Anatomy

Physiology

Structure

Function

These complement each other

Anatomy

• Gross- what you see without the assistance of magnification

• Microscopic- the smaller stuff– Cytology: studying cells– Histology: studying tissues

Embryology: developmental changes occurring prior to birth

Essentials functions for Life

Boundaries

Movement

Responsiveness

Digestion

Metabolism

Excretion

Reproduction

Growth

Review

1. Distinguish between anatomy and Physiology

2. Describe how A & P are complementary

3. Describe 8 essential functions within living organisms

Work at seeing the body systems as integrated (they are!)

Figure 1.2

Basics for survival

Nutrients

Oxygen

Water

Regular temperature

Atmospheric pressure

p. 8

Example: thermostat on a furnace.Low temperature turns on the furnace.Furnace produces a product (heat)Heat turns off the stimulus (the thermostat)Absence of stimulus turns off the furnaceTemperature fallsAt critical temperature, stimulus resumes (thermostat turns

back on)

A BNegative feedback

Example in the body: (too hot)Body temperature rises (with exercise, outside

temperature) Perspiration/moisture on skin leads to dissipation of

heat, lowering body temperature.

(too cold)Body temperature falls below critical point signal

from brain causes rapid contraction/relaxation (shivering). As a byproduct of the energy use, heat is generated, resulting in elevated body temperatureSignal to shiver decreases.

Positive feedback

•Not about short-term homeostasis•About making a change•A condition turns on a response in the body, the response promotes the original condition•These are rare in the body

A BPositive feedback

Review

1. Describe homeostasis

2. Describe a positive feedback system within the body

3. Describe a negative feedback system within the body

4. Describe how positive and negative feedback systems impact homeostasis

Directional terms to know

Proximal Distal

Superior Inferior

Cranial (cephalad) Caudal

Superficial Deep

Dorsal Ventral

Posterior Anterior

Slicing the body different ways allows us to see different sides of structures. We need to recognize what view we are seeing of a structure

Terms to know: SagittalMidsagittal (median)TransverseFrontal

Body Cavities

Know 2 posterior and contents

Know 2 (3) anterior and contents

Where are the serous membranes? (Name 3, along with their locations)

What is the function of these membranes

See p.17

Abdominal divisions

4 quadrants- know names, demarcations and some contents

9 regions- know demarcations, names and contents

Other Cavities

• Oral/Digestive

• Nasal

• Orbital

• Middle Ear

• Synovial

• See p. 20

Review

1. (be sure you know body region names and directional terms)

2. Name 2 posterior cavities, describe contents and linings

3. Name 3 anterior cavities, describe contents and linings

4. Name 3 locations of serous membranes. Describe the importance of serous membranes in these locations

Chapter 2

Chemical Level of Organization

Energy

• Is either:– kinetic (in action/doing)

Or

-- potential (stored)

These forms can be interconverted

More energy• Chemical : energy stored in chemical

bonds– Make ATP your friend!

• Electrical: movement of charged particles– Nerve and muscle depolarization

More energy• Mechanical

– Directly moving matter

• Radiant

– Heat, UV, radio, X-Ray

Matter: occupies space, has mass

: composed of elements

:smallest “bit” of an element is an atom

Review

1. Contrast matter and energy

2. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy

Elements

• Defined by the number of protons

The smallest bit of an element is an atom

Protons: positive charge

: in nucleus of atom: number = elements “atomic number”

Elements

The smallest bit of an element is an atom

•A neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons

•The number of electrons is a determinant of how the atom behaves/interacts with other elements

Atoms contain 3 main types of smaller particles

Neutrons: Neutral charge : in nucleus with protons

See p. 27

Atoms contain 3 main types of smaller particles

Electrons: Tiny :(1/836th the mass of a proton)

: negatively charged: “hover” or “orbit” around nucleus

See p. 27

Change the # of protons = different element

Change the number of electrons = ion+ charge = cation- charge = anion

Change the number of neutrons= different isotope

Combining atoms

• 2 or more atoms together are a molecule

• 2 or more atoms of different elements are together a compound

• The properties of a compound may be quite different from the properties of the component elements.

Electrons are arranged in “shells” around the nucleus. These shells are stable when they are completely filled.

The innermost shell is full when 2 electrons are present. The next shell out is full when it contains 8 electrons.

Atoms may link with each other in such a way as to “share” electrons, to fill or “empty” a shell, thereby becoming more stable

More than one atom linked is a molecule. Molecules formed by more than one element are “compounds”

In ionic bonds, one atom surrenders an electron, another picks up the electron, both atoms become more stable and oppositely charged as a result. There is an attraction between these ions that are oppositely charged.

In covalent bonds the electrons of atom’s outer shell (the valence shell) are shared, forming a molecule.

Sometimes the electrons are equally shared and the molecules are “non-polar”.

If one atom has the “shared” electrons more than another atom, the molecule may be “polar”

See pgs 33, 34 in text

Atoms can combine to “share” electrons. They share electronsof the valence shell, and are so called “covalent” bonds.

Neutron no charge

Proton (+) charge

Electron (-) charge

Valence shell

Neutron no charge

Proton (+) charge

Electron (-) charge

The “sharing” is not alwaysequal- the “shared” electrons may spend more time around one of the atoms than the other(s). Where the electron’s spend more time is relatively more negative- the other region relatively positive. In this way, we have a “polar” molecule. (or “dipole”)

Hydrogen bonds:Remember covalent bonds---? Sometimes the

electrons are shared unequally?

When hydrogen bonds covalently with another atom, it gets the electron less often, so develops a slight positive charge, while the other atom takes on a slight negative charge.

The hydrogens with their slight positive bonds are attracted/attract the other atom in different molecules which are slightly negative.

This hydrogen bonding is responsible for surface tension in water.- a fairly weak bond

See p. 37in text

Isotopes: Isotopes are formed by the variation in numbers of

neutrons in an atom.

Review

1. What 3 particles were discussed as comprising atoms? Describe their location within the atom.

2. Describe the effects on the atom of varying the number of each of the 3 particles.

3. Describe the difference between covalent and ionic bonds, with respect to the behavior of electrons.

Mixtures

• Solutions

• Colloids

• Suspensions

Solutions

• Clear

• light passes through

• Small particles

Colloids

• Mixtures may be cloudy

• Larger particle size

• Particles may be dissimilar– (example: polar/non-polar--- mayonnaise)

Suspensions

• Solutes may tend to settle

• Different types of particles, which may be larger, also.

• Mixtures don’t involve change of the constituents– the components are physically mixed but are not interacting

• Mixtures can be separated into their components

Energy: the capacity to do work, make change or movement

comes in a variety of flavors.

Potential energy is “stored” energy: a compressed spring, stretched rubber band, or boulder raised to the top of a hill, or in chemical bonds

Potential energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. It is the released potential energy

Kinetic energy- can do work

Kinetic energy

Heat is often released as a result of conversion from potential to kinetic energy:

Think: shivering is the working of muscles quickly– this warms you up.

Reactions:3 types are discussed:

Decomposition: AB A + B(catabolism)

Synthesis: A+B AB(anabolism)

Exchange AB+CD AD+ BC

See p. 37

Note that many (tho’ not all) times, reactions are reversible- the arrows run both directions

Type of reactions: special case

• Oxidation-reduction– The way we break down food– Electrons are transferred between participants

in the reaction– The donor of the electrons is said to be

“oxidized”– The recipient of the electrons is said to be

“reduced”

Reactions- things that speed them up

• Increasing temperature

• Increasing concentration of reagents

• Decreasing particle size (they move faster)

• Enzymes (catalysts): something participating in the reaction-speeding it up- but not changed by it

Review

1. Describe 3 outcomes of chemical reactions in terms of the relationship of reagents to products.

2. Describe several variables that impact the rate of reactions.

3. What is meant by an “oxidation” reaction?

Inorganic compounds

• CO2 ,O2

• H2O

• Some Acids, Bases

• Salts

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates• Fats• Proteins• Nucleic acids

Inorganic compounds

• CO2 ,O2

• H2O

• Some Acids, Bases

• Salts

Water

– Solvent for polar compounds– Buffers heat change (high heat capacity)

• Also explains why sweating helps to cool us– a lot of energy is required to evaporate the sweat

– Reagent (is one of the components of a reaction)

– Cushion- around the brain, in intervertebral disks

pH: a measure of the acid/base picture of an environment.

An acid is likely to release hydrogen ions (or “protons”) The more H+ released = stronger acid

A base is able to accept hydrogen ions, thereby removing them from solution. Sometimes bases are described as OH- donors.

A buffer is something that resists changes in the pH of a solution by absorbing H+ or OH-

See text pg 34,35

pH

Salts

• Held together by ionic bonds

• Separates in water to form electrolytes--- these can conduct a current

Examples: -Carbohydrates, including polysaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, sugar, glycogen

-Lipids, including fats, waxes, oils, fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids

-Proteins: many functions in the body

-Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

Organic compounds contain much carbon and hydrogen and usually some oxygen

A monosaccharide- 3 ways of drawing it

Monosaccharides are linked together. 2 form a disaccharide, “several” form an oligosaccharide and “many” form a polysaccharide

Glycogen: The body’s storage form of sugar. (a polysaccharide)

-kept in the liver and muscle

-used for immediate energy demands (anaerobic)

-released from the liver to raise falling blood sugar levels

Organic compounds (continued)Example: Lipids (fats , oils, waxes

Triglyceride

Phospholipid

Lipids are used in the body for:- fuel (about twice the energy/gram as

sugar)

-forms much of the membrane of cells

-includes triglycerides-phospholipids-steroids

- sex hormones-Vitamin D

-cholesterol-eicosanoids

Steroids (think cholesterol, as a starting point)

-in cell membranes and are used to make many hormones

Cholesterol

• Eicosanoids-– Prostaglandins– Leukotrienes

– Hormone like substances, that tend to act locally

Proteins: recognizable by the presence of nitrogen, (N) in addition to the C,O,H. They are made up of amino acids.

*what’s an enzyme do?

Uses in the body:structure, movement (muscle contraction), enzymes*, communication (as some hormones), defense (as antibodies-- made by white blood cells.)

Review

1. What are defining features of organic compounds in the body?

2. Name 4 types of organic compounds that make up the major portion of body cells

3. List several types of compounds that would be considered carbohydrates… lipids

4. What are the building block of proteins?

Protein shapes

• Primary: from the linkage of amino acids

• Secondary: hydrogen bonds within the molecule leads to shape effects

• Tertiary: covalent and hydrogen bonds within the molecule further results in more shape change

• Quarternary: joining other formed molecules

Protein shape and function…

• When temperature and pH change outside a particular range, the protein shape and (therefore) function changes. This is called “denaturation”

Enzymes make reactions happen more easily, by lowering the amount of energy required for the reaction.

Some enzymes require cofactors: vitamins and minerals often work this way

Enzymes give a chemical/molecular advantage to a reaction, speeding it up. (see p. 54 in text)

Nucleic acids: like proteins, contain nitrogen, but also phosphorus (P)

DNA- (deoxyribonucleic acid)-- makes up the information determining inherited characteristics. (our genes)

-- regulates body function by controlling the production of protein’s (like enzymes, hormones) and cell functionsRNA-(Ribonucleic acid)- involved in protein synthesis, under “direction” of DNA

Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides (See structure and arrangements on p. 54-57)

“High energy compounds”

Remember potential energy, stored in chemical bonds?

The energy for cellular functions in the body is obtained by breaking bonds of certain chemicals containing phosphate bonds, as in (most notably) ATP

See p. 55