Appendix

List of general procedures

1. Comparing

1. Have the students read or listen to two similar texts which differ sys­tematically in at least one area of grammar.

2. Have the students notice the grammatical differences between the two texts.

3. Ask the students to explore the differences with reference to differ­ences in the topics, contexts or purposes of the texts.

4. Have students practise producing texts similar to the models they have compared.

2. Sequencing

1. Choose a text or series of texts and change the sequence of some of the paragraphs or sentences within paragraphs or of certain elements within sentences.

2. Have students work out what the original sequence might have been in one text or a portion of one text through noticing a particular gram­matical feature or set of grammatical features.

3. Work with the students to explore further the kinds of grammatical features that can be used as clues to help to determine the original sequence and why the original sequence is better.

4. Have the students practise this procedure on their own with the rest of the text or another similar text.

3. Gap filling

1. Find, adapt or write a text containing occurrences of a particular fea­ture you would like your students to work on.

2. Prepare a version of the text with some or all the occurrences of this feature blanked out. They may be single words or longer stretches of text like phrases or clauses.

3. Have the students fill in as many blanks as they can either based on some limited exposure to the original text (listening to it or reading through it once) or based on their own contextual or grammatical knowledge.

133

134 Appendix

4. Present the original text to the students (either in spoken or written form) and have them compare the ways they filled in the gaps with the occurrences of the feature in the original text and notice the kinds of forms that are used and where their answers are different from the original.

S. Have students explore the reasons why certain forms are appropriate or inappropriate by trying to either justify what they wrote or explain why it should be changed.

6. Have students practise producing the feature in an appropriate way in similar conversations or texts.

4. Reconstructing

1. Find or create a short text containing the target features. 2. Have the students listen to the text several times and slowly build it up

on the board, noticing the target features and exploring how they are used.

3. Have the students orally practise the text. 4. As a way of getting students to notice again the target features, gradu­

ally remove parts of the text with the target features being the first parts OR the last parts to be removed.

S. At each stage of removal have one or more students recite the text, fill­ing in from memory what has been erased (pictures or diagrams may be used as prompts) in order to practise using the target features.

6. Finally, remove the entire text and have students recite it entirely from memory.

S. Elaborating

1. Present the students with a simple text. 2. Create a situation in which certain questions are asked about the text

in a way that students notice both that additional information would make the text better and that this new information is typically associ­ated with certain grammatical features.

3. Explore with students why certain kinds of additions in the text require certain grammatical features and others require different ones.

4. Have students practise by continuing to elaborate on the same text or elaborating on a similar text.

Appendix 13S

6. Transforming

1. Find, adapt or write a text that contains features that might be trans­formed in different contexts.

2. Have the students listen to or read the text and transfer the informa­tion in it into notes or some kind of visual representation.

3. Give the students a context for a different kind of text in which the same information would appear but be expressed differently. Guide students to notice how they would have to transform the informa­tion in the original text to make it fit into the new context and to explore the reasons why. Alternately, present students with a partial example of a new text appropriate to the new context and guide them to notice how information from the first text has been transformed and to explore the reasons why.

4. Have students practise transforming the information from the origi­nal text into a new text making use of the notes or visual representa­tion they made in step 2.

Glossary

action (process) clauses: clauses that represent processes of 'doing' and 'hap­pening', e.g. he's sweeping the floor; the window broke. They are also referred to as 'doing and happening' clauses. In functional grammar these are called 'material processes'.

active voice: the voice of clauses with verb forms such as eats, was eating and has eaten. In active voice action process clauses, the subject is the 'doer' of the action. Compare 'passive voice' and 'middle voice'.

adjunct: a word, group of words or phrase added to a clause that expresses circumstantial meanings, such as place, time or manner, interpersonal mean­ings, such as fortunately and in my opinion, or textual meanings, such as on the other hand and in addition. In traditional grammar, these are sometimes referred to as 'adverbials'.

agent: the noun group that occurs after by in a passive voice clause, for example, it was broken by my brother. In an action clause, the agent is typi­cally the 'doer' or 'causer' of the action.

'being' (process) clauses: clauses that link one person or thing to another person, thing or quality that identifies it, classifies it or describes it. For example, Mary is the woman over there; Mary is a teacher; Mary is very kind. The technical term in functional grammar for such clauses is 'relational process clauses'.

beneficiary: a participant that benefits from the action represented by the verb. Beneficiaries can occur in the indirect object pOSition, e.g. she baked me a cake or later in the clause following the preposition for, for example, she baked a cake for my sister.

comment: the part of a clause that normally follows and comments on the topiC of the clause. The technical term for this in functional grammar is 'rheme'.

complement: the adjective group or noun group that follows the linking verb in a 'being' clause. In functional grammar, objects are also regarded as kinds of complements.

compound sentence: a sentence that consists of two or more main or inde­pendent clauses. The clauses are typically linked by coordinating conjunc­tions such as and, or and but.

137

138 Glossary

comprehensible input: language that students can understand, although not necessarily every word. The comprehensible input hypothesis (associ­ated with Stephen Krashen) is that learners can learn a language only when they are exposed to comprehensible input.

context: features that surround a piece of text. These can include features of accompanying text ('cotext'), features of the situation in which the text is produced or used ('situational context') and features of the wider culture in which the text is produced or used ('cultural context').

cotext: the linguistic context of a piece of text, that is, the words, phrases, clauses or sentences that come before and after it.

direct object: the noun group that normally follows the verb in a transitive clause or follows the indirect object in a ditranstive clause, for example, George wrote a letter; George sent me a letter. In action process clauses, the direct object typically represents the participant directly affected by the action.

doing and happening (process) clauses: Another way of referring to 'action (process) clauses'.

definite article: the word 'the'.

ellipsis: leaving out some element of structure that can be recovered or understood from the context, for example, That's my book. No, it isn't [your book].

ergative verb: A verb that can be used in middle voice (Le. an intransi­tive clause) and in passive voice with the same subject and basically the same meaning, for example, The chicken was cooking / The chicken was being cooked.

feeling (process) clauses: clauses that express how a person feels about something, for example, I hate grammar; her manner really irritates me. In functional grammar, these are called 'emotive' processes.

finite (verb): the part of a verb group that is marked for primary tense (present v. past), for example, they are going / they were going, for agreement (with the subject), for example, they are going / I am going, and sometimes for modality, for example, you should be going. It is also the part of the verb group that interacts with the subject to express mood, for example, Did you / I did. Some times the finite is fused with the lexical verb, for example, He went.

finite verb group: a verb group that contains a finite.

given (information): information that is presented as 'to be taken for granted'. The topic of a clause typically, but not always, consists of given information. Compare 'new information'.

Glossary 139

grammarian: a harmless drudge.

head noun: the part of a noun group that is obligatory and that represents the 'thing' being referred to. For example, in the large table in the corner, 'table' is the head noun.

indirect object: the noun group that goes between the verb and the direct object in a ditranstive clause, for example, Let's give her a compass. In action process clauses, the indirect object typically expresses the recipient or the beneficiary of the action.

infinitive: the to + VERB form of a verb, for example, to go. The non-finite VERB (base) form, for example, [1 saw him] go is also sometimes referred to as the 'bare infinitive'.

information focus: new information that is made prominent by receiving the main stress or pitch movement. Often this will be information near the end of a clause in the comment.

intransitive: an intransitive clause is a clause without an object. Verbs can also be classified as intransitive if they normally do not take objects. Compare'transitive'.

lexical verb: the part of a verb group that expresses the meaning of a proc­ess. It is always the last element of the verb group, for example, He has been seen.

middle voice: the voice of clauses such as the glass broke, in which the single participant (the glass) is neither the 'doer' of the action nor the person or thing to which the action is done, but simply a participant that undergoes the action. Compare 'active voice' and 'passive voice'.

modal verb: the part of a verb group that expresses modality, for example, That may be her now; You may leave now; She can play the violin. Also known as 'modal auxiliary'.

modality: the expression of meanings such as probability, obligation and ability.

mood: the grammatical system that expresses the status of a clause in inter­action, for example, She left (declarative mood, typically functions as a state­ment), Did she leave? (interrogative mood, typically functions as a question) and Leave! (imperative mood, typically functions as a command).

new (information): information that is presented as new or 'newsworthy'. New information usually occurs in the comment of a clause.

nominalisation: the expression in noun groups of meanings that in every­day language tend to be expressed in clauses, for example, His entry into the race (instead of he entered the race).

140 Glossary

non-finite verb: a verb form that does not carry information about primary tense (present vs. past) and does not agree with subject. The verb forms to + VERB (infinitive) and Verb + ing (gerund or participle) are always non-finite. The other verb forms may be finite or non-finite.

noun group: a noun together with words that pre-modify it or post-modify (qualify) it, for example, the beautiful grey cat that we saw at the beach.

object: see 'direct object' and 'indirect object'. When the word 'object' alone is used it usually refers to the direct object.

obligation: the expression of how desirable or necessary the speaker or writer feels it is that something should happen or be the case.

passive voice: the voice of clauses with verb groups having a form of BE followed by the VERB-ed/en form (sometimes called the 'past partici­ple'), such as is eaten, was eaten and will be eaten. In passive voice action process clauses, the subject is typically the person or thing directly affected by the action (the 'goal'). The 'doer' of the action (agent) may be expressed as a noun group following the preposition by (The lizard was attacked by the cats) or may be implied but not expressed ('agent-less passives').

past perfect tense: the tense form consisting of the past of HAVE and the VERB-ed/en (ann (past participle) such as had gone, had kicked.

phase: the use of two verbs together, the second of which is always non-finite and represents the process, and the first of which gives additional informa­tion about the process, such as its beginning, continuing or stopping, for example, The girl started crying; He stopped talking.

polarity: negativity or positivity in the verb group, for example, it isn't (neg­ative); it is (positive).

present continuous tense: the tense form consisting of a present tense form of BE followed by the VERB-ing form ('present participle'), for example, I am going.

present progressive tense: another term for present continuous tense.

process: the general term for the kinds of meanings typically expressed by verbs, for example, doing, happening, feeling, perceiving, wanting, think­ing, being and having.

probability: the expression of how likely a speaker or writer thinks it is that something will come about.

quote: the representation of the exact words someone has spoken. Often called 'direct speech'.

Glossary 141

recipient: a participant that receives something. Recipients can occur in the indirect object position, for example, She gave George a book, or later in the clause after the preposition to, for example, she gave a book to George.

reference: referring to people and things in the cotext or wider context using items such as the definite article (the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those) and pronouns.

report: the reporting of the meaning of what someone has said. Often called 'indirect speech'.

rheme: another term for 'comment'.

routinisation: being able to readily use linguistic features without having to pause and think about them.

scaffolding: giving support to learners to help them learn something new.

sensing (process) clauses: clauses that represent processes of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling. In functional grammar, these are called 'percep­tion' or 'perceptive' processes.

simple present tense: the tense forms VERB (base) or VERB + s, for example, They go; he goes. Note that the verb BE has the present tense forms am, are and is.

simple past tense: the tense form represented by VERB + ed. However, many verbs have irregular past tense forms, for example, went, did, saw.

situational context: see context.

subject: the 'pivot' of the proposition or argument of a clause. It is the clause element that interacts with the finite verb to express mood, for example, Did they; Tlli:x-did. In active voice action process clauses, the subject typically represents the 'doer' of the action.

tenor: the relationship between writers and readers, or speakers and hearers as expressed or construed in the language they use.

text: 'text' can refer to any stretch of spoken or written language. 'A text', however, is a stretch of text that 'hangs together' as a coherent unit.

textual meaning: meaning related to the ways language is organised to be coherent in respect to its context.

theme: the 'jumping off point', or 'frame' for the message of a clause. In functional grammar, the theme is analysed as extending from the beginning of a clause up to and including its first experiential constituent, that is, the first representation of a participant, process or circumstance, for example, However. luckily. the house was empty.

142 Glossary

topic: a term often used with the same meaning as 'theme' (see above). However, strictly speaking a topic is only the first experiential element of a clause (Le. the first participant, process or circumstance) and does not include conjunctions like however or comments like luckily that may precede it.

transitive: a transitive clause is a clause that contains at least one object. Verbs can also be classified as transitive if they normally take an object. Compare'intransitive'.

wanting (process) clauses: clauses that represent processes like wanting, wishing desiring and hoping. In functional grammar, these are called 'de sid­erative' processes.

References

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B. (2003) 'Ten Questions about Language Awareness', ELT Journal 57 (3): 251-9.

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Christie, F. (2005) Language Education in the Primary Years. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

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Coffin, c., Donohue, J. and North, S. (2009) Exploring English Grammar: From Formal to Functional. London: Routledge.

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Language Use through Grammar-Consciousness Raising Tasks', TESOL Quarterly 28: 323-5l.

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Index

adjuncts, 39, 41, 42 placement of, 37-38

agency, 12 articles,S, 29, 52

beneficiary, 100-101, 107

clauses ditransitive, 100 intransitive, 12

coherence, 31 combining procedures, 109-131 comment (see rheme) comparing, 8, 11-27, 133 compound sentences, 53, 56 comprehensible input, 4 context, 1-2 cotext, 2, 3 curriculum development, 8

elaborating, 8, 73-89, 109, 134 ellipsis, 45-46, 49, S3 ergative verbs, 12-13,14, 17n12 exploring

exploration questions, 4

gap filling, 43-58, 109, 133-134 gerunds (see verbs, non-finite), 65 grammar teaching, 9, 64

traditional approaches, 8

infinitives (see verbs, non-finite) bare, 84

information background, 74-75 focus, 38 given and new, 8, 100 organization of (see thematic

organisation) prominence, 30

intonation, 3 involvement, 18

meaning textual, 3

modality obligation, 17-18 probability, 17-18

narrative, 74-75, 76 nominalisation, 123-124, 125 noticing, 4, 6 noun groups, 3, 123, 129

objects direct, 100 indirect, 100, 102

obligation strength of, 18

phase (see verbs, phase) polarity (see verbs, polarity) possessives, 54 practicing, 6-7 prepositional phrases, 18, 31, 37 prepositions, 18, 31, 42 probability, 17-18,27,45, 123 process types

being (relational), 51 doing and happening (action/

material), 61 feeling (emotive), 61 sensing (perceptive), 61, 84, 85 wanting (desiderative), 65, 66

pronouns,S, 26, 50, 52-53

quoting, 110, 111, 119, 122nl

recipient, 100, 101 reconstructing, 59-71, 109, 124 reference

back-pointing, 52, 53 with definite article (the), 52 with pronouns, 52

reporting, 110, 111, 122n1 rheme, 31, 36n1 routinisation, 46 rules

problems with,S, 11 ()

145

146 Index

scaffolding, 4, 10 sequencing, 29-42 situational context (see context) stress (see intonation) subjects, 45 Systemic Functional Linguistics, 7

tenor, 11 tense

and process type, 8, 61, 75 past continuous (progressive), 74,

75 past perfect, 74, 75 present continuous (progressive),

60-61 simple past, 75, 82 simple present, 60, 61

text flow, 3, 31

texts adapting, 9, 17, 32, 37, 58, 89, 99 authentic, 9 finding and preparing, 9

textual meaning, 3 thematic organisation, 30-31 theme, 36n1 topic (see theme) transforming, 91-107, 109, 135

verbs (see also process types) ergative (see ergative verbs) finite, 45 intransitive (see clauses, intransitive) lexical, 45 modal (see modality) non-finite, 64, 65 number, 12, 50 person, 45 phase, 65, 66 polarity, 45, 50 tense, 50 (see also tense)

vocabulary, 9, 111 voice

active, 17, 91, 92-93 middle, 12 passive,S, 12, 17,26,92-93