a widespread critical problem to justify further research. Second, light pollution prevents astronomers from observing a clear sky and reduces the visibility of stars. Third, light pollution causes disruption of ecosystems and negatively affects human beings and animals, forcing them to change their habits. Horvath et al. [3] found that many aquatic insects depend on polarized light given off by bodies of water to navigate; however, polarized light is also given off by oil spills, plastic tarps, and other substances which can prevent correct navigation and fragment habitats. Navara and Nelson [4] demonstrated the phenomenon of the northern mockingbird in which mockingbirds that usually only sing at night before mating, are now singing after mating in areas of artificial light. The implications of this occurrence are yet unknown.

Fortunately, public interest of light pollution has begun to escalate in many ways. For example, the US Green

Building Council (USGBC) has incorporated a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow into the USGBC’s green building rating system: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) for New Construction. The LEED-NC 2009 Sustainable Sites Credit 8 (SSc8) also addresses light pollution and awards up to 1 point if this requirement is met [5]. Similarly, Green Globes awards seven points on its scale for preventing light pollution under Section B.2.4 [6]. To prevent light pollution, Kibert [6] suggested three strategies: (1) design parking area and street lighting to minimize upward transmission of light, (2) reduce or turn off exterior building and sign lighting when they are not needed, and (3) use a computer modeling exterior lighting system so that the level and quality of lighting needed is specifically designed to meet the project’s needs without straying off-site and causing unpleasant conditions. As such, technologies to reduce light pollution include full cutoff luminaires, low-reflectance surfaces, and low-angle spotlights.

1.1. Previous Studies

Several studies have been conducted in four main areas to discuss light pollution: how light pollution affects nature, how to model light pollution, how to collect data in order to calculate the level of light pollution, and how severe of a problem light pollution is to the environment. Walker [7] discussed the present and future effects of artificial illumination on optical astronomical observations by measuring the sky glow in cities of California and Arizona. This study became the main resource for many studies that followed on light pollution modeling and sky glow measurement because of the formula Walker designed for taking such measurements. Walker's law is I=0.01Pd-2.5 where I is the increase in sky glow level above the natural background, P is the population of the city, and d is the distance to the center of the city in km. A more accurate modeling of light pollution was done by Garstang [8] to allow for the calculation of the night-sky brightness caused by a city, taking into consideration Molecular scattering and Aerosol scattering. Garstang [9] modified his own model by adding an ozone layer, by using a more accurate representation of the atmospheric molecular density variation as a function of height, and by using a better mathematical representation of the scattering angular function of aerosols. Cinzano et al. [10] and Cinzano et al. [11] presented a method to map the artificial night sky brightness across large territories in a given

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direction of the sky by evaluating the propagation of light pollution with Garstang’s model and the upward light emission from high resolution radiance data from the US Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). Their model provided spatial information about the sources of light pollution as well as population data.

Albers and Duriscoe [12] presented a more advanced model in which they modified Walker’s law and Garstang’s

formulas in order to calculate the sky glow inside and outside of the city. They also utilized the data from DMSP, the Schaaf sky quality scale, and the zenith limiting magnitude equivalents to classify the National Park land areas using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Aubrecht et al. [13] examined the impacts of light pollution and approximate human influence on protected areas. Their model was produced by Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) GmbH. The model uses spatial indicators based on both satellite-observed nighttime light data, which are acquired by the DMSP Operational Linescan System (OLS), and protected area distribution information that is provided by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)’s World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC). The study takes a more general approach than previous analyses of ecological consequences of artificial night lighting which tends to focus on adverse effects on light-sensitive ecosystems and/or species. Alternatively, the study emphasizes the need for accurate and consistent spatial data on a global scale and can help indicate which protected areas, globally and nationally, are at the greatest risk of human activities. It is also an important step towards public communication and raising general awareness on the topic of light pollution. The studies mentioned above were conducted primarily to model the sky glow for astronomic purposes and to study the effect of light pollution on living-beings.

2. Research Objectives and Methodology

Waste light does not increase nighttime safety, utility, or security and needlessly consumes energy. Proper lighting system design is crucial to reduce the light pollution. The location, mounting height, and aim of exterior luminaries need to be taken into consideration for efficient use of lighting energy. In line with the effort, the objective of this paper is to assess light pollution at the port area, which is one of the brightest spots on Earth. We selected the Port of Long Beach area and other areas throughout the coast of Southern California. In order to achieve the research objective, we create a GIS model for determining the level of light pollution at the study areas. The lighting power densities of ASHRAE 90.1-2007 are applied in order to find a way to reduce the level of light pollution. The effect of light pollution generated from the Long Beach Port area is examined by comparing against the sky glow generated from the study areas, as well as comparing how deep the sky glow penetrates the ocean. The results are validated by comparing against the lighting specification used in the study areas. The lighting strategies such as the decreased height of light poles and increased spacing between light poles are proposed and tested for further guidelines.

In order to reduce the light pollution generated from the buildings of the port and the warehouses, the usage of

the LEED NC system could be very helpful. In the LEED-NC rating system, credit 8, ‘light pollution reduction,’ in the sustainable sites category is the only credit concerned with lighting, which accounts for only 1 point out of 120 possible points in the LEED-NC systems. Three main components to this credit are: (1) to limit light levels by meeting or providing lower light levels and uniformities than the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) recommended practice; lighting for exterior environments, (2) to reduce sky glow by requiring luminaries with a lumen output greater than 3500 to be full cutoff, and (3) to reduce light trespass by requiring luminaries within two and half times their mounting height from the property line not to produce light across that property line. Also in LEED NC, light pollution can be reduced through other credits and categories. In the energy & atmosphere category, credit 1, ‘optimize energy performance,’ provides between 1 to 10 credits for achieving various reductions in the energy performance of a building, as compared to the base case of a building compliant with ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-1999. It is important to note that this credit relates to total building energy performance and lighting which plays a major role in a building's energy performance. Additionally, in the indoor environmental quality category under credit 6, ‘controllability of systems,’ credits are given for providing occupant controls. The credit 8, ‘daylight and views,’ requirements recognize the benefits of day lighting, but do not provide credit for its

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integration with electric lighting. In this paper, we focus more on the exterior lighting as it is the main cause of the light pollution.

3. GIS Modeling of Light Pollution

3.1. Study Area

The Long Beach Port area is one of the brightest spots on Earth that can be observed from outer space, which causes major light pollution for the surrounding areas. Figure 1 shows the aerial photo of the study areas. Although several buildings at the Port of Long Beach are LEED certified, especially in Pier G, this credit is often ignored as it accounts for only 1 point. The Pier G Redevelopment Program is a multi-year effort estimated at $500 million. The redevelopment aims to consolidate and modenize the entire terminal with more efficient, environmentally friendly truck gates, rail facilities, and berths. The project began in 2000 with a storage rail lines, truck gate and deep-water berth project, followed by various marine and land-side projects to provide additional land for trade and more rail yard capacity to eliminate trucks on the freeways. Two LEED-certified complexes can be a showcase of sustainable construction in a container shipping terminal [14]. Even in all other credits that require reduction in energy or heat island effect, any reduction in the levels of light pollution is usually avoided. Therefore, this paper focuses on the impact of sky glow on the Long Beach and Port of Long Beach areas since very few or almost no studies deal with the relationship between the sustainability of light and how to achieve it from an urban planning and/or construction point of view.

Fig. 1. Aerial photo of the study area [15]

3.2. Data Collection

For the purpose of modeling light pollution for the Long Beach Port area, satellite data is used from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP): Operational Linescan System (OLS) of the USA. DMSP satellites with the on-board OLS have the capability to detect faint sources of visible near-infrared (VNIR) emissions on the Earth's surface, making it possible to detect cities and towns. This capability allows for mapping of urban night-time light emissions, also referred to as upward light emissions, from terrestrial sources. Since optical satellite images depend

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on the meteorological conditions that are cloud coverage, the selection of suitable images is restricted to a number of favorable nights.

DMSP uses satellites of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in low altitude at 830

km of sun-synchronous polar orbit with an orbital period of 101 min. Visible and infrared imagery from DMSP/OLS instruments monitor the distribution of clouds all over the world twice a day, once during the daytime and once at night, respectively. The OLS radiometer consists of two telescopes and a photo multiplier tube (PMT). The visible telescope is sensitive to radiation from 0.4 μm to 1.1 μm. The PMT is sensitive to radiation from 0.47 μm to 0.95 μm, with highest sensitivity at 0.55 μm – 0.65 μm, where the most frequently used lamps for external night-time lighting have the strongest emission. Telescope pixel values are replaced by PMT values at night. The spatial resolution of the images is 0.47 km at high resolution in fine mode and 2.7 km at low resolution in smooth mode, while visible values are relative values ranging from 0 to 63 (6 bit) and infrared pixel values correspond to a temperature range of 190 K – 310 K in 256 equally spaced steps [16]. These features make DMSP data convenient for regional scale studies. All the images used in this study have been geo-referenced to the local coordinates system of GCS_NAD_1983_CORS96. The processing of the satellite images is performed using Arc GIS software to maintain the most frequent values, which is generally close to the mean value for each pixel. Figure 2 shows night-time light emissions over USA generated from DMSP images. The other part of the GIS spatial database consists of zip code divisions of the Los Angeles county data that lines up with parcel lines coming from the Los Angeles County Data Portal.

Fig. 2. Night-time light emissions over USA

3.3. GIS Modeling

A GIS model is created using the ArcGIS software. The DMSP satellite images are collected and utilized because the images enable mapping of the nighttime light values from the earth with high resolution. The DMSP data is combined with the Los Angeles county GIS data, which contains the zip codes and the coordinates of those locations on the map. This data is geo-referenced to the local coordinates system of GCS_NAD_1983_CORS96, which is used for North America. All of this data is geo-processed using the ArcGIS software, and the images are turned into pixels to maintain the most frequent lighting values for each pixel. This process provides relatively convenient results in the DMSP data as follows:

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Sunlit data is excluded based on the solar elevation angle Glare is excluded based on solar elevation angle Moonlit data is excluded based on a calculation of lunar luminance Observations with clouds are also excluded based on clouds identified with the OLS thermal band data

and National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) surface temperature grids Lighting features from the aurora are excluded in the northern hemisphere on an orbit-by-orbit manner

using visual inspection. In order to demonstrate the approach mentioned here, a GIS model showing the variation in lighting values is

generated to differentiate between the different areas of Los Angeles county and its borders. Figure 3 shows the light emission variations during nighttime. The effect of the port areas of Long Beach on the illumination levels is examined along the shoreline and the ocean. The authors measure how deep the sky glow is and how high lighting levels are inside the ocean along different points of the Southern California shoreline. In doing so, the data value of 57 is selected as a threshold value where data values from the DMSP satellite data varies from 0 to 63, as 0 is complete darkness and 63 is brightness. The value is used to measure the distance from the coast line to the pixel containing this value is obtained. The distance along the shoreline of Los Angeles County varies from 0.25 miles to 0.75 miles with an average of 0.5 miles inside the ocean till the value of 57 is obtained, except for the Port of Long Beach area where the distance is measured and found to be 3.2 miles inside the ocean. This process shows how high the illumination generated from the Port of Long Beach area and the sky glow affects the whole neighborhood. Furthermore, it may have an adverse effect on the surrounding marine life. The sea-related animals and birds also affect the surrounding environment and cause a disturbance in the whole ecosystem.

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Fig. 3. Variation of night-time light emissions over Los Angeles County

4. Results and Findings

This section presents assessment results and findings using a GIS Model with the criteria previously explained. The purpose of the assessment was to examine the effect of light pollution emitted from the port area of Long Beach. Figure 4 shows the nighttime light emissions over the study area. The Port of Long Beach area is represented with gray shades; the values of stable lights emitted are shown, where the lighter the color the more stable lights in this area. As one can notice, the port areas of Long Beach generate a large sky glow that extends inside the ocean for more than 3 miles until the values go lower than 57. Whereas along the coast of southern California, the sky glow extends only on average for half a mile inside the ocean. This result shows how high the light pollution emitted from the Port area is and how it extended inside the ocean is, which has a negative effect on the surroundings and on the marine life. From the high resolution pictures, the map of the Port of Long Beach area, and from field observations, it is obvious that most causes of the light pollution are due to the exterior lighting of the piers and from the lights occurring from the buildings near the piers.

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Fig. 4. Night-time light emissions over Port of Long Beach area

Therefore, it is necessary to apply the lighting power densities of ASHRAE 90.1-2007, which was developed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE), under an American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The intent of LEED NC-2009 Sustainable Site Credit 8 (SSc8) is to minimize light trespass from the building and site, reduce sky-glow to increase night sky access, improve nighttime visibility through glare reduction, and reduce development impact from lighting on nocturnal environments [5]. The SSc8 credit requires adherence to the standard of ASHRAE 90.1-2007. If one save the energy beyond the baseline and the savings come from integrated automatic control systems, this credit helps to achieve LEED NC-2009 Energy and Atmosphere Credit 1 (EAc1): Optimize Energy Performance. Also, such credits help in achieving awards under LEED NC-2009 Indoor Environmental Quality Credit 6.1 (IEQc6.1): Controllability of Systems - Lighting if automatic occupancy controls to shutoff interior perimeter lighting is coordinated with occupant controllability objectives [5]. ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 defines exterior illumination not exceeding 80% of the lighting power densities for exterior areas and 50% for building facades and landscape features [6].

By comparing the IESNA standards to the specifications used in the buildings of the Port of Long Beach, the

specifications states that lighting uniformity ratio of 10:1 shall be used although according to IESNA this ratio should not exceed 4:1. For the illumination levels the specifications are compatible with the IESNA recommendations as it stated that illumination levels shouldn’t exceed 10 foot-candles with average of 5 foot-candle. Bust still the specifications stated that high mast light poles shall be used with 120 feet height and12 light fixtures per pole each equipped with 1000W high pressure sodium vapor lamps to illuminate the wharf which of course would create very high illumination levels. From the specifications and the field observations it has been found that the height of the light poles ranges from 80 ft to 120 ft while the spacing between the light poles is 123 foot and most of the generated lighting is unnecessary. Therefore, we examined the effects of changing the length of poles and spacing between poles to determine the effect on the illuminated areas. The first design parameter is the height of the light poles. Since most of the poles’ heights are 120 feet or 80 foot, we will compare the effect of changing of the height of light poles on the area covered by each light pole. Of course, as we decrease the height of light pole, the ground area covered will decrease. Figure 5 shows the covered area changes based on the light pole height. Table 1 shows the results on the effect of the reduction of the height of the light pole on the ground area covered and the percentage of the reduction of area with each reduction of height in the case of angles of lighting, 60° and 45°. For example, if we decrease the height from 120 foot to 80 foot, the reduction in area covered will be 54.35%. This will make a great difference as it will focus the lighting more so we can use less number of fixtures instead of the 12 fixtures with 1000 watt lamp each to have the desired illumination. That would help us in reducing the energy used and to reduce unwanted lighting and waste of energy.

Fig. 5. Changes of the lght pole height

Table 1. Reduction Effects for Different Light Pole Heights

Angle of lighting Height of pole (ft) Diameter (ft) Area covered (ft2) Reduction in area (%) 60 120 427.23 143353.90 60 80 288.66 65444.80 54.35% 60 60 219.38 37800.01 42.24% 60 40 150.10 17695.03 53.19% 45 120 253.00 50272.55 45 80 173.00 23506.18 53.24% 45 60 133.00 13892.91 40.90%

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45 40 93.00 6792.91 51.11% The second design parameter is the light interference between different poles. Since we are having very high light

poles covering large areas so light interference will occur between different light zones creating areas which are covered by two poles and in some cases by three poles. Figure 6 shows the interference of light poles. The illumination levels in these areas will be doubled in case of two light poles interfering and even tripled in case of three light poles interfering which causes illumination levels exceed those desired and still unnecessary lighting. Also in some cases this will cause light trespass which should be avoided according to the LEED standards. To solve this issue, we have two approaches that decrease the height of the light poles or increase the spacing between the light poles or doing both. Figure 7 shows the results on the effect of decreasing the height of the light poles on the interference area covered by two poles in the case of angles of lighting 60° and 45°, respectively.

Fig. 6. Light interference covered by more than two poles

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Fig. 7. Reduction in ground area covered by light poles by reducing the height of poles with single spacing (123 feet)

5. Conclusions

This paper presented the modeling and the analysis of the light pollution at the Port of Long Beach. The light pollution became a major problem facing our new civilized communities and affecting our ecosystems, our health and the animals’ health which requires from us facing it together. We have found that most of the light pollution is occurring from the exterior lighting system of the port’s buildings. Application of the LEED standards and changing the lighting system with the proper light analysis would help in decreasing the light pollution. Although the new LEED credits tries to address the light pollution problem, the credits addressing it doesn’t weigh that much and can be easily ignored as in the case of the Port of Long Beach. Complying with the IESNA standards would help in reducing the light pollution and in reduction of the sky glow, sky glare, light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and the energy waste. So it is encouraged to continue for the Port of Long Beach to comply with the IESNA standards and applying the LEED standards on its buildings and to stop ignoring the light pollution credits and take this problem more seriously. As the case stands, more studies should be conducted to find a means for reducing light pollution in urban areas, especially since light pollution reduction was recently added as a credit in the LEED system. Indeed, the economic perspective of the light pollution and how can LED lights and other types of lamps help in reducing the light pollution shall be studied for further research.

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