138avap presentation ramayya
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8/8/2019 138aVap Presentation Ramayya
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Pneumonia can be a life threatening
condition
Is Something Serious ? Hospital-acquired
pneumonia (HAP)
and ventilator-
associated
pneumonia (VAP), is
an important cause
of morbidity andmortality in
hospitalized patients.
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Ventilator associated pneumonia
Ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP) is
defined as nosocomial pneumonia occurring
in a patient after 48 hours of mechanical
ventilation via a tracheal or tracheostomy
tube. It is commonly classified as either early
onset (occurring within 96 hours of start of
mechanical ventilation) or late onset (>96hours after start of mechanical ventilation)
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Early concepts
As early as 1972, studies have shown that theairway of mechanically ventilated patientsquickly becomes colonized with gram-negative
organisms. In the past, it was thought thatpathogens came from the ventilatorequipment in use. However, as the problemwas studied and evidence accumulated, it
became evident that the origin of the VAP wasfrom a source other than the ventilatorequipment.
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Centres for Disease and Control
The diagnosis of pneumonia inmechanically ventilatedpatients is difficult, and
still there is no "gold-standard" diagnosticmethod. It is usually basedon the combination of clinical,radiological, and
microbiological criteriadefined by Centres forDisease and Control(CDC)
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Challenge and Controversy
The diagnosis andmanagement of VAPremains one of the
mostcontroversial and challenging
topics inmanagement of critically ill patients.
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Who are prone -High Risk Patients
For Sepsis ± Post op / post procedure / post trauma
± Post splenectomy (encapsulated organisms)
± Cancer
± Transplant / immune supressed
± Alcoholic / Malnourished
For Dying ± Genetic predisposition (e.g. meningococcus)
± Delayed appropriate antibiotics
± Yeasts and Enterococcus
± Site
For Both ± Cultural or religious impediment to treatment
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Nosocomial infection are
Multidrug Resistant Many patients with HAP,
VAP, and HCAP are atincreased risk for colonization and
infection with MDR pathogens
HAP and VAP are afrequent cause of nosocomial infection thatis associated with a higher crude mortality than other hospital-acquiredinfections
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Aspiration Aspiration of colonized
pathogenicmicroorganisms on theoropharynx andgastrointestinal tract isthe main route for thedevelopment of VAP. Onthe other hand, the major
risk factor for VAP isintubation and theduration of mechanicalventilation
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V ariation of Incidence Rate
In different studies, the incidence of VAP was
reported different, depending on the
definition, the type of hospital or ICU, the
population studied, and the type of rate
calculated and varies from 7% to 70% In a
large database, 1-day point prevalence study,
conducted in 1417 European ICUs, pneumoniaaccounted for 47% of nosocomial infections
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Aero digestive ,upper airway + upper
digestive tract contribute pathogens
The primary route of
VAP pathogenesis is a
combination of two
processes: bacterialcolonization of the aero
digestive (upper airway
+ upper digestive) tract
and the subsequentaspiration into the
lower airway.
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Time frame of intubation and risk
Risk of pneumonia at
intubation days
± 3.3% per day at day 5
± 2.3% per day at day
10
± 1.3% per day at day
15
.
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PAHOGENESIS ± The pathogenesis of
ventilator-associated
pneumonia usually
requires that two
important processes
take place:
Bacterial colonization of
the aero digestive tract
The aspiration of contaminated secretions
into the lower airway.
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Mechanical device also
contributes the events
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Etiology
Bacteria causemost cases of HAP,VAP, and HCAP
and manyinfections are polymicrobial;rates are especiallyhigh in patientswith ARDS
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Causative Organisms
Early onset: ± Haemophilus influenza ± Streptococcus pneumoniae ± Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin sensitive) ± Escherichia coli ± Klebseilla
Late onset: ± Pseudomonas aeruginosa ± Acinetobacter ± Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin
resistant)
Most strains responsible for early onset VAP are antibiotic sensitive. Those responsible forlate onset VAP are usually multiple antibioticresistant
Am J Resp Crit Care (1995)
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Summary of pathogens responsible for VAP in a study of 420 patients.
Hunter J D Postgrad Med J 2006;82:172-178
©2006 by The Fellowship of Postgraduate Medicine20doctortvrao@gmail.com
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Drug resistance a concern in Ventilator
Associated Pneumonias
A. baumanni was themost common emergingisolated pathogen manyof them were multidrug-
resistant (MDR) or pandrug-resistant (PDR). Theother common isolatedpathogens were K.
pneumoniae, P.aeruginosa andmethicillin-resistantS. aureus (MRSA).
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Other Isolates in Ventilator associated
Pneumonias
± Pseudomonas aeruginosa. the most common MDR gram-negative bacterial pathogen
causing HAP/VAP, has intrinsic resistance to many
antimicrobial agents ± Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Serratia species.
Klebsiella species ± intrinsically resistant to ampicillin and other aminopenicillins and
can acquire resistance to cephalosporins and aztreonam by the
production of extended-spectrum ±lactamases (ESBLs)
± However ESBL-producing strains remain susceptible tocarbapenems ?
Ent erobact er species
C i t robact er and
Serrat ia species 22doctortvrao@gmail.com
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Acinetobacter species
± Acinetobacter species
More than 85% of isolates aresusceptible to
carbapenems, butresistance isincreasing , Mostrecent concern.
Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia, andBurkholderia cepacia:
± resistant tocarbapenems ?
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N ewer Carbapenemases
As of June 2010, therewere three reportedcases of Enterobacteriaceae
isolates bearing thisnewly describedresistance mechanism inthe US, the CDC statedthat "All three U.S.isolates were frompatients who receivedrecent medical care inIndia."
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Staphylococcus aureus and
Streptococcus pneumoniae
± Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus
± sensitive to linezolid
±linezolid resistance has emerged in S. aureus, but is currentlyrare ?
± Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus
influenzae.
sensitive to vancomycin or linezolid, and most remainsensitive to broadspectrum quinolones
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Influenza too can cause VAP
Nosocomial virus and fungal
infections are uncommon
causes of HAP and VAP in
immunocompetent patients.
Outbreaks of influenza haveoccurred sporadically and
risk of infection can be
substantially reduced with
widespread effective infection
control, vaccination, and use of anti influenza agents
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F ungal pathogens can cause
VAP ±F ungal
pathogens.
Asper gillus
species
C and i d a
albicans
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P athogenesis Entry of P athogens
Where do the bacteria come from?
± Tracheal colonization- via oropharyngeal
colonization or GI colonization
± Ventilator system
How do they get into the lung?
± Breakdown of normal host defenses
± Two main routes
Through the tube
Around the tube- microaspiration around ETT cuff
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Oropharyngeal colonization can be
source of VAP
Scannapieco et al showed a transition in thecolonization of dental plaques in patients inthe ICU
Control=25 subjects presenting to preventivedentistry clinic
Study group=34 noncardiac patientsadmitted to medical ICU at VA hospital(sampled within 12 hours of admission andevery third day)
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Viral Pathogens
Outbreaks of HAP, VAP, andHCAP due to viruses, suchas influenza, parainfluenza,adenovirus, measles, andrespiratory Syncytial virushave been reported andare usually seasonal.
Influenza, pararinfluenza,adenovirus, andrespiratory Syncytial virus
account for 70% of thenosocomial viral cases of HAP,VAP, and HCAP
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Bio films Many species, including
P seud omonas aerugi nosa
and St aphy lococcus
aureus, produce bio films,which surround the
organisms when attached
to endotracheal tubes,
and make them relatively
resistant to the actions of
antibiotics and host
defences.
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Bio films,
The surviving
organisms may
play a role inrelapses by
shedding infective
particles from theendotracheal tube
into the lower
respiratory trac35doctortvrao@gmail.com
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Multidrug resistant organisms are
associated with
The prevalence of MDR pathogens varies by patient population, hospital, andtype of ICU, which
underscores the need for local surveillance data
MDR pathogens are morecommonly isolated from
patients with severe, chronic
underlying disease, thosewith risk factors for HCAP,and patients with late-onsetHAP or VAP
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Diagnosis?
A pulmonogist with25+ yearsexperience guesses
he is only correct60% of the timewhen diagnosingpneumonia before
seeing the CXR. Ali tt le better than acoin-toss.
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Diagnosis is imprecise and usually
based on a Combination of
±Clinical factors - fever or hypothermia;change in secretions; cough; apnea/bradycardia; tachypnea
±Microbiological fact ors - positivecultures of blood/sputum/tracheal
aspirate/pleural fluids
±CXR factors - new or changing infiltrates
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Strategies in Diagnosis in VAP are
multifaceted Clinical
Strategy
Bacteriologic
Strategy
ComparingDiagnostic
Strategy39doctortvrao@gmail.com
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Diagnostic practices
VAP
± Invasive versus non-invasive techniques
± BAL/PBB versus tracheal aspirate
± Quantitative versus non-quantitative methods
Infection definitions
± Clinician decision or standardised definitions
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S pecimen collection for Optimal Results
Distal airway samples may be obtained by
using bronchoscopic or nonbronchoscopic
techniques. With nonbronchoscopic
techniques, a catheter is blindly advanced
through the endotracheal tube or
tracheostomy and wedged in the distal airway.
Various sampling methods include blindbronchial suction (BBS), blind BAL, and blind
PSB sampling.
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t 2
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Bacteriologic Strategy
Quantitative cultures can be performed onendotracheal aspirates or samples collected either
bronchoscopically or nonbronchoscopically,and each technique has itsown diagnostic thresholdand methodologiclimitations. The choice of method depends on localexpertise, experience,availability, and cost
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tvrao 2
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Slide 42
tvrao 2 doctortvrao, 7/18/2010
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Nonquantitative or
semiquantitative airway sampling.
Gram staining and nonquantitative andsemiquantitative cultures of tracheal secretionshave the advantages of reproducibility and of
requiring little technical expertise and nospecialized equipment or technique. However,these studies add little to the sensitivity andspecificity of the clinical diagnosis of VAP, as the
upper respiratory tract is rapidly, within hours of intubation, colonized by potential pulmonarypathogens, even when pneumonia is not present
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Specimen collection
Tracheobronchial secretions were collected by
the pulmonologist , following specimen
collection guidelines, after tracheal instillation
of 5 ml saline. The specimens were sent to the
laboratory and cultivated within 1 hour of
collection. A dilution of the tracheal aspirate
was prepared and inoculated with a calibratedloop on chocolate agar and MacConkey agar
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Culture positivity true or false?
Qualitative cultures were considered positive
when the growth of any micro-organism
occurred and quantitative cultures were
considered positive when the growth of 105
colony-forming units (cfu)/ml or more was
observed. cultures from tracheal aspirates
were calculated according to standardformulae
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Which is optimal sample ?
Despite numerous publications on the subject,
controversy still exists on the optimal method
of microbiological diagnosis of VAP,As the
trachea and tracheal tube rapidly become
colonised with bacteria in the critically ill
patient, cultures of sputum or tracheal
aspirates may simply yield colonising organism
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Differentiates between pathogenic
from non pathogenic ?
Analysing samples using quantitative culture
techniques theoretically permits
differentiation between oropharyngeal
organisms present at low concentrations and
the higher concentrations of pathogenic
organisms.
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WHY IS THERE NO GOLD STANDARD?
After more than 10 years of trying multiple
invasive and non-invasive diagnostic
techniques, the procedure which is specific,
sensitive, rapid and inexpensive is yet to be
developed. No studies have shown the
superiority of any specific diagnostic method
currently in use, thus, medical community still has no gold standard for the diagnosis of VAP
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Good Microbiology practices reduces
Antibiotic usage
Invasive tests such as bronchoscope BAL or
protected specimen brush (PSB) may avoid the
extended use of antibiotics for clinically
insignificant organisms, but no direct
consensus or evidence suggests that one test
is superior to the other; all have their
advantages and disadvantages.
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Precautions in collecting and
transporting
After proper hand washing and wearing sterile
gloves before suctioning, the endotracheal
secretions were collected by instilling 1-2 ml
of sterile normal saline into the endotracheal
tube and then collecting it back with the help
of sterile mucous trap. The specimen collected
was immediately transported to thelaboratory within one hour of collection.
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Gram stain is highly sensitive
Sputum or tracheal suction gram stain
NO ORGANISMS
in non-neutropenic pts.
NO HAP/VAP 94%
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Bacterial culture of trachealsecretion
Qualitative culture- non specific
Semi-quantitative
culture- low specificity
Quantitativeculture : TS, BAL,
PSB- increase
specificity
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Collection of bronchial Secretions
Distal airway samples may be obtained by
using bronchoscopic or nonbronchoscopic
techniques. With nonbronchoscopic
techniques, a catheter is blindly advancedthrough the endotracheal tube or
tracheostomy and wedged in the distal airway.
Various sampling methods include blindbronchial suction (BBS), blind BAL, and blind
PSB sampling.
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Collection of bronchial Secretions
Distal airway samples may be obtained by
using bronchoscopic or nonbronchoscopic
techniques. With nonbronchoscopic
techniques, a catheter is blindly advancedthrough the endotracheal tube or
tracheostomy and wedged in the distal airway.
Various sampling methods include blindbronchial suction (BBS), blind BAL, and blind
PSB sampling.
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The sensitivity of quantitative BAL is 42 to 93% with amean of 73%. Specificity is 45 to
100% with a mean of 82%. Specific affected area of thelung can be visualized and sampled
More accurate than sputum or tracheal aspirates
May enable physician to identify non-infectiouslesions
Detects intracellular organisms inB
AL
culturesquickly and specifically
with highly positive predictive value
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Bacterial culture of trachealsecretion
Qualitative culture
- non specific
Semi-quantitative culture
- low specificity
Quantitative culture : TS, BAL, PSB
- increase specificity
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Protected Specimen Brush
ProBAL© PSB by Mill-Rose The protected specimen brush
technique for the diagnosis of pneumonia has been used for20 years. This bronchoscopictechnique use a sample
collection brush (protected bya sheath) inside the scopechannel until the suspectportion of the lower airwayhas been reached. The brush isthen extended into the desiredspecimen and withdrawn. Thistechnique was first describedin 1979 by Wimberly, et al.
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Semiquantitative
1+ : rare <10 colonies/plate
2+: few 10-102 colonies/plate3+: moderate >102-3 colonies/plate
4+: numerous >103-4 colonies/plate
5+: numerous >104 colonies/plate
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Collection of bronchial Secretions
Distal airway samples may be obtained by
using bronchoscopic or nonbronchoscopic
techniques. With nonbronchoscopic
techniques, a catheter is blindly advancedthrough the endotracheal tube or
tracheostomy and wedged in the distal airway.
Various sampling methods include blindbronchial suction (BBS), blind BAL, and blind
PSB sampling.
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Q ualitative and quantitative
Qualitative endotracheal aspirates are easy to
obtain but have a high false-positive rate in
ICU patients because of airway colonization.
When quantitative endotracheal-aspiratecultures are used, a cutoff value of 106 is the
most accurate, with a sensitivity of 38-82%
and a specificity of 72-85%
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Differing opinions in specimen collection
Recent studies have consistently shown thatoutcome in VAP may not be influenced bywhether cultures are obtained by
bronchoscope or from tracheal aspiratescollected at the bedside. Furthermore, a costeffectiveness analysis strongly supported theemployment of tracheal aspirates in the
management of VAP. Ruiz M, Torres A, Ewig S, Marcos MA, Alcón A, Lledó R, Asejo MA,Maldonado M: Non-
invasive versus invasive microbial investigation in ventilator associated pneumonia:
evaluation of outcome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 162:119-125.
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hi h h d f ll i i
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Which methods of collection is
better
Two diagnostic strategies for ventilator-
associated pneumonia bronchoalveolar
lavage with quantitative culture of the
bronchoalveolar-lavage fluid and endotrachealaspiration with nonquantitative culture of the
aspirate are associated with similar clinical
outcomes and similar overall use of antibiotics A Randomized Trial of Diagnostic Techniques for Ventilator-Associated
Pneumonia N Engl J Med 2006; 355:2619-2630December 21, 2006
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False negative False Positive Results
Investigators reported
that the clinical diagnosis
of VAP is associated 30
35% false-negative and
2025% false-positive
results . And also, ICU
patients do not always
have systemic signs of
infection due to theirunderlying disease
(chronic renal failure)
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Other Supporting Bacterial Cultures
Bacteraemia and positive pleural effusioncultures are generally considered to be able toidentify the organisms causing the pneumonia,
if no other source of infection is found.Therefore, most experts recommend thatinvestigation of suspected VAP should includetaking two sets of blood samples for culture
and tapping pleural > 10 ml, even thoughspread to the blood or pleural space occursin < 10% of VAP
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Multiresistant pathogens in Ventilator
associated pneumonias
The incidence of multiresistantpathogens is alsoclosely linked to localfactors and varieswidely from oneinstitution to another.Consequently, each ICU
must continuouslycollect meticulousepidemiologic data
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b f
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Uncommon microbes are often
missed
Legionella species , anaerobes
fungi viruses, and even
P neumocy st is cari nii should be
mentionedas potential causative
agents but are not considered to
be common in the context of pneumonia acquired during MV.
However, severalof these
causative agents may be more
common and potentially
underreportedbecause of difficulties involved with the
diagnostic
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I l i l th d i
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Immunological methods in
Diagnosis
A recently described immunological method
for the diagnosis of VAP holds great promise
for the future. The triggering receptor
expressed on myeloid cells (TREM-1) is a
member of the immunoglobulin super family,
and is involved in the acute inflammatory
response. Neutrophils express high levels of TREM-1 on exposure to infected tissues.
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N ewer Methods in Diagnosis
Gibot and colleagues prospectively studied 148mechanically ventilated patients with suspectedVAP. A rapid immunoblot technique was used to
measure soluble triggering receptor expressedon myeloid cells TREM-1 in bronchoalveolarlavage fluid. They showed that the presence of soluble TREM-1 in the bronchoalveolar lavage(BAL) fluid was a highly accurate method for thediagnosis of fungal or bacterial pneumonia with asensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 90%.
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H h li i i d f
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H ow much a clinician needs from
Microbiology
Culture results are currently used to guideadjustment or withdrawal of antibiotic therapyrather than to decide whether to treat or not.
The practice of changing therapy with cultureresults has resulted in reduced consumption of antibiotics.
Conversely, studies have shown that over-
treatment with antibiotics may select organismssuch as P seud omonas aerugi nosaand
Aci net obact er calcoacet icus
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E id b d l d
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Mortality Mortality
Appropriate Appropriate Mortality Mortality
InappropriateInappropriate Mortality Mortality
Early Early Mortality Mortality
Evidence-based early andappropriate therapy in VAP
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Benchmarking prescribing practice
Triggers to starting antibiotics
± Regular sampling versus clinician guided
± Timing in relation to investigation
Choice of antibiotic regimen ± Early empiric broad-spectrum cover versus narrow
spectrum with escalation
De-escalation practice
Duration of prescription
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Continuous Removal of Subglottic
Secretions
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No uniformity in treatment schedules
However, despite theseadvances, the majorityof issues related to themanagement of VAP
remain unresolved andare subject tocontroversy. This isparticularly true for the
diagnostic evaluation of the patient withsuspected VAP.
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Clinical diagnosis of ventilator-associated
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g f
pneumonia
What is not controversial? Clinical criteria for the diagnosis of VAP
have a limited diagnostic accuracy .
This is true for single criteria such as infiltrates
in chest radiograph, fever or hypothermia,leukocytosis or leucopoenia, and increase inthe amount and/or purulence of tracheobronchial secretions, as well as fordiagnostic rules incorporating some of thesecriteria.
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HandwashingHandwashing
What role does handwashing play innosocomial pneumonias?
The greatest role
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VAP PreventionVAP Prevention
Wash hands before
and after
suctioning,touching ventilator
equipment, and/or
coming into
contact with
respiratory
secretions.81doctortvrao@gmail.com
Epidemiological data differs from
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Epidemiological data differs from
situations The incidence of
multiresistantpathogens is alsoclosely linked to local
factors and varieswidely from oneinstitution to another.Consequently, each ICU
must continuouslycollect meticulousepidemiologic data
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Can we deliver a successful
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Can we deliver a successful
Treatment
Successful treatment of patients with VAP
remains a difficult and complex undertaking.
Despite broad clinical experience with this
disease, no consensus has been reachedconcerning issues as basic as the optimal
antimicrobial regimen or its duration. In fact,
to date, evaluation of various antimicrobialstrategies for the treatment of bacterial VAP
has been difficult for several reasons.
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Supporting Evidences
Consequently, most
experts recommend that
two sets of blood cultures
and a thoracentesis for
nonloculated pleural
effusions of 10 mm in
diameter on a lateral
decubitus chest
radiograph should be partof the evaluation of
suspected VAP
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Handwashing
Hand washing is the single mostimportant (and easiest!!!) method forreducing the transmission of pathogens.
Use of waterless antisepticpreparations is also acceptable and mayincrease compliance.
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Oral Care Dental plaque contains multiple pathogens
(may include s. aureus and p. aeruginosa) After 48 hours, normal oral flora of critically
ill pts changes to more virulent gram (-)organisms Aspiration of oral secretions around the cuff
and ETT occurs in all vented patients
VAP rates are reduced when oral caremeasures are included in a comprehensiveprevention program
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P robiotics in VAP
Probiotics prophylaxis of VAP using Lact obacillusr hamnosus GG appears safeand efficacious in a selectpopulation with a very high
risk of VAP, "Ultimately,probiotics may fulfil a role inantimicrobial stewardshipprograms given thereductions in antibioticconsumption.
American Jour nal of Respirat or y and C ri t ical C are Med ici ne.
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Interdisciplinary rivalry increases
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Interdisciplinary rivalry increases
Mortality
VAP is an excellent
example of a problem
that can best be solved
by interdisciplinarycooperation rather than
interdisciplinary rivalry
and devaluing the
contributions of selected members of
the health care team.
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Medical Profession is Changing from
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Medical Profession is Changing from
Confidence to Confusion ?
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References American Thoracic Society. HAP in adults: diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy
and preventive strategies. Am J Resp Crit Care 1995;153: 1711-1725.
Chastre J. et al. Ventilator Assosciated Pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 10:364-368.
Cutler C> et al. Improving oral care in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Am J Crit Care 2005; 14(5):389-394.
Grap M. et al. Preventing VAP: evidence-based care 2004; 16: 349-458.
Keenan S. et al. VAP: prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. Crit Care Clin 2002; 18(1): 107-125.
Kollef M. Prevention of hospital associated and ventilator associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2002; 32:
1396-1405. Marik, P. et al. One good turn deserves another. Crit Care Med 2002; 30(9): 2146-2148.
Anesthesiology: Pneumatikos, Ioannis A. M.D., Ph.D., F.C.C.P.; Dragoumanis, Christos K. M.D., Ph.D.;
Bouros, Demosthenes E. M.D., Ph.D., F.C.C.P. March 2009 - Volume 110 - Issue 3 - pp 673-680
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003. Rumbak, M. J. (2000). St rat egies for prevent ion and
t reat ment . Journal of Respiratory Disease, 21 (5), p. 321;
Anesthesiology: Pneumatikos, Ioannis A. M.D., Ph.D., F.C.C.P.; Dragoumanis, Christos K. M.D., Ph.D.;
Bouros, Demosthenes E. M.D., Ph.D., F.C.C.P.vMarch 2009 - Volume 110 - Issue 3 - pp 673-680
Ventilator associated pneumoniaJ D Hunter Correspondence to: Dr J D Hunter Department of
Anaesthetics and Intensive Care, Macclesfield District General Hospital, Victoria Road, Macclesfield SK10
3BL, UK; john.hunter@echeshire-tr.nwest.nhs.uk
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P resented as Guest Lecture at Indian
Association of Medical Microbiologists
(I AMM)- KC held at M.S. Ramaiah Medical
College, Bangalore India on 4th Sept 2010
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