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JCC USSR, 1964HUMAN & CIVIL RIGHTS AND PROXY WARS
N U M U N X V • Y O U H A V E T H E F L O O R • A P R I L 1 2 - 1 5 , 2 0 1 8
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Introduction
Welcome to the JCC USSR committee for NUMUN XV! A coalition of various prominent
figures in the Soviet Union’s politics has convened in order to decide how to approach domestic
issues. Currently, the year is 1964 and Leonid Brezhnev has come into office as leader of the Soviet
Union.1 His domestic policy involves liberalizing Russian society, and introducing civil rights
legislation.2 Furthermore, he has diverted from Communist principles by decentralizing the
economy, and giving more control to industry.3 However, one can debate the effects of his policies
on the Russian economy. His term has been referred to as the “Era of Stagnation,” because it has
seen a reduction in industrial and agricultural production.4
With this information in mind, it is now time for the committee to address the following
questions: How should Russia proceed with its domestic policy? Should it continue to pass policies
to liberalize the state? Should Brezhnev’s economic reforms continue? Will they be successful in the
short and long term? How will these economic policies affect the quality of life for Soviet citizens?
How far should these policies stray from Communist stances?
This weekend, you will discuss these issues with a variety of individuals from a variety of
viewpoints - your committee will include Leonid Brezhnev himself, as well as major players such as
Anastas Mikoyan, the Soviet Head of State, and Vasily Garbuzov, the Minister of Finance. You will
have to negotiate with these committee members in order to improve the USSR’s domestic policy.
The power is in your hands. Good luck delegates!
1 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, “Leonid Brezhnev,” Encyclopedia Britannica, Sept. 2016, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonid-Ilich-Brezhnev. 2 Jason Cheung, “Brezhnevs domestic and foreign policy successes and failures,” accessed 29 Oct. 2017, http://www.academia.edu/6865542/Brezhnevs_domestic_and_foreign_policy_successes_and_failures. 3 Ibid. 4 “Brezhnev and Economic Stagnation,” accessed 29 Oct. 2017, http://www.justrememberthepast.com/brezhnev-and-economic-stagnation.html.
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Topic 1: Human and Civil Rights
History
Pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary Russia
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was under the monarchical rule of Tsar Nicholas
II. Up until the Revolution in 1917, the Tsars of Russia ruled with little regard for their working and
peasant class people. In 1905, imperial guards opened fire on a demonstration outside the Tsar’s
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, killing around 1000.5 With the liberal press blaming Tsar Nicholas
for the massacre, sailors and workers staged protests demanding greater rights for lower classes. As a
result, the October Manifesto was issued by the Tsar giving civil liberties to the lower classes and
establishing an elected parliament called the Duma.6 The 1905 revolution was the first sign of civil
unrest within the working class and was a step in the direction of overthrowing the Tsar. In 1914,
Germany declares war on Russia forcing the country to enter WWI.7 The demands of the Russian
military were hard to meet, and the population was strained to survive the war against Germany. The
proletariat soldiers were forced to fight, contributing to further strain between the working class and
the rest of society. The war ended in 1918 with the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. Russia’s
population, railroad networks, industry iron supplies, coal, and food were ravished by the war.8
A class of intellectuals called the intelligentsia also existed during the Tsarist period. This
group included men like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who developed visions of a socialist post-
5 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. 6 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 7 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. 8 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. (Bushnell 2017)
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Tsar Russia. They were devoted to revolution in every aspect of their lives. A key part of their vision
for socialism was the division between the proletariat (working-class) citizens and the bourgeoisie
(wealthier class) that existed above the proletariat but below the ruling elite. The ideas about
socialism in Russia were based on giving power to the proletariat in order to control society. A
strong intelligentsia leader named Vladimir Lenin organized a party of Revolutionaries called the
Bolsheviks.
The February Revolution happened in the beginning of 1917, removing the Tsar, forcing
him to abdicate his monarchical rule, and establishing the Provisional Government led by Alexander
Kerensky comprised of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks—a less radical socialist party than the Bolsheviks—
and other liberals. With the desire to establish a true proletarian dictatorship, Lenin and the
Bolsheviks took over the government in October 1917. The October Revolution gave the
Bolsheviks complete control over the new socialist government and abolished the Provincial
Government. Throughout Russia, workers participated in local councils called Soviets. The
Bolsheviks rallied strong support from the Soviets because they promised to create a socialist society
with proletarian control. They carried themselves as the “vanguard of the proletariat.” 9
Russian Civil War and Post Revolutionary Russia
Following the end of WWI in 1918 and the October Revolution, a civil war erupted between
the Bolsheviks—reds—and Anti-Bolsheviks—whites. The internecine civil war hurt Russia and
caused famine and economic devastation.10 During the civil war, the Bolsheviks instituted the
economic policy of war communism which relied on the seizure of peasant grain and haphazard
9 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
10 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.
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military production.11 Following the conclusion of the war in 1920, there was grave famine and
hardship faced by the peasant and working classes.12 As a response to the crisis, Lenin and the
Bolsheviks convene during the 10th Party Congress to establish the New Economic Policy (NEP).
The policy was a retreat from pure socialism because it reinstated elements of a market economy.
With the partial-capitalism system, the nation was able to recover from many of its hardships.13 In
1922, the Union Treaty created the Soviet Union with the joining of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and
Transcaucasia. After the Soviet Union’s inception, it created a constitution based on the idea of
proletarian dictatorship. In 1924, Lenin died and Josef Stalin rose to power as the head of the
Politburo (the head Bolshevik party leaders).14
Stalinist Russia
In 1928, Stalin discarded the NEP and began his first Five-Year Plan to create a strong
industrial society.15 The plan included collectivization and crash industrialization. Collectivization
was meant to increase productivity of peasant agriculture, but only led to more grain seizures and
famine. With his industrialization plan, Stalin hoped for such large growth that his plan was
physically impossible to achieve given the growth projections in the allotted time. All parts of the
economy based their output goals on the growth numbers that Stalin wanted, but could not
produces nearly enough when the growth numbers for factors of production like steel were too low.
This led to a massive collapse of the economy and a growth of zero.16 In addition to revamping the
11 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 12 Ibid. 13 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10.;Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 14 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 15 Ibid. 16 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10
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economy, Stalin created the Central Committee to censure art, literature, music and more.17 Due to
the failure of the first Five-Year Plan, Stalin imposed a second Five-Year Plan. He closed Russia’s
borders to the rest of the world and isolated it so that it could focus on perfecting industrialism.
While the Soviet Union faced major economic problems in the 1930s, Stalin’s industrialization
proved to be eventually successful in fielding a stronger military, and with widespread economic
collapse in the rest of the world, the USSR gained admirers across the West.
In 1934, leader of the Leningrad Soviet Sergei Kirov was assassinated. While it was done by
a lone gunman, Stalin became paranoid that it was inspired by prominent party faction leaders
Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Leon Trotsky.18 Stalin began his great purges by killing 70% of his central
committee.19 He was paranoid that his political party was filled by spies who had plots to assassinate
him. Therefore, he destroyed most of his party. During the purges from 1937 to 1938, the secret
police killed 1.6 million citizens and arrested 680,000.20 Additionally, the population of forced labor
camps known as the Gulags soared from 0.5 million people to reach 1.3 million by the end of the
purges.
World War II
In 1934, the Soviet Union was added to the League of Nations amid rising international
tension.21 In August of 1939, a week after the USSR and Nazi Germany concluded a non-aggression
pact, Germany proceeded to invade Poland, ultimately triggering World War II. Soon after, the
Soviets invaded Poland from the East and annexed a portion of the country. Stalin went on to annex
the Baltic States as well, and forced minor territorial concessions from Finland despite an
17 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 18 Ibid.
19 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10 20 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 21 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.
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embarrassingly weak performance by the Soviet military. Worried about potential domestic attacks,
the USSR signed a nonaggression pact with Japan in April of 1941. Germany invaded that June,
besieging Leningrad and nearly capturing Moscow before being stopped by a cold winter and Soviet
reinforcements transferred from the border with Japanese-occupied China.22 Despite the numerous
defeats the USSR experienced at the hands of the Nazis, the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943
fundamentally shifted the course of the war. Superior Soviet leadership, numbers of troops, and war
tactics combined with Adolf Hitler’s micromanaging, personal intransigence, and poor battlefield
leadership allowed the Soviets to force Nazi Germany on the defensive for the rest of the war.23
With the capture of Berlin in May of 1945 led by a Soviet general counter-offensive, World War II
had effectively ended. However, the postwar conditions of Europe left plenty for the USSR and
Allies to handle.
In 1945, the USSR and Allies reached an understanding of the “spheres of influence” in
Europe during the Yalta and Potsdam summit conferences. Stalin had also agreed to permit free
elections in Eastern Europe in return for lands lost to Japan during the Russo-Japanese War of
1905.24 These agreements also lasted only briefly, however, as the Soviet-American wartime
cooperation faded and the Cold War began. In order to promote the ideology of communism, the
USSR reneged on its promise free elections, installing left-wing governments in countries of Eastern
Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army during the war. A more practical reason why the
USSR took such steps was out of determination to prevent any possible renewed threat from
Germany. The strength of the USSR on the continent worried the US and Great Britain as they now
22 "Soviet Union timeline." BBC News. October 31, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 23 "Why did Germany lose the Battle of Stalingrad?" Why did Germany lose the Battle of Stalingrad? - DailyHistory.org. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://dailyhistory.org/Why_did_Germany_lose_the_Battle_of_Stalingrad%3F. 24 History.com Staff. "Yalta Conference." History.com. 2009. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/yalta-conference.
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sought to maintain the democracies of Western Europe. Thus, by 1947, the Cold War was well
under way as the US unrolled the Marshall Plan and the USSR responded with openly communist
regimes in Eastern Europe.25
A series of passive aggressions ensued during 1948 to 1953. This included the Berlin
Blockade, another component of the USSR’s salami tactics to divide and conquer further portions of
Europe. Hoping to strip Germany of its wealth and machinery, the USSR sought to prevent the
country from ever rising to the power it once was while the US wished to rebuild German
industries.26 Another significant event was the termination of the American monopoly on the atomic
bomb as the USSR successfully exploded their first warhead in 1949. Shortly after, the waves of
communism succeeded in mainland China and North Korea, with the USSR setting off an indecisive
Korean War against the US-supported South Korea.27
After Stalin’s death in 1953, Georgi Malenkov became prime minister and Nikita
Khrushchev became the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. By 1955,
Malenkov was replaced by Nikolay Bulganin and the Warsaw Pact was set up, placing the Soviets in
command of the armed forces of the USSR and seven of its European satellites in preparation of
attack from outside forces.28 A post-Stalin thaw then began in 1956, with Khrushchev denouncing
the dictator’s rule and his cult of personality to the 20th Communist Party Congress. This proved
helpful as Khrushchev had secured the position of prime minister by 1958. Whilst this occurred, the
USSR continued to improve its arms and space technology as it exploded its first hydrogen bomb
and launched the first-ever artificial earth satellite Sputnik in full orbit of the Earth. That being said,
25 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Cold War." Encyclopædia Britannica. February 17, 2017. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 26 What Caused The Berlin Blockade. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.johndclare.net/EC3.htm. 27 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Cold War." Encyclopædia Britannica. February 17, 2017. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 28 "The Warsaw Pact is formed." History.com. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-warsaw-pact-is-formed.
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during the late 1950s, the decreased hostility towards the US led to China falling out of the Moscow
policy as it disagreed with any peaceful coexistence with the West. The USSR now faced internal
issues as it was being questioned of its allegiance to communism by those who had adopted the
ideology because of Soviets in the first place.29
Current situation
De-Stalinization and Power Shifts Under Khrushchev
On February 25th, 1956, Khrushchev gave a speech to the 20th Congress of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union that would come to be known as On the Personality Cult and Its
Consequences.30 In the speech, Khrushchev described Stalin, a revered figure in the Soviet mythos, as a
ruthless dictator who murdered and tortured dissenters. Despite the fact that it was intended to be
kept secret, and no copies were allowed except the ones read to local parties within the USSR,
rumors swirled throughout the Western world of the secret speech. The rumors were confirmed
when that summer, several Western newspapers, including the New York Times and The Observer,
received and published copies of the speech.31 Khrushchev’s speech marked the beginning of the
Thaw, a trend of moving away from Stalinist practices such as the murder and imprisonment of
dissidents and other perceived threats. For example, over 8 million people were freed from Gulags
during the Thaw. The Thaw also featured relaxations, albeit inconsistent ones, on censorship, with
the allowing of books that were more critical of the USSR to be published. 32
29 "Soviet Union timeline." BBC News. October 31, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 30 Richard Cavendish. “Stalin Denounced by Nikita Khrushchev,” History Today, February 2006, http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/stalin-denounced-nikita-khrushchev 31 John Rettie. “The Secret Speech That Changed World History,” The Guardian, February 25 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/26/russia.theobserver 32 “Khrushchev Thaw,” The New World Encyclopedia, April 10 2013, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Khrushchev_Thaw
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In the late 1950s, Khrushchev began consolidating power within the party, rather than the
government. In 1957, when members of the Presidium, the legislative authority in the USSR,
demanded that Khrushchev step down from his role as Prime Minister and become the Minister of
Agriculture, Khrushchev kept them busy while Minister of Defense George Zhukov mobilized the
Khrushchev supporters in the Central Committee to the Kremlin to give Khrushchev the majority.
Khrushchev’s opponents, such as Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov, were removed from
their roles in the Presidium and the Central Committee and were labeled as the anti-party group
because they opposed the party running the country rather than the government. With this move,
Khrushchev was able to consolidate power with the Communist Party, which remained the status
quo until the collapse of the Soviet Union.33
Khrushchev’s Fall From Popularity and Economic Policy
In 1962, the United States discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba, leading
to a thirteen day standoff during which the world was preparing for the possibility of nuclear war
between the East and the West. However, the situation was defused when Nikita Khrushchev, then
the Secretary General of the Soviet Communist Party and leader of the USSR, negotiated a deal with
John F. Kennedy, then the U.S. president, to remove the missiles in exchange for a public promise
to not invade Cuba and a private removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey.34 Since then, between
unpopular foreign and domestic policies, along with the perceived embarrassment that was the
Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev became increasingly unpopular among party leadership and in
October was ousted from his role as leader of the Soviet Union.35
33 Robert Conquest, Martin McCauley, John C. Dewdney, and Richard E. Pipes. “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” Encyclopaedia Britannica, March 10, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union 34 “Cuban Missile Crisis,” History.com, Accessed October 29, 2017, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis. 35 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf.
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One of the biggest factors that contributed to people’s and government officials’ discontent
throughout Khrushchev’s administration was his economic policy. During his tenure Khrushchev
introduced several agricultural initiatives addressing the country’s chronic food issues and shortages.
His insistence on agricultural development also likely stems from his own personal experience and
tragedy. In 1921 his first wife died of typhus because of a famine.36 One of Khrushchev’s plans
consisted of greatly increasing chemical fertilization of farmland to increase crop yields. This
campaign was part of a broader effort by Khrushchev to try to and prioritize consumer goods over
heavier industry and defense development. As a result, Soviet defense officials started to resent what
they saw as Khrushchev overstepping his boundaries and micromanaging, since Khrushchev wanted
to allocate military resources to his chemical program.37 This alienation of the military lead to them
and high-ranking government officials who disagreed with Khrushchev to collaborate and scheme in
opposition of Khrushchev, ultimately leading to his deposition from power.
Another unpopular initiative of Khrushchev was the Virgin Lands Program, in which
Khrushchev attempted to vastly increase the amount of farmable land by cultivating regions that had
never been farmed before such as Siberia and Kazakhstan.38 The program was initially successful,
achieving a historically high yield of grain in 1956 and thereby encouraging Khrushchev to invest
and devote more resources to it. However, in the succeeding years the percentage yield fluctuated
considerably between harvests, sometimes losing 40% of the yield after only 1 year.39 After 11 years
of intensive farming and fertilization the soil became exhausted, and since anti-erosion measures
were not properly taken millions of tons of topsoil was also lost to the wind, leaving the farmland
36 Watkins, Thayer. “The Virgin Lands Program in the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev.”San José State University Department of Economics, San José State University, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/virginlands.htm. 37 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf. 38 Medvedkov, Yuri V., and Geoffrey Alan Hosking. “The Khrushchev Era (1953–64).”Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 13 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Khrushchev-era-1953-64. 39 Watkins, Thayer. “The Virgin Lands Program in the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev.”San José State University Department of Economics, San José State University, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/virginlands.htm.
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barren. This project was viewed as a failure and contributed to an increasingly negative view of
Khrushchev’s competency as a leader.
New Leadership
Since Khrushchev’s removal from power, leadership in the country has largely been split
between two people: the new First Secretary of the Communist Party, Leonid Brezhnev, and the
new Premier, Aleksey Kosygin.40 Brezhnev is openly a supporter of of Khrushchev and his policies
of de-Stalinization, and he has made himself the logical next choice to lead the Party after becoming
Khrushchev’s Second Secretary of the Central Committee.41 Kosygin on the other hand has risen to
power independent of Khrushchev, and many of his shining moments have occurred at times when
Khrushchev looked bad in the eyes of the public; additionally, Kosygin has been against the removal
of the anti-party group that opposed Khrushchev in the 50s.42 Largely thanks to Khrushchev, Soviet
Union has fundamentally changed since the death of Stalin. Khrushchev’s economic plans are still
affecting the Soviet Union and there is more individual freedom and less censorship. Furthermore,
old methods of killing or imprisoning anybody seen as a political enemy are no longer in favor and
power has shifted from the state itself to the Communist Party.
Questions to Consider
1. How should Russia handle the transition of power following Krushchev?
2. How can Russia improve its economy?
3. How should the Cold War affect Russia’s domestic policy?
40 Ibid. 41 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, “Leonid Brezhnev,” Encyclopædia Britannica, September 27 2016, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonid-Ilich-Brezhnev. 42 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf.
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Topic 2: Proxy Wars
Historical Background
The United States and the Nuclear Arms Race
U.S.-USS. hostility began in 1917, when the Bolshevik Revolution effectively removed
Russia from World War I. The US participated in an abortive attempt to support anti-Communist
forces during the Russian Civil War, but ultimately abandoned the project. It was not until 1933 that
the United States established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and, by then, the hostile
nature of the Stalin regime made a friendly relationship between the two countries unlikely.43
Tensions did ease somewhat during World War II when the U.S. provided aid to the Soviet Union
and other allied powers through the Lend-Lease Act.44 However, the end of the war came with a
massive change of the global political climate as the U.S. used the first atomic bombs on Nagasaki
and Hiroshima in 1945. Four years later, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, ending the
United States’ monopoly on nuclear weapons.45
In 1947, between the end of WWII and the successful development of the Soviet Union’s
first atomic bomb, U.S. President Harry Truman gave a speech asking Congress to approve aid to
the Greek Government in its civil war against the Greek Communist Party. In his speech, Truman
declared that the U.S. would provide monetary, political, and military aid to any country fighting
43 “Revelations from the Russian Archives,” Library of Congress, last modified February 1, 2001, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html. 44 Ibid. 45 Ray Locker, “What’s the arms race? A short history,” USA Today, December 23, 2016, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/12/23/whats-arms-race-short-history/95792412/.
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internal or external authoritarian forces, including Communists. This policy became known as the
Truman Doctrine.46
With the Soviet Union now a nuclear power, Truman authorized the development of the
hydrogen bomb, a bomb 800 times more powerful than those that destroyed Nagasaki and
Hiroshima. Though the U.S. had developed its first hydrogen bomb by 1952, the Soviet Union
followed soon after by 1953.47 Tensions continued to build between the two countries as each built
up its own nuclear arsenal. These tensions came to a head in October 16, 1962 when the U.S.
discovered that the Soviet Union was placing nuclear missiles capable of reaching the mainland
United States in Cuba.48 Khrushchev developed the plan as an attempt to outplay the United States
in the strategic deployment of nuclear weapons and to protect Cuba’s Communist government from
another U.S.-backed invasion. Over the next twelve days, the two governments communicated
extensively until they reached an agreement that the Soviet Union would remove the missiles in
exchange for assurance that the U.S. would not invade Cuba and dismantle nuclear missiles it had
placed in Turkey.49
NATO and the Warsaw Pact
After WWII, the Western Allies were concerned about the Soviet Union’s growing sphere
of influence since pro-Soviet communist governments had been installed in countries the USSR had
freed from Nazi occupation.50 In 1948, a Soviet-backed coup successfully overthrew the
democratically elected government in Czechoslovakia; later that same year, the Soviet Union blocked
46 “The Truman Doctrine, 1947,” Office of the Historian, last modified March 26, 2007, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine. 47 John Swift, “The Soviet-Americans Arms Race,” History Today, March 2009, http://www.historytoday.com/john-swift/soviet-american-arms-race. 48 “The Cold War,” Atom Central, last modified February 1, 2002, http://www.atomcentral.com/the-cold-war.aspx. 49 “Revelations from the Russian Archives,” Library of Congress, last modified February 1, 2001, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html. 50 “Formation of NATO,” History.com, last modified April 14, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/formation-of-nato-and-warsaw-pact.
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all ground supplies from reaching the American-controlled portion of Berlin in response to the
Western announcement of a new Deutsche Mark, which the USSR condemned in an extensive
propaganda campaign. The U.S., Britain, and France responded by airlifting in supplies in a massive
effort known as the Berlin Airlift. These events greatly escalated tensions and convinced United
States officials that they should take a harder stance against communist expansion and devise a
security agreement with their allies to combat it.51
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, otherwise known as NATO, was formed in April
of 1949 with founding members of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States.52 All member countries
became military allies under Article 5, which states that if any NATO member is attacked, the attack
would be perceived as an attack against all of the countries in NATO. Such an agreement sought to
ensure the member countries’ security and deter the Soviets from aggressive actions.
Following NATO’s formation, other European countries wished to join as well; Greece and
Turkey joined in 1952. To counter the growing power of NATO the Soviet Union formed the
Warsaw Pact in 1955, spurred by the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) joining NATO
earlier that year.53 The pact has a similar agreement to NATO’s Article 5 in which its members vow
to retaliate against any attack against any other member nations. Though the Warsaw Pact
emphasized the members’ independence from external interference, the Soviet Union has been able
to use the Warsaw Pact strengthen its influence over its satellite countries. 54 The formation of these
two rival coalitions have set the stage for the Cold War and become a source of diplomatic tension
and confrontation.
51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 “The Warsaw Treaty Organization, 1955,” Office of the Historian, last modified August 8, 2007, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/warsaw-treaty. 54 Ibid.
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Communism Abroad: Korea, China, and Vietnam
After World War II, Korea, formerly under control of the Japanese, fell under the joint
control of the Soviet Union and the United States. The peninsula was divided at the 38th parallel,
with the Soviets taking the North side and the U.S. taking the South. By 1950, the U.S. backed
dictator Syngman Rhee led the South, and the Soviet backed dictator Kim Il-Sung led the North.55
Although neither the USSR nor the U.S. desired conflict on the Korean peninsula, both sides were
providing military aid and training to their respective ally.56 However, after several failures in
Europe, Stalin began to see Korea as another possibility to expand the influence of Communism
and the Soviet Union. In April 1950, Stalin gave permission for Kim Il-Sung to invade South Korea
with support from the Chinese government. The Soviet Union agreed to provide weapons and
training to both governments, but did not tie itself directly to the war, avoiding direct confrontation
with the United States.57 The war ended in an uneasy stalemate that could explode back into all-out
war at any moment.
The Sino-Soviet relationship dates to the formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
which the Communist International (Comintern), a Moscow-based agency aimed at supporting
Communist parties worldwide, helped create. Through the 1920s, the CCP followed the
Comintern’s advice on ideology and methodology, allowing Moscow to control the development of
Chinese Communism. 58 However, the Soviet Union also supported the Kuomintang, believing that
China was ready for a democratic-Capitalist revolution rather than a socialist one. This caused
tension when Mao Zedong took control of the CCP in the 1930s, as he believed that China was
ready for a socialist revolution. This marks the beginning of the rift between the Communist parties
55 “Korean War,” History.com, last modified January 29, 2011, http://www.history.com/topics/korean-war. 56 Mark O'Neill, "Soviet Involvement in the Korean War: A New View from the Soviet-Era Archives," OAH Magazine of History 14, no. 3 (2000): 20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163360. 57 Ibid, 21. 58 “Sino-Soviet Relations,” Alpha History, last modified September 7, 2015, alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/sino-soviet-relations/.
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of the Soviet Union and China since the CCP supported Mao Zedong.59 After the successful
Communist revolution in China, the Soviets and the Chinese signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of
Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance. Despite this agreement, tension between the two
governments increased due to ideological beliefs, especially with Khrushchev’s policy of de-
Stalinization.60
Beyond Korea, the Comintern also helped to develop the Communist Party in Vietnam, and
Ho Chi Minh, one of the founders of the French Communist Party, even traveled to Moscow to
study Communist theory and activism. Initially, the USSR gave little support for the Communist
movement in Vietnam after WWII. However, as U.S.-Soviet tensions rose in the late 1940s and Mao
Zedong took control in China, the Soviet Union recognized Ho Chi Minh as the leader of Vietnam
in 1950. Moreover, the USSR encouraged China to provide military support for Ho Chi Minh and
his Viet Minh in their war for independence from the French. 1n 1954, after the death of Stalin, the
Soviet Union pressured the Viet Minh to sign the Geneva Accords rather than unify the rest of
Vietnam by force, leading to the formation of North and South Vietnam.61
Current Situation
Continuing Rising Cold-War Tensions
The ascension of Khrushchev promised an increasingly relaxed period of Cold War tensions
as he denounced Stalin’s rule and “cult of personality.” This expectation was tested in 1960 when
the Soviet Union shot down a U.S. U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory.62 Khrushchev refused to
accept that the U.S. government was unaware of its flights, demanding no more further flights over
59 Ibid. 60 Robert L. Worden, Andrea Matles Savada and Ronald E. Dolan, China: A Country Study (Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987). 61 “Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam.”; “Vietnam profile - Timeline,” BBC, October 30, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16568035. 62 "Soviet Union timeline," BBC News, October 31, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.
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the state and an apology. The USSR’s insistence caused a collapse of a Paris summit conference
between the U.S., USSR, United Kingdom, and France.63 Such distrust continued with the Cuban
Missile Crisis in 1962. Such events in 1963 stimulated the creation of a direct “hotline,” a form of
communication between Washington and Moscow to defuse future situations.64 The two countries
also signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, banning above-ground nuclear weapons testing.
Despite the peaceful negotiations, Khrushchev proceeded to invest in intercontinental ballistic
missiles capable of reaching the U.S. from Soviet territory. The Soviets were determined to achieve
military superiority, building conventional and strategic forces and arms that the U.S. would have to
follow.65
Fight for Communism in Vietnam Continued
Despite the agreements of the Geneva Accords, political dissidents began rallying in South
Vietnam in response to rising Communist insurgency since 1957. Weapons and troops from North
Vietnam began infiltrating the South, pressuring the U.S. to increase aid and military advisors to
South Vietnam.66 Soviet continued to provide only information supplies, technical advisors, and
moral support for North Vietnam leaders throughout the early 1960s, . Worried about direct U.S.
conflict, Khrushchev sought to further disassociate the USSR from rising troubles in Vietnam.67 By
1963, the Viet Cong, communist guerrillas, managed to defeat the ARVN, the South Vietnamese
Army. In addition, South Vietnamese President Diem was overthrown in a U.S.-backed military
coup. After North Vietnamese patrol boats fired on two U.S. Navy destroyers, the U.S. Congress
63 "U-2 Incident," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified May 2, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/U-2-Affair. 64 "Cuban Missile Crisis," History.com, last modified March 13, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis. 65 “Cold War," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modifiedSeptember 18, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 66 "Vietnam profile - Timeline," BBC News, October 30, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16568035. 67 "Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam," Alpha History, last modified April 3, 2016, http://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/chinese-and-soviet-involvement/.
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approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, officially allowing U.S. military action in the region this
year.68
1964 has also ushered in the Brezhnev era, which installed Aleksy Kosygin as prime minister
once Khrushchev was removed as leader in October. Foreign policy attitudes markedly shifted as
Kosygin placated hardliners in Soviet military through a public message of support for the National
Liberation Front and as Brezhnev announced a state visit to North Vietnam in the new year. Soviet
diplomats are also in negotiations for a defense treaty with the North Vietnamese in which the
USSR would provide financial aid, military equipment advisors, and training.69 Soviet relations with
China, however, continue to deteriorate, and there is worry that China’s relative stagnation in the last
decade will cause the Chinese Communist Party to take action that Moscow does not approve.70
Another indicator of severed ties was the USSR withdrawal of support for China’s nuclear weapons
program, believing that Mao was unreliable.71
Spreading Communism in Europe
In 1956, after Khrushchev criticized Stalin’s dictatorial ways, the Hungarian Revolution
began. Khrushchev's rhetoric encouraging debate, unrest, and discontent in Hungary led to a
breakout of internal hostility in October. In the first phase of the uprising, the rebels groups were
victorious. When Imre Nagy became premier, his agreement to a multiparty system and appeal to
the United Nations for support angered the Soviet Union. In November, the USSR invaded
Hungary to halt the Revolution and remove Nagy from rule. Despite this Soviet response, Hungry
gradually evolved into an increasingly autonomous state, independent of Soviet influence.72
68 "Vietnam profile - Timeline.". 69 "Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam.". 70 Ibid. 71 “Détente,” United States History, last modified March 9, 2004, http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1946.html. 72 "Hungarian Revolution," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified February 1, 2001,. https://www.britannica.com/event/Hungarian-Revolution-1956.
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In contrast to Hungary, the situation in Czechoslovakia is more complex. The Stalinist
regime in the state was threatened in March 1953 after Stalin’s death. The emergence of the
staunchly communist Antonin Novotny as First Secretary led to intense purges against sporadic
farmers riots against communist authorities, as well as government officials who attempted to ease
repression.73 After President Zapotocky died in 1957, Novotny assumed presidential duty with the
help of his apparatchik faction, which sought to maintain Stalinism. However, acute economic
problems, pressure from Slovak groups, and a rising student population restless from restriction
continues to brew.74
New Proposed Policies
Appointed as leader of the Soviet Union in late 1964, Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev is an astute,
cautious political figure with distinct goals in foreign policy. He aspires to dispose any breakdown of
communism in political, military, and economic terms, normalize the relationship between the U.S.
and the USSR, and support communist movements throughout the world.75
Brezhnev practices two major forms of foreign action. Although it has not yet been formally
outlined, allies of Brezhnev have made it a policy to intervene in any Warsaw Pact nation being
threatened by capitalist forces, both internal and external. Since the death of Stalin, subversive
capitalist elements have emerged in many Eastern Bloc states, trying to reverse the progress of
communism. Brezhnev's policy makes one thing very clear: Eastern Bloc states are only independent
of Moscow as long as they can maintain communism for their citizens. Beyond intervention, post-
World War II conquests and the existence of the Warsaw Pact’s military alliances have created
73 John Bradley and Milan Hauner, "Czechoslovak history," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified March 7, 2016 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Czechoslovak-history/Czechoslovakia-1918-92#ref42118. 74 Ibid. 75 "Foreign policy in 1965-1984," Russia the Great, last modified April 1, 2002, http://russia.rin.ru/guides_e/7219.html.
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satellite states which are dependent upon the USSR for support.76 Under Brezhnev, foreign policy
has shifted from verbal to physical threats as the Soviet Union explicitly promised a swift punishing
end to any rebels seeking to weaken communist governments.77
Brezhnev has also made easy tensions with the United States a policy priority, especially
since the near-disaster of the Cuban Missile crisis. While less extreme communists disagree with
Brezhnev’s aggressive policies towards Eastern Bloc states, more extreme factions in the USSR are
voicing concern that rapprochement with the United States cold weaken the Soviet Union. The
USSR has already been snubbed by some communists in Southeast Asia in favor of the more
aggressively anti-Western Chinese, and Soviet hardliners are worried that friendly relations with the
US would hard the USSR’s legitimacy even more.
Questions to Consider
1. How can the Soviet Union successfully pursue its interests abroad without creating
potentially devastating conflict?
2. How should the USSR proceed with the development of nuclear weapons with the ever-
present threat of mutually assured destruction?
3. What components of communism should Russia begin integrating in other countries’
institutions?
76 Robert Wilde, "The Brezhnev Doctrine: The USSR Raises the Whip," ThoughtCo, last modified August 31, 2017, https://www.thoughtco.com/the-brezhnev-doctrine-1221487. 77 Wilde, "The Brezhnev Doctrine.”
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Committee Bloc Positions
Anti-Westernization
Since the liberalizing domestic reforms of Khrushchev, these individuals want to halt any
further social changes that attempt to uproot the country’s core values. They believe these changes
are undermining the strengths of the Soviet Union and the core tenets that allowed them to grow
into a global superpower. Rather than emulate the West, they view the West and its form of
governance as undermining their ability to rule. Not everyone agrees upon how much change is
necessary. While some merely want to maintain the new status quo established by Khrushchev,
others want to reverse the clock and initiate policies more similar to those that existed before he
came to power.
Pro-Westernization
These individuals view the current tumultuous relationships with the West as threatening to
Soviet existence. Rather than demonize the West, they desire to further incorporate some of its
liberal policies to improve the nation’s financial standing. Led by Kosygin, this faction believes that
reform, especially in regard to increasing industry and the production of consumer goods, would
greatly benefit the economy. However, they face strong opposition from conservative minded
individuals who do not want to see any significant change.
Committee Biographies
Alexei Kosygin, Premier of the Soviet Union
Alexei Kosygin took his position as Premier of the Soviet Union in 1964 with the fall of
Khrushchev. He is considered liberal in his domestic policies by many Soviets, as he seeks to
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decentralize economic planning in the hopes of creating a more efficient economy focused on
fulfilling consumer needs. 78
Anastas Mikoyan, Head of State
Mr. Mikoyan was the chairman of the presidium of the Supreme Soviet, or president of the
Soviet Union. Domestically, he has been influenced by American merchandising and attempted to
implement these capitalistic tactics into the Soviet Union. He is well known for his understanding
and quick reaction to Soviet party politics as well as his moderate stance on new leadership.
Nikolai Podgorny, Member of the 22nd Presidium
Podgorny holds a progressive view regarding the economic policies of the Soviet Union due
to his support for a consumer goods-focused economy a . He is moderate in regard to social issues.79
Matvei Zakharov, Marshal of the Soviet Union
Reappointed to his military post by Brezhnev, Zakharov had not been a fan of Khrushchev.
Zakharov believes that the politicians should not interfere with the will of military officials who
know more about matters of war. Interference could weaken the military, an essential tool for Soviet
power and global influence. 80
78 J.Y. Smith, “Alexei Kosygin, Premier of Soviet Union for 16 Years, Dies at 76,” Washington Post, December 20, 1980, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1980/12/20/alexei-kosygin-premier-of-soviet-union-for-16-years-dies-at-76/0fd526c7-3731-4436-a95f-4ef9a2d10c94/?utm_term=.d10badcd4c2a. 79 J.Y. Smith, “Anastas Mikoyan, Prominent in Soviet for Half Century Dies,” Washington Post, October 23, 1978, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/10/23/anastas-mikoyan-prominent-in-soviet-for-half-century-dies/c0c5c187-2efc-4719-9fe2-364a7485c7f7/?utm_term=.f017003eacf8. 80 Dale Herspring, The Soviet High Command, 1967-1988: Personalities and Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 50-54.
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Nikolai Shchelokov, Minister of Public Order
Shchelokov’s high position in the Soviet Union is due, in large part, to Brezhnev, his friend,
who he has consistently supported. 81 In his role, he ensures that the Soviet Union’s populace is
under control and that the country is operating efficiently.
Andrei Gromyko, Minister of Foreign Affairs
Andrei Gromykno serves as the Minister of Foreign Affairs. He typically supports
conservative policies regarding economic and social reformsConsidered a conscious politician, He is
known as a risk-averse invididual compared to others members of the party.
Rodion Malinovksy, Minister of Defense
Rodion Malinovksy serves as the Defense Minister, focusing on the restructuring and
military buildup of the Soviet Union. Malinovsky adheres strictly to Soviet doctrines and is one of
the key internal Soviet members whomBrezhnev has relied on for support within the government. 82
Nikolai Psurtsev, Minister of Communications
Nikolai Psurtsev was appointed the USSR Minister of Communications in 1948. Psurtsev
has been interested in expanding the nation’s broadcasting capabilities in addition to passing
legislation that would prevent the inflow of information and media from other countries.83
81 “Ex-General Buried in Moscow,” New York Times, December 16, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/12/16/world/ex-general-buried-in-moscow.html. 82 “Lebow,” Jonathan Renshon Department of Political Science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, http://jonathanrenshon.com/Teaching/NPS/DecisionMaking/Lebow.pdf. 83 Leonid Trofimov, The Soviet Media at the Onset of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004).
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Vasily Garbuzov, Minister of Finance
Vasily Garbuzov has been the Finance Minister of the Soviet Union under both Khrushchev
and Brezhnev.84 He supports communist economic doctrines and encourages rapid economic
growth within the Soviet Union. Additionally, he is currently focused on increasing the share of the
national income that reaches the general population to further grow the Soviet economy.
Vladimir Semichastny, Chairman of the Committee for State Security
As the leader of the KGB, Semichastny not only runs operations inside the country to
restore order and find political dissidentsbut also to collect information about countries throughout
the world. It was partly on his recommendation that the Berlin wall was built. He sees the KGB as
vital to the success of the Soviet Union and would not like to see its power weakened.85
Dmitry Ustinov, First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Ustinov was a pioneer in the development of Soviet rocket technology. He understands that
technological advancement and the battle of arms is quintessential in determining which nation will
have the upper hand.86 Only through domestic coordination and cooperation can these weapons,
which are vital on the international stage, properly develop. He also believes that a hard-line stance
must be taken against the United States.87
84 George James, “Vasily Garbuzov Dead at 74; Long Soviet Finance Minister,” New York Times, November 14, 1985, http://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/14/world/vasily-garbuzov-dead-at-74-long-soviet-finance-minister.html. 85 “Vladimir Semichastny,” The Economist, January 18, 2001, http://www.economist.com/node/478480. 86 “Dmitri Ustinov,” Global Security, last modified February 21, 2016, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/ustinov.htm. 87 Serge Schmemann, “Defense Minister of Soviet Union is Dead at Age 76,” New York Times, December 22, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/12/22/world/defense-minister-of-soviet-union-is-dead-at-age-76.html.
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Boris Ponomarev, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Boris Ponomarev is a member of the secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union and serves as the Head of the International Department under Brezhnev. Domestically, he
believes it is necessary to return to pure Marxist-Leninist policies. He is a strong proponent of
traditional communist practices and opposes the “Westernization” of the economy.88
Anatoly Dobrynin, Ambassador to the U.S.
Dobrynin communicates Soviet interests abroad, relays U.S. desires back to the Soviet
Union, and prevents miscommunication between the nations that could result in a destructive
nuclear war. Kurashov has already shown his talents, having met with Robert F. Kennedy during the
Cuban Missile Crisis in which clear lines of communication were established between the two
powers.89
Efim Slavsky, Minister of Medium Machine-Building Industry
Andrei Sakharov is a well-known dissident of communist politics. He is a champion of
human rights and directly opposes the corruption of the Soviet hierarchy. Previously, he was a
physicist responsible for the creation of the Soviet Union’s first nuclear bomb.90
88 Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 112-116. 89 Robert McFadden, “Anatoly F. Dobrynin, Longtime Soviet Ambassador to the U.S., Dies at 90,” New York Times, April 8, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/09/world/europe/09dobrynin.html. 90 Walter Sullivan, “Papers Reveal Sakharov’s Wide Insight on Science,” New York Times, July 26, 1982, http://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/26/us/papers-reveal-sakharov-s-wide-insight-on-science.html.
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Sergei Kurashov, Minister of Health
Sergei Kurashov works to improve the medical and psychiatric facilities in the Soviet Union
to improve public health. Kurashov supports pro-Westernization with regard to the USSR’s
healthcare system. 91
Alexander Shelepin
Shelepin is a power player in Soviet politics, siting on the Politburo and Secretariat, wielding
considerable influence. The director of the KGB from 1958-1961, his influence is generally credited
with causing Khruschev to fall out of favor with the KGB, and Shelepin is considered a principle
player in Brezhnev’s rise to power. However, Shelepin is on of the last remaining hardline Stalinists
and is viewed with suspicion by the thawed Soviet leadership.
Leoinid Brezhnev
Brezhnev is, at least officially, the man in change of the Soviet Union. Although his grip on
power is not as tight as Stalin’s was, all people in the Soviet Union are theoretically loyal to him.
How successful Brezhnev can be will not be decided by his extreme official authority, but whether
he can outmaneuver those who seek to undermine him.
Mikhail Suslov
Suslov is generally considered to be the power behind Brezhnev and is one of only four
Soviets to hold positions on both the Politburo and Secretariat. Known for his work in promoting
“collective leadership,” Suslov is the chief ideological architect of Brezhnev’s platform, and has
influence with the more intellectual wing of the Communist Party.
91 Joseph Richard Quinn, The United States- USSR Exchange Agreements in Public Health, 1958-1967 (Ann Arbor: Georgetown University Press, 1968).
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Sergei Kurashov
Kerashov is the Minister of Public Health, able to impart policy changes on topics ranging
from nutrition to disease to biological warfare.
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