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RE‐STORYINGANDVISUALIZINGTHECHANGINGENTREPRENEURIALIDENTITIES

OFBILLGATESANDRICHARDBRANSON

RobertSmithandDavidBoje–acceptedCultureandOrganizationJournalMarch112010

ABSTRACT

Thestorytellingintextualandvisualre‐constructionsofBillGatesandRichardBransonbytheirorganizationsproduceentrepreneurialidentitiesboundintoparticularsocialpower‐knowledgerelations.Ourpurposeistoexaminehowtheseorganizations,andtheircritics,mobilizestorytellinginactsofre‐storying(enlivening)orre‐narrating(brandingamonologic)practicesusingInternettechnologiestoinviteviewerstoframetheworldofentrepreneurship.WeusevisualdiscourseandstorytellingmethodstoanalyzehowMicrosoftandVirginGroupusevariouskindsofentrepreneurialimagesandtextualnarrativestore‐narrateandproduceparticularbrandsofcapitalism.Theseorganizations’scopticregimesofrepresentationarecontestedincounter‐visualizingandcounterstorypracticesofexternalstakeholders.Wesuggestthattheimageandtextualpracticesofstorytellinghavechangedasbothentrepreneursentercourtphilanthropicandsocialentrepreneuridentitymarkers.Ourcontributiontoentrepreneurialidentityistoapplydoubleandmultiplenarrations,theappropriationofanother’snarrativewords(orimages)intoanother’snarrative,andrelatesuchstorytellingmovestovisuality.

KEYWORDS

EntrepreneurialIdentity;EntrepreneurialLeadership;Microsoft;VirginGroup;RichardBranson;BillGates;Narrative;Restorying.

INTRODUCTION

Weconsiderentrepreneurialidentitytobeacombinationofindividualandorganizational

symbolismandstartfromthepointthatstorytellingincludingvisualconstructionsof

entrepreneursandtheirorganizationsproduceentrepreneurialidentitiesboundedbyparticular

socialpower‐knowledgerelations.Thetwomostfamousandvisuallyiconicentrepreneursinthe

Westernworld‐BillGatesandSirRichardBranson‐havebeenhighlysuccessfulincraftingand

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subsequentlyre‐inventingtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesovertheyears.TheidentitiesofGates

andBransonasentrepreneurialareseldomcalledintoquestion.However,thelatestadaptation

oftheirentrepreneurialidentityistheirattemptstorepositionthemselveswithinthedomainof

socialentrepreneurshipandphilanthropy.Inthispaperwethereforestudyhowthisidentity

constructionisachievedthroughvisualityandnarrativepractices.Inthisrespectitissignificant

thatSwedberg(2006)extendsSchumpeter’seconomictheoryofentrepreneurshipintothe

developingspheretosocialentrepreneurship.Forexample,Schumpeter’s(1942:81‐86)ideaof

creativedestructionisthattheoldeconomicstructureisdestroyedfromwithinincreatinga

newone.Changespromptedfromoutsidethesphereareconsideredtobeadaptation.

Schumpeterianscholarshavebeenexploringentrepreneurshipascreativedestruction(or

development),ratherthanadaptationinrecentEnglishtranslationsfromSchumpeter’s1911

ThoeriederwirtschaftlichenEntwicklung(2002,2003).ForSchumpeterdevelopmentand

adaptationhavenothingincommon(Swedberg,2006:24)becausedevelopmentarisesfrom

withineconomiclife(Schumpeter,2002:405)whileadaptationisaresponsetoforcesoutside

theeconomy(Schumpeter,2002:406).

ThistensionliesattheheartofthisstudyinrelationtotheattemptsofBransonand

Gatesseekingtore‐storyorinsomecasesre‐narratetheirentrepreneurialidentities.Are‐

storiedidentitybreaksoutofadominantnarrative(White&Epson,1990).Tore‐narrateisto

tetherindifferencesinlivingstoryplurality,intoafewbrandedelementsofidentity.

ThisdistinctionhasrelevancetoouranalysisofbothGatesandBransonbecauseGates

doesnotwanttochangeMicrosoftandhissoftwarechangesoverthelastdecadehavebeen

withingivenlimits.Heisnotreallyswitchingfromonetypeofsoftwaretoanother.Wesee

adaptation,butnothingradicallynew.Gatesiswedtotheold,anddoesnotmakechanges

unlesssomethinghappensoutside,suchastheemergenceofInternetwebbrowsers.Gates

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exhibitsstaticbehavior,whilstBransonismoreapttodowhatisunfamiliartohimselfandto

VirginGroup.Heisaclassicexampleofaperson“swimmingagainstthestream”(Schumpeter,

1911:121).Gatesadaptsbyswimmingwiththestream,andBransonheroicallydevelops

venturesagainstit.Gatesreliesmoreonrationalchoicewithinlimitsofrationalbehavior,but

Bransonisknowntorelyonintuition,tojumpinandtakerisks.Ifentrepreneurshipismore

aboutdevelopment(creativedestruction)thanadaptation,thenwemightquestionwhether

Gates,afterhisinitialentryintosoftwaredesign,stillqualifiesasadevelopmentalentrepreneur

becauseheisnotmakingnewcombinationsanymore.However,bearinmindthefollowing

quote:‐

“Ourassumptionisthathewhomakesnewcombinationsisanentrepreneur”(Schumpeter,1911:172,ascitedinSwedberg,2006:28).

Bransonbrandsanewcombinationoruseofanexistinggood,openingupnewmarkets.Both

GatesandBransonhaveestablishedlargecorporations,andmadebillionsofdollars.Butitis

Bransonwhocontinuouslyactstobreaktheoldmould,andenvisionsdoingthingsdifferently.

Gatesseemstorepeatorappropriatewhathasalreadybeendone,andthendefenditagainst

newalternatives.

ItisinterestingtowatchthewaysinwhichbothGatesandBransonaremovinginto

socialentrepreneurship.Gates’CreativeCapitalismresurrectsAdamSmithasjustificationfor

thewealthyhelpingthepooritbeingimpliedthatmakingMicrosofttechnologyavailabletothe

poorinAfricawillautomaticallyleadtoprogress.ButasSwedberg(2006:30)pointsout,

Schumpeterdoesnotagreethattheeconomywillgrowbyitselfandinsistsentrepreneurial

changeismoredynamic.Thesocialentrepreneurthendoesnotmerelyrepeatwhathasalready

beendone.Branson,ontheotherhand,entersGaiaCapitalism,withitsmoredynamic

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entrepreneurialapproach.Bransonchosetheterm"GaiaCapitalism"torefertotheideological

intentionsoftheVirginBusinessGroup.ThewordGaiaorGaea,isderivedfromancientGreek

mythologyandmeansearthgoddess.GaiawasthemotherofCronusofthemythological

Titans.GaiaCapitalismseekstosynthesisCapitalismasaprivateenterprisesystemwithbeing

eco‐friendly.TheGaiathesiswasfirstproposedbyJamesLovelock(Lovelock,2001)tointegrate

thephysicalcomponentsofthebiosphere.Tocapturethischangingnuancedentrepreneurial

identityweconductcriticaldiscourseanalysisinconjunctionwithasemioticanalysisofimages

ofBransonandGatesfromtheirrespectivecompanywebsitesandcontrastthesetocartoon

imageslocatedontheinternet.Thisarticlethereforeembodiesasemioticanalysisofhowboth

fashiontheirentrepreneurialidentityquitedifferentlyastheyrepositionthemselvesinthenew

hagiographicnarrativeofsocialentrepreneurship.

Weconsiderthatthemaincontributionofthepaperliesinthedomainofconceptual

analysis.However,asisoftenthecasethereareempiricalimplicationstoobecauseitis

notoriouslydifficulttoseparateconceptualandempiricalcontributions.Theempirical

implicationsareimplicitinthatinexpandingtheuseofsemioticanalysisasalegitimatedataset

forempiricalanalysiswemakealimitedcontributionintermsofempiricism.Weillustratethis

reconceptualisationbymeansoftheimagesofGatesandBransonwhichwepresent.Weuse

toolsadoptedfromBakhtin(1981)tounderstandhowentrepreneurialidentities(asa

combinationofindividualandorganizationalsymbolism)areconstructedbyvisualappearances.

WeillustratethissymbolismwithdifferentexamplesofGatesandBranson.

Theremainderofthearticleisstructuredinsixsections.Wefirstdiscusschanging

entrepreneurialidentitiesanddiscourses.Thereafter,wereviewvisualandstorytellinganalysis

identifyingsomeneglectedlinksbetweenvisualityandstorytelling.Wethenintroducereaders

toBakhtin’s(1981)discoursetheoryofinternalanexternaldialogisms.Wethendiscussissuesof

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methodologybeforeexploringauthorizedcaricaturesofGates&Bransoninimagesand

narrativesproducedbyMicrosoftandVirginGroup.Finally,weexaminetheimplicationsofthis

studyforresearchandpracticeofentrepreneurialidentity.

CHANGINGENTREPRENEURIALIDENTITIESANDDISCOURSES

Weseektoexplorethedisplacementbetweenenterpriseandequalitydiscoursebyfocusingon

differencesinentrepreneurialidentityconstruction.Discourseherereferstoimages,

storytelling,metaphorsandtropesthattogetherproduceaparticularversionoftheworld

(Foucault,1972;Laclau&Mouffe,1985).Towardsthisend,welookatimagesandstoriesofthe

huntforbillionaireentrepreneurstosaveAfricaorsavetheEarth.Thesearebutsomeofthe

multipleimagesandstoriesavailabletonarrateentrepreneurialidentity.Ahl(2002)andOgbor

(2000)demonstratethat‘white,‘male’andentrepreneurseemtocohereindiscursivepractices

encouragingustotakeacloserlookatthe“identitywork”(Svenningsson&Alvesson,2003:

1165)ofGatesandBranson,aswellastheirenterprises,MicrosoftandVirginGroup.Identity

workinvolvesforming,repairing,maintaining,andstrengtheningorrevisingtheself(Berglund,

2006:237).Discourseandidentityconstruction(throughvisualnarration)arerelatedinthat

storytelling(includingnarrative)isasubdomainofdiscourse.Entrepreneurialidentityis

accomplishedinnarrativere‐presentationstotheworld.Giventhatweviewdiscourseas

referringtodomainsincludingstorytelling,imagesmetaphorsandtropes,thattogetherproduce

aparticularversionoftheworld,thereappearstobeanobviousleaningtowardsthelinguistic.

Thusinseekingtore‐storyanestablishednarrativeidentityitisimportanttobeginwithother

aspectsofdiscourse,toassociationstometaphors,tropesandimages.Ifthesearealigneditis

likelythatthevisualelementofthenarratedidentitywillcorrespond.

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Berglund(2006)arguesthatenterprisediscoursebeingrootedineconomicrationalityof

largecompanies,framesentrepreneurshipdifferentlythantheequalitydiscoursewhereall

inhabitantsofasphereorregionareseenasentrepreneurs.Thisdictatesthatinenterprise

discourse,(social)entrepreneursarenotsoughtlocallyoramongtheranksforthepoor.Thereis

apresumptionthatheroic‐CEOsandtheirenterprisesdominateentrepreneurship.In

patriarchicalculture,itisviaactionthatsubjectsaredefinedasentrepreneurs,perceivedasrisk‐

takers,withthecreativeimaginationnecessaryforradicalchange.“Thecreaturetobesoughtis

clearlyamanwhoisstrong‐willed,determined,persistent,resolute,detachedandself‐

centered”(Berglund,2006:239).

Organizationsareincreasinglydefiningthemselvesandtheirleadersthroughvisuality

practicesviatheInternetinwaysthatconstructspecialpowerrelationswithothergroups.Our

focusisonthekindsofpracticesthatframeentrepreneurialidentityalongvariousformsof

capitalism.ThereisacentralityofvisualincontemporaryWesternsociallife(Berger,1972;Jay,

1993).Organizationsarebeginningtoturnvisualityintoascopticregimeorscopicregime

(Haraway,1991;Rose,2007)conflatingseeingandknowingwithpower.Suchregimesoperate

viathedeliberateintroductionofmockery.

Theproliferationofstorytelling,includingtextualandvisualizationtechnologies,suchas

theInternet,diffusesscopticregimesthroughoutlatemoderncapitalism.Websitesare

becomingincreasinglymultimodalwithvisualsaccompaniedbynarrativestodirect(orcontrol)

howviewersmakesenseinintendedways.Individualscannowbrowsethenetanddownload

imagesofcelebrityentrepreneursofinteresttotheminamannerwhichtheycouldnothave

donetwentyyearsago.Internetwebsitessuchas‘GoogleImages’allowustobrowseimages

fromavarietyof[oftendubious]sourcesinjuxta‐positiontoeachotheractingasmagnifyingloci

fortheimagespresentedtherein.Asmanyoftheseareoftencaricaturesoraresatiricalin

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naturesuchsiteshavehugepotentialtoinfluencehowthepublicperceiveindividual

entrepreneurs.Andindeed,theentrepreneurial‐images,aswellasstorytellingpractices,are

becomingsitesofresistance(Armstrong,1996:28).

WetakeaBakhtiniandialogicalapproachtostorytelling,differentiatingcontrol

narrativesthataremonologic,frommoredialogicmanneroflivingstoriesandantenarratives,in

ordertoshowtheinteractivityasforceandcounterforce.Bakhtin(1973:12),forexamplesays,

“Narrativegenresarealwaysenclosedinasolidandunshakablemonologicalframework.”

Derrida(1979:94)alsoseesnarrativeashegemonic.Czarniawska(2004)pointsoutthepositive

aspectsofnarrativepetrification,inaccomplishingthecohesionforstrongcorporateculture.

ThereisforBakhtin,a“Dialogicalmannerofstory”(1981:60).Derrida(1979:99‐100),for

example,treatsstorymoreintermsoftheirreflexivitywebofstorytootherstories.

Antenarrativeisdefinedasa‘before’‐narrative,andasaprospective‘bet’shapingthefuture

(Boje,2001).Toourknowledge,adialogizedapproachtostorytelling,astriadicofmultiple

retrospectivenarrations,websoflivingstories,andprospectiveantenarratinghasnotbeen

developedeitherinorganizationnarrativestudies(Boje,2001,2008;Czarniawska,1997,2004;

Gabriel,2000,2004),orinentrepreneurshipstudies.Herewelookatre‐storyingand–re‐

narrating,asakindofantenarrativeexchangeprocessinwhichnarrative(petrification)is

undonetoallowtransformationofthestablenarrative.Inre‐narrating,dialogiclivingstory

pluralityordifferences,becometemperedintomoremonologicnarrative.

Inrelationtoentrepreneurship,scopticregimeisthestudyofhowseveralsortsof

conflictingentrepreneurialidentitiesvieforpublicattentionascapitalistrolemodels.Inthecase

ofGatesandBranson,exploitativeidentitiesofprofit‐maximizingentrepreneurialinitiative

comeintoconflictwiththeirrecentturntosocialentrepreneurshipandtheiractivepromotion

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ofsocialentrepreneurship.Consumersareinvitedtore‐imagineGatesandBransonthroughthe

hagiographicfogofsocialentrepreneurship.

BillionaireGatesandBransonincallingforarevisionofcapitalismseektochangetheir

identityandinstitutionstofitanewbrandofemergingsocialentrepreneurialcapitalism.Both

areventuresomeprotagonistsmovingtheplotofsocialentrepreneurshipforward.Gatesand

Bransonaretransformingtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesfromthatofthetraditionalcapitalist

entrepreneurtosocialentrepreneurs.Gatesistheundisputedsoftwarebaron,andBransonthe

acknowledgedbrandedventurebaron.Whatisinterestingisthetransitionfrom

“entrepreneurialfreemarketcapitalism”toGates’“CreativeCapitalismandBranson’s‘Gaia

Capitalism.”Freemarketentrepreneurialcapitalismcelebratestheindividualentrepreneur‐

hero,discountstheroleofgovernment,andtreatsbusinesscompetitionastheanswertoall

life’sproblems.

HowmuchofGatesandBranson’schangeofheartisimagemanagementandhowmuch

isaheartfeltchangeofattitude?Entrepreneurialidentity,forexample,isthoughttobea

constructthatindividualsmanageandchangeintransitionsinorganizingfacedbyorganizations

(Ibarra,2003;Ashforth,2001;Louis,1980;Stebbens,1970).Someapproachesequate

entrepreneurshipwiththephenomenonofnewventurecreation(Gartner1985)and

organizationbuilding(Bird,1989).Microsofthasfendedoffattemptstobreakupits

monopolisticgriponthesoftwareindustry,andiscopingwithGatesmovefromfull‐timeCEO,

andheandhiswifedivertingbillionsformMicrosoftandfamilyfortunesintotheirphilanthropic

foundation.Branson’sgreeninitiativecouldsaveVirginAtlanticmoneyinfuelcosts,andbea

publicrelationswindfall.

Wesensethatentrepreneurialimagesundertheculturallogicoflatemoderncapitalism

maybebecomingmoreephemeral,fluid,fleeting,andsuperficialwiththeadventofInternet

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technologies.Harvey(1989)andJameson(1984),forexample,arguethatlatestagesoflate

postmoderncapitalismarerootedinimageproduction.Ifso,thencorporations,suchas

MicrosoftandVirginGrouparebecomingimplicatedinconstructingentrepreneurialidentity

differentlyusingmorefluid,ephemeralimages.Theseentrepreneurialimagesofpostmodern

capitalismproduceidentitiesthatinfluencethesocial.

Wearguethatacorporatedoublenarrationoccurswherebyauthorial‐intentionis

achievedthroughanother’scitednarration.Forexample,ataninstitutionallevel,weexpect

thatmosttimeswhenacelebrityorretiredexecutivebehiredasaspokesperson,their

narrations,narratetheidealsandideologyofthecorporateteamwritingtheirscripts.1

Previousstudiesofentrepreneurialidentityinitiallyfocusedonhowheroic‐

entrepreneursboreriskandmanageduncertainty(Brockhaus,1982).Thereishoweverreason

toquestionthepopularconceptionofheroic‐entrepreneur.Forexample,Schumpeter(1942)

rejectedentrepreneurial‐heroismasanexplanationoforganizationalsuccess,preferringto

locate‘creativedestruction’inbroaderpoliticaleconomy,suchasdifferencesbetween

capitalismandsocialism.Whilethereis‘entrepreneurship’increativedestruction,itisthe‘firm

andthesociety,’nottheentrepreneur‐CEOdoingthis.Schumpeter’snarrativeisthe“capitalistic

civilizationisrationalistic,‘andanti‐heroic’”(Schumpeter,1942:127).Habitsofentrepreneurial

thought,forSchumpeter,arerationalizedintosocioeconomicinfrastructure.Thissuggeststhata

comparisonofBillGatesandRichardBransonwouldbeinstructive.Theformerismorethe

rationalisticcreativedestructorofcomputingandsoftware,whilethelaterismoreofthe

heroic‐entrepreneurrisktaker.Howsocioeconomicandpoliticalpracticesusedby

organizationsthatsurroundhowentrepreneurial‐imagesareseenandusedhasyettobe

1 TherearetimeswhentheretiredCEObadmouthsthecorporationanditsproduct;thisoccurredinthecaseofCol.Sanderswhodidnotappreciatethewaythenewownersinterpretedqualityandservice.

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researched.Herewearemoreconcernedwithhowimagesandassociatednarrative‐texts

constructentrepreneurshipandentrepreneurialidentities.

Previousstudieshavenotlookedatdiscourseornarrativeinrelationtovisuality.Weare

particularlyconcernedwithhowentrepreneurial‐imagespositionthespectator(viewer)in

relationtocertainwaysofseeingandknowingontheInternet.White‐maleentrepreneurs(e.g.

Gates&Branson)areoftenrepresentedasmoreactive,andingeniousthannon‐White,non‐

maleentrepreneurs.Imagesarecompositionallydesignedusingstrategiesofcontent,color,and

spatialorganization,alongwithsound,movingimagestoattractviewerstoparticularwaysof

viewingentrepreneurs.Thereactionexpected:“Ohhowextraordinaryandrichlymarvelousis

theWhite‐maleentrepreneur!”Ourapproachistoidentifythevisualandstorytellingaspectsof

theirrespectiveentrepreneurialidentity.

VISUALITYANDSTORYTELLING

Webimagesoftentimesinviteacertainviewerwayofappreciative‐seeingandknowing

organizationsandtheirleaders.Webtechnologiesacttodetermineentrepreneurial‐images’

form,meaning,andaudience‐effectsmakesacontributiontodiscoursestudies.Discourse

analysis(DA)isdefinedas“thestudyofhowmeaningsareproduced,andofwhichmeanings

prevailinsociety”(Iedema,2008:389).

WeadoptCriticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)suchasintheworkofFairclough(1992b)and

Rose(2007).CDAisthestudyofcriticaltextual,language,andsocioculturaldiscoursepractices.

Rose(2007)andHaraway(1991)arguethatcriticalscholarsmustalsoconsidertheirownways

oflookingatimages.Haraway(1991:190)suggests,“wemightbecomeanswerableforwhatwe

learnhowtosee.”Thisraisesquestionsofcriticaldiscourseanalysts’ownreflexivity.Wenotice

thatinRose’streatmentofCDAasacriticalvisualmethod,thereisnomentionofnarrativein

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relationtovisuality.However,Rose’s(2007)approachtodiscourseanalysisoffoursitesof

visuality(production,composition‐design,social,andauthorial),webelievecanbeextendedto

storytelling,inparticularthekindsofnarrativeaspectsofimages.Moreover,itissignificantthat

caricaturesandcartoonsareimportantvehiclesinthetransmissionofculturalvaluesbecause

theyremovetheelementofauthorialcontrolawayfromtheindividualentrepreneurandthe

organization.

WesuggestthatCDAcanbenefitfromnarrativeapproachesincorporatingcriticalvisual

methods.Internetisthesiteofproducingentrepreneurialnarrativesthroughimages.Internet

technologiesofcompositional‐designofentrepreneurialimagesarereinforcedinandresonate

withaccompanyingtextualnarratives.Thesocialprocessesofwhoisandisnotanentrepreneur

areacombinationofimageandnarrative‐textpractices.ForRose,eachofthesethreesites

reverberatesinthefourthsite,theauthorial.

SeveralcriticalvisualissuesandquestionsproblematizeCDAandimpingeuponour

study.Dovisualrepresentationsofentrepreneurshavetheirowneffects?Orarevisual‐

entrepreneurialeffectsentirelyreducibletocontext?Ifwethinkcriticallyaboutthesocial

categoriesofimagesofentrepreneurship,howarevarioussocialconflictsnegotiatedtoproduce

socialsubjects?Forexample,howarecertainraces,ethnicgroups,socialclasses,nationalities,

andgendersdepictedinentrepreneurialimages?RolandBarthessupportstheideathatthe

cameracapturesimagesofwhatwasreallythere,andhowthingsreallyare.Rose(2007)argues

thattruthfulnessofphotosisconstructed,andthatpeopleinimagescanbeposed.Thereforean

organization’swebimagesarecompositionallydesignedtobeaformofvisualsocialcapital.

“Dominantdiscoursesofglobalismandgovernancehavebeguntocolonizeorganizational

thinkingandstrategizing”(Iedema,2008:389).Explorationsontheboundarybetween

organizationandmoresocietaldiscourselevelsarejustbeginning(Boje,1995;Boje1999;

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O’Connor,1995;Keenoyetal.1997;Hardy&Phillips,1999).Thebroadersocietalcontextisan

influentialdiscursiveresourcetotheinstitutionalfieldoforganizationandinterorganizational

discursiveactivity(Keenoyetal.1997;Hardy&Phillips,1999)andsuccessiveorganizational

rolesofentrepreneurshiparethoughttobeassociatedwithsocialization(Burke&Tully,1977;

Ibarra,1999).Identityroletheorybuildsuponsymbolicinteractionism(Mead,1934),by

suggestingthatidentityformationisinfluencedbybroadersocietalstructureofwhatis

consideredentrepreneurial(Gecas,1982).WeturnnexttoBakhtin’s(1981)theoriesof

dialogismforitspotentialcontributiontovisualityandstorytellingofentrepreneurialidentity.

INTERNALANDEXTERNALDIALOGISM

Thelivingutterance,havingtakenmeaningandshapeataparticularhistoricalmomentinasociallyspecificenvironment,cannotfailtobrushupagainstthousandsoflivingdialogicthreads,wovenbysocio‐ideologicalconsciousnessaroundagivenobjectofanutterance;itcannotfailtobecomeanactiveparticipantinsocialdialogue(Bakhtin,1973:276).

WethuslooktoDerrida(1979)andBakhtin(1973)foracriticalapproachtonarrative,

onewherenarrativeandstoryarenotthesame.ForBakhtin,narrativeisalwaysmonological,

whereasstoryismoredialogical.Oftentimes,entrepreneurstories,forexample,arereducedin

aHoratioAlgernarrativeofragstoriches,toaratherlinearplotofovercomingobstacles,and

becominglarger‐than‐lifelegends.Thisoutdatedimagerydoesnotresonatewitheveryoneand

wearguethatitisagrossoversimplification(reductionism).Consequentiallyweadoptand

adaptMikhailBakhtin’s(1981)notionofdoublenarrationandextendittoaccommodate

multiplenarrations.Bakhtin(1973:324)developstheconceptofdouble‐voicednarrationor

“double‐voiceddiscourse.”Thetwovoicesweareconcernedwitharethedirectdiscourseofthe

entrepreneurandthenarrationbyoneormorecorporatehandlersasbothvoicesare

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“dialogicallyinterrelated”(Bakhtin,1973:324).Therearetwoconstructsofdialogism,internal

andexternal,whichinteract.

InternaldialogismisdefinedbyBakhtin(1973:280,italicsinoriginal)“everywordis

directedtowardananswerandcannotescapetheprofoundinfluenceoftheansweringword

thatitanticipates.”AmongstotherargumentsBakhtin’s(1919/1990)firstpublishedessayrefers

tohowwestrivetorelieveourselvesof“answerability”(p.2).Ourresearchquestionisdoes

thisinternalandtheexternalcallforanswerability(inshort,thedialogism)occurwithindouble‐

narratedentrepreneurdiscourse?

Thereisanimportantinterrelationbetweenvisuality,andtheinternaldialogismofan

organization’sdoublenarration,andthebackgroundenvironmentofexternaldialogismof

counterstoriesbyexternalstakeholders.Atbothlevels,andinbetween,thespeechactsof

dialogismconstituteunexploredunder‐researchedsocialpractices.Ourcontributiontocritical

discourseanalysisistoshowtheinterplayofentrepreneurialvisualidentityanddouble

narrativeconstructionswithsocietallevelsofdiscourse.

Theapplicationofroleidentitytoentrepreneurshiplooksatrelationshipswith

Entrepreneur‐identitywithidealtypespropagatedbythemediaandbroaderculture.

Entrepreneursarenotsolelyproducedbythisinstitutionalfielddiscourseofaparticular

organization.Therearealsothebroaderdiscoursesatthesocietallevel,whichconstruct

alternativeimagesofentrepreneurs.WeseeBakhtin’s(1981)doublenarrationasintersecting

withVolosinov’squasi‐directdiscourseandparticularizedtype.Inboth,therearetwospeech

actsinthestorytellingthatmayormaynotresultinironic,theparodic,ormocking.Bakhtin

(1973:25)arguesthat“theheroturnsintoajester”narratedwithasenseofambivalent

laughtertobecomeamore“dialogizedstory.”Thequestionis,ininstitutionalandsocietal

discourse,doBillGatesandRichardBransonbecomemorecarnivalesque,morehumorous

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familiarizing”oneitherplane(Bakhtin,1973:37)?Indialogizedstorytelling,therearetwo

simultaneousspeechactsthatmeetina“zoneofdialogicalcontact”(Bakhtin,1973:45).

Specifically,wewanttoseeifanepicportrayaldialogizeswithamorecarnivalesqueambivalent

caricature.Atthecorporate(institutional)levelofdiscourse,thenarrativecanbeinternally

dialogized,andatasocietallevel,onewouldexpectthelevelofsatiretobemorepronounced

(approachingmockery,insomeinstances).Manyofthecriticalimagesoftheseentrepreneurs

aredrawningrotesquestyle.Agrotesqueimageexaggeratesthebody.Visuallanguagesevolve

inanenvironmentofsocialheteroglossia;cartoonsare“shotthroughwithintentionand

accents”(Bakhtin,1973:292‐293).

Entrepreneurshipisadialogizedprocessandadialogizedimageofmanufacturing

identity.Especiallyatasocietallevel,“discourselives,asitwere,ontheboundarybetweenits

owncontextandanother,aliencontext”(Bakhtin,1973:284).Therefore,onewouldexpectthat

entrepreneurspresentcontradictionsthatenrichsocialheteroglossia,sothat,adeeperdialogue

ofopposingvoicesarisesoutoftheirenterprise.

Itseemssensibletosuggestthatentrepreneurshipisadialogizedsystemofidentity

construction;perhapsentrepreneurs,atboththeinstitutionalandsocietaldiscourselevelare

narratedasambivalentcharactersthatgoagainstthesocietal‐grain;perhapsentrepreneurship

isanidentityconstructionoutsidetraditionalstoriesofleadership.Anentrepreneur,perhapsis

moreliketheclownoftheMiddleAges,who“withvaryingdegreesofqualification,respected

thefreedomofthefool’scapandallottedaratherbroadlicensetolaughterandthelaughing

word”(Bakhtin,1973:72).

Manyexecutivesandsuccessfulentrepreneursofmajorcorporationshavespeech

writers,pressreleasewriters,andotherswhonarratetheirstoriesforthem,intheirstead;

ghostwritersareoftentimeshiredtowriteanentrepreneur’sautobiography,totakefragments

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ofdirectlyquoteddiscourse,andpackageitwithnarrativecommentaryandcorporate

intonations.Itisnotveryoftenthatcorporateorchestratorsofentrepreneurorexecutive

narrationengageinhypocriticalprose.Inshort,mostofthetimeofficialnarrators(handlers&

entrepreneurs)narrateinthesamemutuallyreinforcingdirection.Therearetimeswhereafalse

pathosisconstructed,sothatthereisparodicstylizationoftheentrepreneurbyhandlers.More

often,wesuspectthisparodicstylizationwithhypocriticaljudgmentsandunflattering

intonationsoccursinsocietaldiscourse.

OurapproachtoCDAisnarratology,howinstitutionalnarrativeandmoredialogic

counterstoryinterplaytoconstructentrepreneurialidentityalongideologicallines.Discourse

domainsincludenarrative,metaphor,andtropeconveyedintextandsocialaction.Wecan

examineMicrosoftandVirginGroupasnarratorsoftheirrespectiveentrepreneur,usingmore

orlessoriginalstylesofstorytelling,andstrangetwistsandturnsofthestoryline.Onewould

expectthatBillGatesstoriestoldbyMicrosoftaremoretoneddownincomparisontoRichard

BransonstoriestoldbyVirginGroup.Wewouldexpectlessspeechinterferenceandless

particularizeddirectdiscoursemodifications.Nextweturntoexaminetheinstitutional

narrativesandthevisualityofBillGatesincontrasttoRichardBranson.

VISUALITYANDADDRESSINGMETHODOLOGICALTENSIONS

SincetheadventoftheInternetandtheproliferationofsearchenginessuchasGoogleImages

thepublicincreasinglyhaveunprecedentedaccesstoavirtuallibraryofoftencontroversial

imagesoverwhichindividualsandorganizationshavelittlecontrol.Aswediscoveredthese

invariablyincludesatiricalandcartoonimages.Asentrepreneurshipscholars,wehavebeen

slowtocapturethisrichsourceofdatawhichinlegaltermssitssomewhereinacontested‘no

mansland’.Nevertheless,wecontestthattheseimagesareinthepublicdomain.Afewbrave

16

scholarssuchasVenkatramanandNelson(2008:forthcoming)haveincorporatedsemiotic

analysisintotheirrepertoireandhavepresentedimagestoillustratethetext.Wefollowthis

trendandpresenttheimagestoenhancetheanalyticexperienceforthereader.

Weperformtwoanalyses.First,weanalyzehowvisualimagery(Rose,2007)issituated

tofashionquitedifferententrepreneurialidentities.Second,weanalyzethestorytelling,

includinginstancesofquasi‐directdiscourse.Quasi‐directdiscourseisdefinedas“halfnarration

andhalfreportedspeech”(Volosinov1930/1973:134).Quasi‐indirectdiscourse,bycontrast,isa

narrationaboutthediscoursespoken,whereasdirectdiscoursequotesthespeakers.Quasi‐

indirectdiscourseinvolvesatranspositionofutterancesbythenarrator.Thereisatextureto

thestorytelling,theuseofpauses,fillinginthegaps,orfillinginthecontext,makingmore

commentary,andusingmoreexpressiveconstruction(metaphors,rhythmofspeech,etc.).

ORGANIZATION,ENTREPRENEURIALSTORYTELLING

ANDTHEVISUALITYOFGATESANDBRANSON

Inthissectionweconsiderauthored(authorized)imagesofBransonandGatesdownloaded

fromtheircompanywebsites.Thisenablesustocompareandcontrasttheseimagesto

illustratedifferententrepreneurialidentitiesandleadershipstylesdemonstratingthe

contrastingsemioticstylesofGatesandBransonaswellastoconsiderthepurposesofthe

restoryingprocess.

AuthorizedImages

SeePhotoSeries1:GatesandBransonintheappendix.IntheimageontheleftweseeWilliam

(‘Bill’)GatesIII,ChairpersonofMicrosoft.iTheimageisoneofguardednesswitharmsfolded.On

therightimage,weseeSirRichardBransoninamorecasualposewithhandsinpocketsatthe

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launchofVirginTrains.iiTheoverallvisualthemeforBillGatesisthatofageekcomputernerd

whobuiltacorporateempire.Itisalsoaverystandardizedcorporateimage.ForBranson,the

imageprojectedisthatoftheplayboyanddaredevilwhobuiltacorporateempire,andwas

evenknightedbytheQueen,astheroyal“entrepreneur.”

SeePhotoSeries2:Gatesatfar‐left,Visualityiiiintheappendix.Thisisathemethat

continuesinthecorporatechoiceofphotos.Microsoft’simagesrepresentGatesinglassesanda

sweater.AgainweseeGateswitharmsfoldedinaguardedposewhichpositionshimaslessofa

risktakerthanBranson.ItismuchlessflamboyantthanBranson’simages.Branson’simages

depicthimusingunorthodoxmethodstopromotetheVirginbrand.Thephotographactsasa

storyboardrestoryingtheimageintoaminibiography.Nevertheless,bothhavebuilt

corporationsthatarerecognizedasglobalbrands,MicrosoftandVirginGroup.

SeePhotoSeries3:PhotoMontageonVirginGroupHistorypageiv.Images:Who’s

RichardBranson?Thesignature:beard,gleamingteeth,andcoiffedhairdo;theportrayalaspilot

ofplanesandballoons,andexplorer;thesearephotosthatfuelthephantasm,andconstructhis

virtualentrepreneurialimageandentrepreneurialidentity.

SeePhotoSeries4–BransonPhotoVirginAtlantichistorypage.Theabovephotois

fromtheVirginAtlantichistorypage,showsBransoninananimatedpose,beneaththe“diving

Virgin”cartoon,entitled,the“ScarletLady.”Thevisualelementsreinforcetheplayboywho

buildsempiretheme.TheFoxrealityTVshow,“TheBillionaire”promotesthephantasm:

BRANSON’SQUESTFORTHEBEST:SIRRICHARDBRANSON,thecolorfulfounderandChairmanoftheVirginGroupofCompanies,teamswithaward‐winningBunim‐MurrayProductions(“TheSimpleLife,”“RealWorld”)toleadagroupofyoungentrepreneursonanepicjourneyaroundtheworld,testingtheirmettlebyhavingthemrelivesomeofhisowncolorfuladventures.v

Bothcompanywebsitesusetextualstorytellingtoaccentparticularaspectsoftheir

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respectiveentrepreneurialidentities.

StorytellingontheMicrosoftWebsiteviIn1973,GatesenteredHarvardUniversityasafreshman,wherehe

liveddownthehallfromSteveBallmer,nowMicrosoft'schiefexecutiveofficer.WhileatHarvard,GatesdevelopedaversionoftheprogramminglanguageBASICforthefirstmicrocomputer‐theMITSAltair.

Inhisjunioryear,GatesleftHarvardtodevotehisenergiestoMicrosoft,acompanyhehadbegunin1975withhischildhoodfriendPaulAllen.Guidedbyabeliefthatthecomputerwouldbeavaluabletooloneveryofficedesktopandineveryhome,theybegandevelopingsoftwareforpersonalcomputers.Gates'foresightandhisvisionforpersonalcomputinghavebeencentraltothesuccessofMicrosoftandthesoftwareindustry.

UnderGates'leadership,Microsoft'smissionhasbeentocontinuallyadvanceandimprovesoftwaretechnology,andtomakeiteasier,morecost‐effectiveandmoreenjoyableforpeopletousecomputers.Thecompanyiscommittedtoalong‐termview,reflectedinitsinvestmentofapproximately$7.1billiononresearchanddevelopmentinthe2007fiscalyear.In1999,GateswroteBusiness@theSpeedofThought,abookthatshowshowcomputertechnologycansolvebusinessproblemsinfundamentallynewways.

….Inadditiontohisloveofcomputersandsoftware,GatesfoundedCorbis,whichisdevelopingoneoftheworld'slargestresourcesofvisualinformation‐acomprehensivedigitalarchiveofartandphotographyfrompublicandprivatecollectionsaroundtheglobe.HeisalsoamemberoftheboardofdirectorsofBerkshireHathawayInc.,whichinvestsincompaniesengagedindiversebusinessactivities.PhilanthropyisalsoimportanttoGates.Heandhiswife,Melinda,haveendowedafoundationwithmorethan$28.8billion(asofJanuary2005)tosupportphilanthropicinitiativesintheareasofglobalhealthandlearning,withthehopethatinthe21stcentury,advancesinthesecriticalareaswillbeavailableforallpeople.

IntheaboveMicrosoftstorytelling,Gatesispositionedasthefirstmicrocomputer

language,havingthe“foresightandvision”toforetellpersonalcomputingascentralto

Microsoftsuccessinsoftwareindustry.Throughquasi‐directdiscourse,includingexamplesof

speechinterference,theentrepreneursandthecorporatenarratorsrecreateaphantasmagoric

livingpast.GatesissaidtofoundCorbis(digitalarchiving),andhasmovedintophilanthropyfor

globalhealthandlearning(withhiswifeMelinda).ItisthisstorytellingthathaspositionedGates

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asamongthebest‐knownentrepreneursofpersonalandbusinesscomputersoftware.For

examplein1999EntrepreneurMagazinepickedGatesasitsEntrepreneuroftheMillennium.vii

Gateshasbeennumberoneonthe"Forbes400"listfrom1993throughto2007andnumber

oneonForbeslistof"TheWorld'sRichestPeople"from1995to2007with58billionU.S.

dollars.viii

Officialcorporatestorytellingofentrepreneurshipinvitescounterstories.Forexample,

ratherthantheBasicsoftwarelanguagewrittenin1975(withhelpfromPaulAllen),forthe

Altaircomputer,CriticsassertitwassoftwarepurchasedbyGatesfor$50,000fromaSeattle

companythatisthegutsofMS‐DOSthatbecameanindustrystandard.ixAnditwastheMS‐DOS

licensingagreementwithIBMthatexplainsthefortunesofMicrosoft.xGatesdidnotrecognize

thepotentialoftheInternetuntil1996(2yearsafterbrowsersweredebuted).xiItisthese

counterstoriesthatledGelernter(1998),forexample,toarguethatGate’sentrepreneurial

identityisover‐blown,sinceMicrosoftproductscombineideasalreadyexistinginthe

marketplace.Finally,Gatesiswidelycriticizedforanticompetitivepracticesthatculminatedin

1998U.S.versusMicrosoftantitrustlawsuit.xiiThesethemesareportrayedinthe1999

docudrama,PiratesofSiliconValley.Inshort,whileMicrosoftandGatesmakesignificant

contributionstothesoftwareindustry,neitherthecompanynoritsco‐founderisinnovative.

AndMicrosoft’smonopolisticmarketshareisanimpedimenttoentrepreneurshipand

innovation.xiiiMicrosoftredesignsexistingproductsandrivaldevelopers’projects,ratherthan

inventingnewones.xiv

ThesecounterstoriesareconsistentwithSchumpeter’sdistinctionbetweenadaptive

anddevelopmentalentrepreneur.Gatesadaptsexistingideasintoprofitmakingideas,then

aggressivelyprotectsthelong‐terminterestsofMicrosoftagainstrisk.Firsthandaccountsof

meetingsofGateswithMicrosoft’sseniormanagersportrayGatesas“hostile,berating

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managersforperceivedholdsintheirbusinessstrategiesortheirproposalswhichplacethe

company’slong‐terminterestsatrisk”and“shoutingatlengthatemployeesbeforelettingthem

continue,withsuchremarksas,‘That’sthestupidestthingI’veeverheard’and,‘Whydon’tyou

justgiveupyouroptionsandjointhePeaceCorps?’”xv

Letuscontinuetheofficialstorytellingwiththeonline“MicrosoftMuseum.”

WelcometotheMicrosoftMuseumxvi‐Itallstartedwiththedreamof“acomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome.”Injust28years,Microsoftturnthisrevolutionaryideaintoareality,creatinganewindustryandtransforminghowwework,live,learnandplay…Intheaboveexcerpt,thereisafragmentofquoteddiscoursethatseemsindirectly

attributabletoBillGates.“Acomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome”seemstosuggestwhat

theentrepreneurwasthinking,butnotdirectlyuttering,ormorepreciselywhatMicrosoftnow

saysheshouldhavebeenthinking.Theexcerptalsohisseveralpositiveepithets:“dream,”

“revolutionary,”“new,”and“transforming.”Asanexampleofdoublenarration,thetwovoices

(corporatenarratorsandtheentrepreneur)areinalignment,noapparentcontradictionor

interferencecanbeseen:thetwospeechactsreinforceoneanother.

MUSEUMTOUR–AttheMicrosoftMuseum,youcanexplorethevision,products,cultureandhistoryofMicrosoft…Ourmuseumtellsthestoryoftheideas,dreams,andaccomplishmentsofthepeoplewhomakeupMicrosoft.Throughinteractiveexhibitsandengagingstorytelling,visitorscanexplorehowpeoplearerealizingtheirpotentialthroughthemagicofsoftware…

Inthe“MuseumTour”excerpt,“story”and“storytelling”areexplicitlyacknowledged.Software

isgivena“magic”quality.Thisisanexampleofindirectdiscourse,onewhereBillGatesisnot

acknowledged(exceptasoneofthepeople,partofthehistory,perhapsareferencetothe

“dream”inthepreceding,‘WelcometotheMicrosoftMuseum,’excerpt).

MAKINGHISTORY–TIMELINE–It’shardtobelievethatMicrosoftisalready28yearsold.ThecompanythatmadeRedmond,Washingtonahouseholdnamewasactuallyfoundedinanothercity,in1975,bytwoyoungmenfromSeattle,oneofwhomwasacollegedropout.Fromthisinauspicious

21

beginningcameanequallyimprobablevision:Apersonalcomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome…whenonlyahandfulofpeopleknewwhatapersonalcomputerwas,itwasagreatleapoffaithanddaring.

The‘MakingHistory–TimeLine’excerptisoneoftheonlyexampleswecouldlocateof

MicrosoftnarratingBillGatesinwaysusingsomespeechinterference.Gates,notmentionedby

name,isthe“collegedropout,”whose“inauspiciousbeginning”and“equallyimprobablevision”

wasa“leapoffaithanddaring.”YetthisspeechinterferencedoesnarrateGatesasan

entrepreneur,implantingtraitsinhischaracterizationthattintthehero,makinghisjourneyall

themoreincredible.Thesearevaluejudgments,andportraythenarrator’s(authorial)attitude,

anddogivereferentialweighttoasomewhatpicturesquehero.

InMicrosoft’sofficialbiographyofWilliamH.Gates,threeexcerptsmeritquasi‐direct

discourseanalysis:(foreaseofreference,thesearenumbered1,2,&3).xvii

1)…In1973,GatesenteredHarvardUniversityasafreshman,whereheliveddownthehallfromSteveBallmer,nowMicrosoft’schiefexecutiveofficer.WhileatHarvard,GatesdevelopedaversionoftheprogramminglanguageBASICforthefirstmicrocomputer–theMITSAltair.

Intheofficialbiographyexcerpt1(above),thenewCEO(Ballmer),wholiveddownthe

hallfromGatesistiedintothebiography.Thiscommentarypresetsthetellingofthestoryof

Microsoft’sfounding,linkingformerCEO,toitscurrentCEO.Next,Gates’softwareprogramming

ofBASICfortheMITSAltairissetoutasanevent(thisalsopresetsthefounding).The“entered

Harvard”and“atHarvard”givereferentialweighttothesoftwaredesignevent.Thereareparts

ofthestoryleftout,whichonecanonlyfindinthesocietal(extra‐institutional)discourseabout

GatesandMicrosofthistory(wewillleavethispointuntilthatsection).

2)Inhisjunioryear,GatesleftHarvardtodevotehisenergiestoMicrosoft,acompanyhehadbegunin1975withhischildhoodfriendPaulAllen.Guidedbyabeliefthatthecomputerwouldbeavaluabletooloneveryofficedesktopandineveryhome,theybegandevelopingsoftwareforpersonalcomputers.Gates’

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foresightandhisvisionforpersonalcomputinghavebeencentraltothesuccessofMicrosoftandthesoftwareindustry.

Inexcerpt2(above),wearetoldthat“GatesleftHarvard”forthisreason“todevotehis

energiestoMicrosoft.”Itisastrangeconstruction,sinceGatesleftayearbeforestartingthe

company.WearenottoldthatGatesand“hischildhoodfriendPaulAllen”foundeda

partnershipin1977,not1975(thatkeyeventisintheMicrosoftHistory,inadifferentlocation

inthewebsite).TheKeyeventsinMicrosoftHistorypagessayitwasNov261976when“The

tradename‘Microsoft’isregisteredwiththeOfficeoftheSecretaryofthestateofNew

Mexico.”xviii

3)UnderGates’leadership,Microsoft’smissionhasbeentocontinuallyadvanceandimprovesoftwaretechnology,andtomakeiteasier,morecost‐effectiveandmoreenjoyableforpeopletousecomputers…

Branson’sVirginGroupwebsitepresentsquitedifferentstorytelling:xix

VirginAtlanticStorytelling:–Sowho'stheguywiththebeard?KeepreadingtofindoutallaboutRichardBranson....

RichardBransonwasbornin1950andeducatedatStoweSchool.ItwasherethathebegantosetupStudentMagazinewhenhewasjust16.By17he'dalsosetupStudentAdvisoryCentre,whichwasacharitytohelpyoungpeople.

In1970hefoundedVirginasamailorderrecordretailer,andnotlongafterheopenedarecordshopinOxfordStreet,London.During1972arecordingstudiowasbuiltinOxfordshire,andthefirstVirginartist,MikeOldfield,recorded"TubularBells"whichwasreleasedin1973.Thisalbumwentontosellover5millioncopies!Sincethenmanyhouseholdnames,includingBelindaCarlisle,Genesis,PhilCollins,JanetJacksonandTheRollingStoneshavehelpedtomakeVirginMusiconeofthetopsixrecordcompaniesintheworld.TheequityofVirginMusicGroup‐recordlabels,musicpublishing,andrecordingstudioswassoldtoTHORNEMIin1992inaUS$1billiondeal.

ThispositionsBransonasadeveloperofbusinessventuresthataresubsumedundertheVirgin

brand.Virginbrandedsome200companies,employing50,000peopleworldwide,in30

countries,withrevenuesexceeding£10billion(approx.US$20billion).xx

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Thestorytellingisaccomplishedwithquasi‐directdiscoursepracticestoarousewhat

Volosinov,1930/1973:148)callsthe“reader’sfantasy.”Forexample,intheVirginAtlantic

historypage,Branson’s“story”isreplottedalongthelinesofDavidandGoliath,astoryistoldin

moreartistictelling,withmorepictorialmetaphorsandlotsofsurprise:a“VirginStory”ofthe

“newcomer”whotakesonthe“giant”andischaracterizedasthe“people’schampion”anda

reputationfor“innovativeproductdevelopment.”xxi

1) “…VirginAtlanticisthequintessentialVirginstory.Ithaseveryingredient,thesmallnewcomertakingonthegiantandcomplacentestablishment,thepeople’schampionintroducingbetterserviceandlowercostsforcustomerswithareputationforqualityandinnovativeproductdevelopment.

Thenextextract,aswithGatesnarrationbyMicrosoft,thereisabitofspeechinterference:

“young”and“unorthodoxchairman.”

2) VirginAtlanticwasdevelopedasanoffshootofRichardBranson’sVirgingroup,whichwasbetterknownatthetimeasaleadinglightintheworldofpopandrockmusic.Inearly1984,thethenyoungandunorthodoxchairmanofVirginwassurprisedwhenhewascontactedbyanAnglo‐USlawyercalledRandolphfieldswithaproposalforaninvolvementinanewairline…

TheVirginGroupcorporatenarratorsrepresentBransonaslivingthedream.

3) HISTORY–Backintheearly80sRichardBransonwasprobablybestknow[n]forVirginRecords–thelegendaryrecordlabelthatsignedmajornamesliketheRollingStones,JanetJacksonandTheHumanLeague.In1984,muchtothehorrorofhisdirectors,Richardannouncedtotheworldthatahighquality,valueformoneyairlinewouldbeginoperationwithinthreemonths…

Excerptthree(above)makestherecordlabel“legendary”andassociatesBransonwiththe

“majornames”(RollingStones,JanetJackson&TheHumanLeague),thenmakestheincredible

bet:hecanbringanewairlineintobeing“withinthreemonths.”

Insum,whatisimportantabouttheuseofquasi‐directdiscourseinboththeMicrosoft

andtheVirginGroupwebsitesisthatthestorytellingeffectuateseconomicandsocialinterests.

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AtMicrosoftwevisitthepastinthevirtual“LivingMuseum”andtakeavirtualtourofBillGates

90million‐dollarhome.AtVirginGroup,wecanvisitBranson’s“VirginIsland”getaway.Theuse

ofpicturesquespeech,scrollingandinteractivetextinvitesthereaderintotheconstructed

phantasm,withaneconomicintent(forthewebsitesarealsoportalsforemploymentand

investment).BothGatesandBransongiveadvicetoyoungstudentswhowanttobecome

entrepreneurs,andinhabitthelivingfantasy;thepicturesquespeech,thepositivevalue

judgments,andthespeechinterferenceadstothephantasm,andtotheoveralltheme.

MicrosoftandVirginGroupPersons–Bothcompaniesfashionvisualimagesofwhatisthe

identityoftheircorporateperson.Microsoftrepresentscaricaturesofthe“MicrosoftPerson”

thataremorePreppy.SeePhotoSeries5:MicrosoftPersonxxii.

WhoisaMicrosoftPerson?Imagesandfragmentsofdiscoursealsoconstruct“whoisa

Microsoftemployee?”the“MicrosoftPerson”

“Allkindsofpeople;allkindsofpotentialAtMicrosoft,whenwetalkaboutrecruitingthebestandthebrightest,we'retalkingaboutpeoplewhothriveontheexcitementofcollaborationandthediscoveryofnewopportunities.Theylikesettingtheirowngoalsandworkinghardtoachievethemintheirownstyle.”xxiii

ContrastthistoVirginGroup’s“VirginPerson.”The“VirginPerson”usesmoregrotesque

imagery.

WhatisaVirginemployee?ThevisualconstructionsareofaFrankenstein‐likemaleand

femalebodypartsingrotesqueproportions.SeePhotoSeries6‐“VirginPerson”xxiv.The“Virgin

Person”issomeonewith“signsofcreativity,”“smellsnewbusinessopportunities,””listensto

customers,”“desirestoplease,”“canmulti‐taskwithtenprojectsatonce”has“passionfornew

25

ideas,”thinks“differently,”with“attentiveeyes,”“fidgetyfingers,”“whohatesstandingstill”

andsoforth.

CreatingSocialEntrepreneurialIdentity‐Bothentrepreneurshavemovedintosocial

entrepreneurialidentities.IntheMicrosoftwebsiteofficialstorytelling,mostrecentlyGatesis

resituatedfromsoftwareimpresariotosocialentrepreneur.Gates’Jan24,2008speechtothe

WorldEconomicForuminDavosSwitzerlandmakesacasefor“CreativeCapitalism”citingAdam

Smith’sideaofthevalueofself‐interestasthecureforworldpoverty.SeePhotoSeries7.In

theimagesbothentrepreneursusetheirhandstoexpresstheirtransformation.ForGates,there

isanuncharachteristicposeofhim“jamming”withaguitar.ForBranson,theexpressionisa

smile,asGoreglancessomewhatadmiringlyasBransontossesaglobeintotheair.AsBranson

putsit,funismoreimportantthanrisk,inhisideaofentrepreneurship:xxv

Theveryideaofentrepreneurshipnotonlyconjuresupthoughtsaboutstartingupbusinessesandbuildingthem,butalsothemorefrighteningprospectoftakingrisksandfailing.It'sthelastpartthatputssomanypeopleofftakingaleapintotheunknownandworkingforthemselves.IhaveenjoyedallthechallengeswehavetakenatVirgin,sobecauseI'mhavingfundoingwhatIdo,theriskfactortakessecondplace.

Bransoniswellknownforhisdeathdefyinganticsasasportsman,whichaccentuatehis

daredevilbusinessstrategies(suchas,making2008theyearofthespaceship,atthepress

conferenceattheAmercianMuseumofNaturalHistoryinManhattan).xxviBransonisalsoknow

forhavingfun,suchasdressingasabridetopublicizehisVirginBride,weddingstores.His

realityTVshowistitled,TheRebelBillionaire,anidentityhecultivates.

Socialentrepreneurshipiswovenintohisantics,suchaspledging$3billionoverten

yearstodevelopalternativefuelsourcesandalleviateglobalwarming.Healsoopenedthe

BransonSchoolofEntrepreneurshipinSouthAfrica.AsForbesreports,“Bransondidn'teven

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believeinglobalwarminguntilfiveyearsagowhenhereadBjornLomborg’s,TheSkeptical

Environmentalist.IntypicalBransonstyle,oncehewasconvinced,itwasfullsteamahead.He

createdVirginUnite,theindependentcharitablearmofhiscompany,in2004.”xxvii

ForGates(2008)‘CreativeCapitalism’isarevisionofcapitalismtoaddresstheneedsof

peopleintheworld’spoorestnations.Gates"CreativeCapitalism"usesmarketforces(self‐

interestamongthehaves)toaddresspoor‐countryneedsofthehave‐notsthathefeelswealthy

capitalistshaveignored.GatescitesAdamSmithWealthofNationsand1979bookTheTheory

ofMoralSentiments,arguingthathumansgainpleasureformtakinganinterestinthe“fortunes

ofothers.”GateswantstoofferMicrosoftsoftware,computers,andwirelessInternetproducts

tothepoor.Criticsarguethatthepooroftenlackelectricity,andthatitistheruleoflaw,health

care,educationandgovernmentcorruptionthatneedtobeaddressed.xxviii

Microsoftisgoingtobuildproductsandservicesforthepoor.Thereisskepticismabout

thepotentialprofitabilityofMicrosoftandothersbuildingproductstoselltothepoor,

especiallysinceMicrosoftfiercecompetitivestrategieshasdrawnlegalchallengesfromantitrust

authorities."There'salotofpeopleatthebottomofthepyramidbutthesizeofthe

transactionsissosmallitisnotworthitforprivatebusinessmostofthetime,"saysWilliam

Easterly,aNewYorkUniversityprofessorandformerWorldBankeconomist.Gatescreditshis

changeofoutlookregardingcapitalismtohistripstoAfricaandIndia,andtobooksbyAdam

Smith(1759,TheTheoryofMoralSentiments).Easterly’s(2006)book,TheWhiteMan’sBurden,

whichcritiquesthefailureoffivedecadesofinternationalaid,Prahalad(2004)TheFortuneat

theBottomofthePyramid,whichviewstheworld’spoorasaviableconsumerproductmarket,

andPaulCollier’s(2007)TheBottomBillion,examinationofhowthegapinlivingstandards

betweenthepoorestfiftycountriesandtherestoftheworld,iswidening.xxixHelpingthebillion

peopleatthebottomofthepyramidlivingonlessthanadollaradaywasthecentralthemeof

27

hisspeechattheWorldEconomicForuminDavos.Socialentrepreneurshipisanotherwayto

describewhatGatescalls‘creativecapitalism.’

LikeGates,SirRichardBranson(knightedbytheQueenforhisentrepreneurship)has

madeasimilarchangetowardssocialentrepreneurship,butmoreintheenvironmental

direction.February2007,Branson(withAlGore)encouraged‘GaiaCapitalism’witha$25million

prize(TheVirginEarthChallenge)tocomeupwithawaytoremovegreenhousegasesfromthe

atmosphere.Healsopledged$3bn(£1.66bn)overthenext10yearstohelpcombatglobal

warming.Thecommitmentistoinvest100%ofallfutureproceedsoftheVirginGroup’s

transportationinterestintoglobalwarmingsolutions.VirginFuelsisinvestingupto$400min

renewableenergyinitiatives.xxx

Themovestheseentrepreneursaremakingareironic,giventhatSchumpetersaw

entrepreneurialcapitalismasthreatenedbybigcorporationsthatwoulddampencreative

destructionwithmonopolisticpractices.Schramm(2006:3)putsitthisway,“Schumpeter

concludedthattheimportanceofentrepreneurswouldfadeovertimeascapitalismsought

predictabilityfromgovernmentswhowouldplaneconomicactivityaswellasordersocial

benefits.”xxxi

IMPLICATIONS

Double‐voiceddiscoursetakesonmoreimportancewasthewordsoftheentrepreneur

mustrefractawidersocialpolyphonyinvisuality.Entrepreneurshiphasbeendeaftodouble

voicednarrationandtothesophisticateduseofScopticregimes,whichweseeasasignificant

problemastheentrepreneurbecomesembeddedinamorecomplexcorporateenterprise.Asa

consequencetheirpublicimagesdonotmatchtheirrepositioningasheroicsocial

entrepreneurs.TherearenoheroicimagesofthesavingtheworldortheAfricanContinent.

28

Whilsttheycancontrolandauthortheirorganizationalnarrativesandidentitytheycannot

controlhowtheyareportrayedvisuallytothepublic.

Ourstudysuggeststhatthewayimagesandnarrativesare“dialectologicallyorganized,”

(Bakhtin,1973:356).Webelievethedialectologicmanufactureofentrepreneurialidentityisan

importantareaoforganizationalstudy.Itisthroughdialectologicalindividuationthatthe

corporationanditsnarratedentrepreneur,andthesocietaldiscourseofcounter‐entrepreneurs

becomeintertwinedinastruggleofideologicalvoices.Inquasi‐directdiscourse,an

entrepreneur’sdirectdiscoursebecomeshybridwiththecorporate‐narrator’scommentaryand

intonationsaboutmeaning‐context.Insomecasesthisisparallel,inotherinstancesthereisa

semanticinterference,aformofcarnivalesqueresistanceofonediscoursetoanother.Both

GatesandBransonpresentexamplesofcarnivalesqueinterferencewiththeaffirmativeimage

oftheentrepreneurbythecorporateauthorsofentrepreneurial‐identity.Quasi‐directdiscourse

isadialogizedhybridthatcanbeemergent(ananswertosocietalorculturejamportrayal)or

purposefullyorchestratedbycorporateauthors.Thedoubleandmultiplenarrationspresented

intheunauthorizedcartoonsarecounterstorieswhichconflictwiththeirnewselfimageoftheir

entrepreneurialidentity.TheirinnovativeuseofScopticregimeshasnotledCartooniststo

reciprocate.

Inthecurrentstudy,BransonismoreironicallynarratedthanisGatesatthelevelof

institutionaldiscourse;Bransonismorelikelytobeacharacterizationthatdistortsthebody.At

thesocietallevel,bothareequallydialogizedinironicways.However,thereislessdistance

betweeninstitutionallynarratedBransonandthesocietalcaricaturesthanismanifestinimages

ofGates.

CONCLUSIONS

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BillGatesandSirRichardBransoncompetetobethemostfamousentrepreneurofthis

era.Yettheyexhibitvastlydifferententrepreneurialidentities.GatesandBransonwentagainst

prevailinginstitutionalandsocietalstandardsatthetimeoftheentrepreneurialdisruptionof

thestatusquo.OvertimeGateshascometobeidentifiedwiththestatusquoofsoftware

hegemony.Branson,ontheotherhand,continuestoleapfrogintootherdomains,suchasthe

recentBillionaireseriesorparodyingtheadventuregenrebyenlistingregularfolkstotakea

thrilling,highlyriskyadventurewithBranson.

Weconcludethatcriticaldiscourseanalysisofcartooncaricaturesandentrepreneurial‐

narrativescanbeextendedbylookingatVolosinov’s(1930/1973)conceptof“quasi‐direct

discourse”andBakhtin’s(1981)conceptof“double‐narration.”Wehavetriedtointegratethe

twoconceptstoshowthehowthespeechacts(betheynarrative,photo,orcartooncaricature)

arespeechactsinwhichthereisahighlevelofdialogism(answeringthecommentaryofother

authors’texts).MicrosoftandVirginGroupco‐manufacturetheidentityoftheir

entrepreneurial‐leaders,interminglingthecorporateintentionalityoftheimagesandnarratives

withfragmentsofdirectdiscourse.

Thesocietaldiscoursepresentedincartoonsrecontextualizestheseentrepreneurs.This

createsaspaceforanimportantdialoguebetweeninstitutionalandsocietalinterlocutors.We

concludethatadditionalstudyofdoublespeechactsofquasi‐directdiscourseanddouble

narrationwillgainfurtherinsightintosocialpracticesontheboundarybetweeninstitutional

andsocietaldiscourse.Totheextentthatvisualimagesandnarratedimagesofentrepreneurs

canbesubjectedtocriticaldiscourseanalysis,wegainanimportantunderstandingofthe

manufactureofentrepreneurialidentity.Thebasicideabehindthearticlewastoshowhowthe

story‐textreinforcesthevisualimages(andviceversa).ThiswasdoneusingSchumpeter'stwo

versionsofentrepreneurialidentitytodemonstratetwoverydifferentpersonas,andshowhow

30

theyshiftovertime(becomere‐storiedorre‐narrated)tothesocialentrepreneurialidentity,

butmaintainverydifferentpersonas.WhilstBransonisobviouslyaSchumpetrianentrepreneur

inthathisversionofgaiacapitalismiscreativedestructioninanewarena,Gatesretainshis

elementofconservativetraditionalism.Nevertheless,bothBransonandGatescanbe

consideredtohavesuccessfullyre‐storiedtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesasbutindifferent

ways‐Bransonbyengaginginare‐brandingtowardsgaiacapitalismandGatesthrougheco‐

philanthropyonagargantuanlevel.BythejuxtapositioningofSchumpeteriandifferences,we

makeavaluablecontribution.Thispaperoffersanewmethodforunderstandinghow

entrepreneursaremanufacturedthroughdiscourseontheorganizationalandsocietallevelsand

inparticularitusescriticaldiscourseanalysistofurtherourunderstandingofhowentrepreneurs

areproducedinorganizationalandsocietaldiscourse.

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Company

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APPENDIX–IMAGESSECTIONPhotoSeries1:GatesandBranson

PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoft

PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup

36

PhotoSeries2:Visuality

PrintedwithpermissionPrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroupofMicrosoftPhotoSeries3:PhotoMontageonVirginGroupHistorypage

PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup

37

PhotoSeries4:BransonPhotoVirginAtlantichistorypage

PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup

PhotoSeries5:MicrosoftPerson

38

PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoftPhotoSeries6:AVirginPerson

PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup

39

PhotoSeries7–

PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoftPrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup

PhotoSeries8:SocietalPhotoofBransonandGates

PrintedwithPermissionofVirginGroup

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PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoft

i BillGatesChairman,MicrosoftCorp.Published:May30,2002|Updated:July30,2007http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/bio.mspxAccessed11March2010.iiInthisphotoweseeSirRichardBransoninapublicityphotographforthelaunchofVirginTrains.http://www.virgin.com/history/#Accessed11March,2010.iiihttp://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/gallery/default.mspx#EXAccessed11March2010.ivBransonVirginGroupbiophoto,accessedAugust20,2004,athttp://www.virgin.com/aboutvirgin/allaboutvirgin/whosrichardbranson/default.aspvTheBillionaire(May27,2004)FromFOX:“THEBILLIONAIRE,accessedAugust21,2004,athttp://www.realitytvcalendar.com/shows/richardsbigadventure.htmlviStorytellingaboutBillGatesonMicrosoftwebsite:http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/bio.mspxvii ScottS.SmitharticleinEntrepreneurMagazine‐December1999http://www.entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/1999/december/issue116936.html viiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_billionairesix http://www.evancarmichael.com/Famous‐Entrepreneurs/556/Launching‐A‐Revolution‐The‐Start‐of‐Microsoft.html. x http://www.evancarmichael.com/Famous‐Entrepreneurs/556/Launching‐A‐Revolution‐The‐Start‐of‐Microsoft.html xihttp://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/billgates.htmxiiShenk,David(1998‐01‐26)."SlammingGates".TheNewRepublic.http://davidshenk.com/webimages/THENEWREPUBLIC.PDFFindingsofFact.UnitedStatesv.Microsoft(1998).http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft

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xiii See innovation critique at http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Leadership%20and%20Entrepreneurship/Leadership%20the%20Bill%20Gates%20Way‐Leadership%20and%20Entrepreneurship‐Case%20StudiesExcp.htm xivhttp://voteview.ucsd.edu/gates.htmxvSeeWikipediawebsiteonBillGateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_GatesxviMicrosoftMuseumexcerptsassessedAugust20,2004,fromwww.microsoft.com/mscorp/museum/xviiAllBillGatesofficialMicrosoftbiographyexcerptsaccessedAugust20,2004fromhttp://www.microsoft.com/billgates/bio.aspxviiiMicrosoftdocument:KeyEventsinMicrosoftHistory,accessedAugust20,2004,athttp://addressof.com/blog/articles/300.aspxxixVirginGroupstorytellingaboutRichardBransonhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/RichardBranson/WhosRichardBranson.aspxxxhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/WhatWeAreAbout/WhatWeAreAbout.aspxxxiVirginAtlantichistoryaccessedAugust20,2004,atBransonandVIRGINATLANTIChttp://www.virgin‐atlantic.com/en/gb/corporateandtrade/index.jspxxiiWhoWeAre,Microsoft–accessedAugust20,2004,http://www.microsoft.com/careers/mslife/whoweare/default.mspxxxiiiMicrosoft“MeetOurPeople,”accessedAugust20,2004fromhttp://www.microsoft.com/careers/mslife/meetpeople/xxivAVirginPerson–accessedAugust20,2004,fromhttp://virgincola.com/aboutvirgin/howitallworks/virginequalspeople/default.aspxxvhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/RichardBranson/RichardReplies.aspx?L3_GenericContent_NavigateToPage=4xxviAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryhttp://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/a/american_museum_of_natural_history/index.html?inline=nyt‐orgxxviihttp://www.forbes.com/corporatecitizenship/2006/11/26/leadership‐branson‐virgin‐lead‐citizen‐cx_tw_1128branson.html.xxviiiRoviaConspiracyblog2008http://www.rovianconspiracy.com/2008/01/bill‐gates‐is‐idiot.htmlxxixThebookswerementionedinaWallStreetJournalarticle

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120113473219511791.html?mod=djemalertTECHxxxInthisimageweseeBillGatesashepreparesforhis"GuitarHero"battlewithRobbieBach,President,EntertainmentandDevicesDivisionduringtheopeningkeynotefor2008InternationalCES.In1995imaheofBransonweseehiminapublicityshotforVirginDirectholdingashell.Notetheactionorientatedbackground.xxxiMakingtheturn:EntrepreneurialCapitalismanditsEuropeanpromise,byCarlJ.Schramm.http://www.kauffman.org/pdf/schramm_eu_finance_0406_final.pdfxxxiiihttp://www.virgin.com/history/#TheimageofBransonisanotheronedemonstratinghispenchantforpublicityandhissociabilitybyposingasabrideforthelaunchofhiscompanyVirginBrides.http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/?tab=images.ThisimagedepictsBillGatesplayinganXboxcarracinggameduringhiskeynoteatthe2005InternationalConsumerElectronicsShow.LasVegas,NV,Jan.5,2005.