President Barack Obama drew heavysupport during his campaign fromyoung voters for his pledge toreconsider many aspects of drugprohibition. But what about thenation’s outdated drinking laws whichdeny the legal consumption of alcoholto anyone under 21?

No responsible-thinking person wouldever support underage alcohol use orunderage drinking and driving.However, most adults do not believethat young people entering college atroughly age 18 wait until they areseniors in college before they usealcohol. One may consider that,irrespective of the statistical decreasein underage drinking-and-drivingfatalities nationwide, there has beenan increase in underage drinking thatcannot be ignored. For example, thesurgeon general says more than 3,000Americans under the age of 21 aredying every year from alcohol-relatedcauses other than driving, includinghomicide, suicide, and alcoholpoisoning. As an example consider theterrible tragedy of Gordie Bailey.

Gordie was an 18–year-old freshmanat the University of Colorado in 2004.He had been there only one month

when he underwent a Chi Psifraternity initiation with 26 otherpledges, all of whom were alsounderage. According to Leslie andMichael Lanahan, Gordie’s motherand stepfather, the pledges were askedto drink 10 gallons of hard alcoholand wine in one half hour as part ofthe initiation. “You were certainlyviewed as a better man if you couldhandle more,” his mother told LeslieStahl (2009) during a CBSInvestigative Report broadcast on 60Minutes. Asked how much Gordieactually drank, his stepfather toldStahl, “He had had 15 to 20 shots ifyou had to measure it. They were notputting it into shots and drinking it.It was just guzzling out of the neck ofthe bottle” (Stahl, 2009). By the timethe group got back to the fraternityhouse, Gordie was incapacitated. Thepolice report indicated that “[h]is eyeswere rolling back in his head and hecouldn’t walk. This isn’t somebodywho’d just had too much to drink. Hewas clearly in trauma” (Stahl, 2009).

The fraternity brothers put Gordie onthe library couch and simply left himthere. Alone. The chief policeinvestigator involved in the case toldGordie’s mother and stepfather that

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UNDERAGE DRINKING: THE STORIES OFGORDIE AND MARKMaurice Fisher, Sr., PhD, MSW, LCSW

ISSUE TWO – 2009

Underage Drinking: The Stories ofGordie and Mark....................1

Underage Drinking: The DebateBegins..................................4

Deafness: Understanding the Basicsin Order to Provide EffectiveTreatment ............................7

SectionConnectionAlcohol,Tobacco&OtherDrugs

(Underage Drinking, continued on page 2)

IN THIS ISSUE

Publication of articles does notconstitute endorsement by NASWof the opinions expressed in thearticles. The views expressed arethose of the author(s).

Issue Two – 2009 • ATOD 2

ATODSectionConnection

A NEWSLETTER OF THE NASWSPECIALTY PRACTICE SECTIONS

SECTION COMMITTEE

CHAIRMaurice Fisher, Sr., PhD, MSW, LCSW

Roanoke, VA

Jessica Holton, LCSW, LCASGreenville, NC

Richard M. Jazwinski, PhD, ACSW, LCSWValhalla, NY

Barry Schecter, LCSW-R, ACSW, CASACCandor, NY

Charles D. Syms, ACSW, LCSWBuffalo, NY

NASW PresidentJames J. Kelly, PhD, ACSW, LCSW

Executive DirectorElizabeth J. Clark, PhD, ACSW, MPH

NASW STAFFDirector, Professional Development

and MarketingSusan Rubin, MA, MBA

Specialty Practice Section ManagerYvette Mulkey, BA

Senior Practice Section AssociatesKamilah Omari, MSWBekki Ow-Ärhus, ACSW

Project CoordinatorRochelle Wilder

“Gordie lay passed out on a couch for nine hours until someonecalled 911 for help. …The president of the fraternity did askseveral [fraternity] brothers at intervals to go in and takeGordie’s pulse, as if to say, ‘Tell me if he’s alive or dead.’” Astudent told a 911 operator, “We got a guy who’s passed out. Hedrank way too much and we found him this morning.” Asked ifGordie was breathing, the student told the operator, “I don’tknow. He’s not waking up” (Stahl, 2009).

Gordie died alone in an empty room with his friends surroundinghim. Gordie died of alcohol poisoning. This preventable tragedyis simply inexcusable. A question that needs to be addressed is“If the drinking age had been 18 instead of 21, would thestudents have called for help when Gordie passed out?” In myclinical estimation, the answer is a resounding “Yes.” The reasonI believe that Gordie was allowed to die was that underagepeople were buying and consuming alcohol and ultimately wereafraid to call the authorities for help. Because it was illegal, Ibelieve this is the reason why they didn’t call for help. Thestudents had alcohol in the fraternity house, which was againstthe university’s policy and against the law. They had to make adecision about what they were going to do, and, unfortunately,they made the wrong decision.

Additionally, there are other legal complications to consider. Asanother case in point, I cite a recent client of mine who was a20-year-old United States Marine (I will refer to as Mark). Hewas referred to me for a substance abuse evaluation, secondaryto being charged with underage alcohol possession. As the storygoes, Mark had purchased a six-pack of beer on his base inNorthern Virginia prior to leaving for a routine visit with hisfamily in Norfolk, Virginia. En route, he was pulled over by aVirginia State Trooper for speeding; Mark had not consumed anyalcohol and was not charged with driving impaired. When theofficer saw a cooler on the backseat of Mark’s car, the officerasked him what was in the cooler. Mark, being the honest, youngman that he is, replied that he had a six-pack of beer in thecooler. He was promptly charged with underage alcoholpossession. To say the least, Mark was righteously indignant andnonplussed at his legal charge. Mark opined during the interviewthat “they [the United States Government] allow me to vote, buycigarettes and serve my country at 18 years old, but they don’ttrust me to be able to buy alcohol and drink responsibly.”

(Underage Drinking, continued from page 1)

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3 ATOD • Issue Two – 2009

With the examples of Gordie and Mark in mind,I think that it is time that we thoughtfullyconsider a public reassessment of the currentalcohol drinking age. The reassessment should bedevoid of emotionality and, instead, be athoughtful re-examination of the facts.Furthermore, the reassessment of the drinking ageshould consider the significance and potentialimpact of educating our youth at earlier ages sothat they can learn how to drink responsibly.Other countries such as in Europe have a lowlevel of underage drinking fatalities, and theysocialize their children how to drink responsiblyat relative young ages. Perhaps, our reassessment

may want to consider how other counties are ableto accomplish this without criminalizing our youth.

Maurice Fisher, Sr., PhD, MSW, LCSW, is a clinical social worker withVillage Family Psychiatry in Roanoke, VA and Chair of the Alcohol,Tobacco and Other Drugs (ATOD) Section Committee. Dr. Fisher can bereached at msfphd@cox.net.

ReferenceStahl, L. (Reporter). (2009, February 22). 60 minutes: CBS

investigative report [Television broadcast]. New York, NYand Washington, D.C.: CBS Television Network.

Issue Two – 2009 • ATOD 4

Along with the war on terrorism evolves a newconflictual front in the United States. However,instead of focusing on bombs and bullets, thisbattle involves alcohol and voting ballots. Withthousands of Americans under the age of 21deployed in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other militaryhot spots around the world, several states aretaking a second look at laws that bar these sameservice members from being able to legally take adrink of alcohol once they return from combat.This article attempts to highlight both sides of thedebate on lowering the nation’s drinking agefrom 21 to 18 years old.

Background

Prohibition−with the ratification of the 18thAmendment in 1919 and the passage of theVolstead Act in 1920, both of which made themanufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholillegal−was designed to decrease alcoholconsumption and crime, but historic studies showthat both alcohol consumption and crimeincreased during the 1920s and early 1930s. In1984, the Federal Uniform Drinking Age Act,under the Federal Aid Highway Act, created anational drinking age of 21 by allowing thefederal government to withhold 10 percent ofhighway funds from states with lower drinkingages. The 1984 legislation also intended to curbunderage binge drinking. Therefore, to obtainfederal funding, all states were forced to raisetheir drinking age to 21. It is important to notehere that while there is no “official,” federally-mandated, alcohol drinking-age law, per se, by

placing federal sanctions on states to raise thedrinking age from 18 to 21 years old or forfeitfederal highway funding, those states not incompliance obviously acquiesced.

Prior to the passage of the Federal UniformDrinking Age Act, 30 states allowed 18-year-oldsto drink some form of alcohol. Some states setthe drinking age limit at 18 for beer and wineand the drinking age limit at 21 for all otheralcohol; some authorized 18-year-olds to drink[an allowance of up to] 3.2% of beer, and somesimply lowered the drinking age for all alcohol[consumption] to 18 (Johnson, 2007). Withinfour years of the enactment of the FederalUniform Drinking Age Act, though, all 50 stateshad officially established “21 years old” as theminimum “legal” drinking age. Wyoming becamethe final state to move the drinking age to 21.

The effort to raise the drinking age resulted in theUnited States having one of the most age-restrictive alcohol policies among all countrieswhere alcohol is not banned for religious reasons.The majority of nations (including the U.S.’sclosest neighbors, Mexico and Canada) allowcitizens to drink at age 18, with many Europeancountries (such as France, Germany, Italy, andSpain) granting at least some alcohol-consumption rights to 16-year-olds.

As we all know from United States history,prohibition was a failed social policy that simplydrove those who drank alcohol underground andinto illegal activities such as manufacturing, selling,and/or buying homemade alcohol brews. Perhapsthis same social phenomenon has occurred withraising the alcohol drinking age to 21.

Rationale for Maintaining the CurrentDrinking Age

Opponents against changing the current drinkingage typically cite two main sources: MothersAgainst Drunk Driving (MADD) and the

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UNDERAGE DRINKING: THE DEBATE BEGINSMaurice Fisher, Sr., PhD, MSW, LCSW

5 ATOD • Issue Two – 2009

National Highway Transportation SafetyAdministration (NHTSA). According to a factsheet posted on NHTSA’s Web site (as cited in theDepartment of Transportation’s (DOT) 2001study, Community How To Guide On...PUBLICPOLICY: Underage Drinking Prevention), “TheNational Highway Transportation SafetyAdministration (NHTSA) estimates thatminimum drinking age laws have saved 18,220lives (of all ages) since 1975. ...These laws havehad greater impact over the years as the drinkingages in the states have increased, affecting moredrivers age 18 to 20” (p. viii).

The DOT and NHTSA released a report,prepared by Hedlund, Ulmer, and Preusserentitled Determine Why There Are Fewer YoungAlcohol-Impaired Drivers. Statistics cited in thereport include the following:

• In the United States in 1982, there were10,270 drivers under the age of 21 involved infatal crashes. Forty-three percent (4,393) ofthese drivers were deemed to have beendrinking prior to their crashes.

• In 1998, the number of under 21-year-olddrivers in fatal crashes was 8,128 with 21percent (1,714) of these determined to havebeen drinking.

• Comparing 1998 with 1982, the number ofyouthful drivers involved in fatal crashesdeclined by 21 percent, and the number whohad been drinking declined by 61 percent.

(DOT & NHTSA, 2001)

These same opponents cite MADD to defendtheir position. According to MADD’s Web site(2007), lowering the drinking age to 18 wouldincrease alcohol-related fatalities. MADDindicates that approximately nine hundredfamilies a year would have to bury a teenager ifthe drinking age was lowered to 18, and since theenactment of the 21 Minimum Legal DrinkingAge (MLDA) law in 1984, “the number of youngpeople killed annually in crashes involving drunkdrivers under 21 has been cut in half” (MADD,

n.d.). Hence, lowering the drink age to 18 isbased mostly on driving incidences but does notconsider other underage-related drinking deaths.

Rationale for Lowering the CurrentDrinking Age to 18

Seven states are currently considering proposalsto lower the legal drinking age from 21 to 18:

• If enacted, bills currently in the Kentucky,Wisconsin, and South Carolina legislatureswould lower the legal age only for militarypersonnel.

• Missouri citizens are working on a ballotinitiative that would apply to all individualsage 18 and above.

• A lawyer in South Dakota is working on acampaign to allow 19- and 20-year-olds to buy“low alcohol” beer (containing no more than3.2% alcohol by weight).

• Minnesota is considering a bill that wouldallow bars and restaurants to sell alcohol toanyone age 18 or older, but would limit liquorstore sales to customers age 21 and up.

• In February 2008, the Vermont legislatureauthorized a task force to explore the potentialramifications of lowering the state’s legaldrinking age to 18.

(McBride, 2008)

The push to repeal the state statutes began simpleenough. The former president of MiddleburgCollege, John M. McCardell, Jr., espoused themost resent notion in 2007 to lower the drinkingage through his newly formed nonprofitorganization, Choose Responsibility. ChooseResponsibility has proposed changes to existingstate laws and college policies utilizing a multi-faceted approach that combines education,certification, and provisional driving licensing for18- to 20-year-old high school graduates whochoose to use alcohol (McBride, 2008). Calledthe Amethyst Initiative, McCardell and hiscolleagues have been propounding this notion for

Issue Two – 2009 • ATOD 6

the past year. Several college presidents across theUnited States have joined the effort (MADD, n.d.).

Additionally, the National Youth RightsOrganization (NYRO) has supported the effort toreduce the drinking age. NYRO argues on itsWeb site that 21-and-over drinking laws areinconsistent with the nation’s standard policy ofgranting adult rights at age 18. “When you are18 you are judged mature enough to vote, holdpublic office, serve on juries, serve in the military,fly airplanes, sign contracts and so on,” thegroup writes. “Why is drinking a beer an act ofgreater responsibility and maturity than flying anairplane or serving your country at war?”(NYRO, 2008).

Choose Responsibility and NYRO argue thatwhen the drinking age was raised to 21, thismerely led to those younger than 21 to drinkcovertly and illegally. Furthermore, NYRO arguesthat NHTSA statistics are flawed inasmuch aswhile overall alcohol-related deaths fromdrinking impaired has decreased in the 18 to 20age bracket, the number of lost lives has merelybeen transferred to the 21 to 24 age group(McBride, 2008). Moreover, both groupsunderscore the fact that although vehicularaccidents due to drunk driving are down, owingto the 21-year-old drinking-age limit, myriadother medically maladies and deaths (e.g.,suicides, homicides, and alcohol poisoning) haverisen in the 18 to 21 age range.

Conclusion

To date, no state has repealed its alcohol agerestriction of 21 years old. Advocates from bothsides of this issue can be sure that revising theexisting drinking age will be a slow-moving,albeit deliberate, process. Both sides make cogentand passionate arguments related to theirposition. Given the passion and zeal that bothsides of this issue generate, it is amazing there hasbeen no empirical research to date conductedrelative to lowering the drinking age. In my

estimation, this would be a good first step ingenerating data upon which cogent policies canbe developed.

Maurice Fisher, Sr., PhD, MSW, LCSW, is a clinical social worker withVillage Family Psychiatry in Roanoke, VA and Chair of the Alcohol,Tobacco and Other Drugs (ATOD) Section Committee. Dr. Fisher can bereached at msfphd@cox.net.

ReferencesDepartment of Transportation. (2001). Appendix 7—Fact sheet,

Minimum drinking age laws. Community How To GuideOn...PUBLIC POLICY: Underage Drinking Prevention, vii-ix. (DOTPublication No. DOT HS 809 209). Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office. Retrieved from www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/Community%20Guides%20HTML/PDFs/Public_App7.pdf

Department of Transportation (DOT), & National HighwayTransportation Safety Agency (NHTSA). (2001). Determine whythere are fewer young alcohol-impaired drivers, prepared by J.H.Hedlund, R.G. Ulmer, & D.F. Preusser (DOT Publication No. DOTHS 809 348). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice. Retrieved from www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/FewerYoungDrivers/

Johnson, A. (2007, August 14). Debate on lower drinking agebubbling up. Retrieved from www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20249460/

McBride, H. (2008, May 30). Choosing sides: Should states lower thelegal drinking age? MSNBC. Retrieved from www.teen-alcohol-addiction.com/drinking_age_debate.php

Miller, J. J. (2007, April 19). The case against 21: Lower the drinkingage. National Review Online. Retrieved fromhttp://article.nationalreview.com/?q=YzU4NTcwMTQ4NTBmYzVlNWMzZjgwYTRjYjgyMzllMjg

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). (n.d.). Underage drinkingand the 21 minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) law – Fact sheet.Retrieved from www.madd.org/getfile/2ebe207e-b1d8-44c5-b192-f125fb96c97c/Underage-Drinking-Fact-Sheet_FINAL081908.aspx

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). (2007). MADD, AMA,NTSB, IIHS and others launch support 21 coalition. Retrievedfrom www.madd.org/Media-Center/Media-Center/Press-Releases/PressView.aspx?press=87

National Youth Rights Organization (NYRO). (2008). Frequentlyasked questions. Retrieved from www.youthrights.org/dafaq.php

7 ATOD • Issue Two – 2009

Internationally, one week is dedicated to deafnessand deaf awareness annually during the last fullweek of September. The 2009 Deaf AwarenessWeek was held from September 21 throughSeptember 27. It is estimated that seven to tenpercent of the general population is considered tobe hard of hearing (Guthmann & Graham,2004), and two million Americans are consideredprofoundly deaf (National Child Traumatic StressNetwork, 2004). Another study estimates thatalmost one percent of the U.S. population is deaf

(Western Interstate Commission for HigherEducation (WICHE) Mental Health Program,2006). In correlation to these statistics,approximately ten percent of the generalpopulation has a substance use disorder, andthrough their research findings, Guthmann andGraham maintain that individuals with adisability, such as deafness, appear to be at ahigher risk for substance abuse than the generalpopulation (2004).

DEAFNESS: UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS IN ORDER TOPROVIDE EFFECTIVE TREATMENTJessica Holton, MSW, LCSW, LCAS

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Deaf individuals are regularly cut off from, andnot included in, the majority population’s modeof communication. Thus, this has led to manydeaf individuals receiving minimal informationregarding the dangers from excessive drug andalcohol use. This lack of information may resultin resorting to abusing alcohol and other illegalsubstances in order to reduce stress or to fit inwith both deaf and hearing peers. Few studieshave been conducted to identify the variables thatpredict drinking and substance abuse among deafindividuals. Information regarding substanceabuse and treatment options is often haphazardand incomplete.

There seems to be a significant lack ofpsychologists, therapists, clinical social workers,and other mental health professionals who canappropriately and effectively communicate withdeaf and hard of hearing individuals.Misdiagnosing a deaf individual as mentally ill ormentally retarded has often resulted in improperplacement, misguided treatment and/or casemanagement, unjustified exclusion of theindividual from hospital programs and activities,and inappropriate aftercare referrals. Such actsfrequently result in deaf individuals being isolatedas well as experiencing feelings of bewilderment,rage, mistrust, frustration, depression, and thelike−all of which agencies and providers shouldbe assisting in lessening rather than contributingto. Currently, there is minimal data available thatdescribes the degree of substance abuse amongdeaf individuals. Likewise, there is minimalliterature that demonstrates the risk factors thatlead to substance abuse among the deaf, as wellas interventions that lessen their recidivism rate.

About two percent of deaf individuals receiveappropriate treatment for mental illness. It isestimated that the deaf population is three to fivetimes more likely than the hearing population tohave serious mental illnesses. Given that deafindividuals represent approximately one percentof the population, there should be approximately8,000 deaf people in drug or alcohol treatmenton any given day (WICHE Mental HealthProgram, 2006). Unfortunately, there is noevidence of even a fraction of that estimateaccessing treatment. There is a notable lack ofdetailed research dealing with the experiences ofdeaf individuals within the mental health servicesenvironment. It is hypothesized that there aremore cultural differences and stressors amongdeaf individuals than hearing individuals. And aspreviously stated, deaf individuals are frequentlycut off from, and not included in, the majoritypopulation’s mode of communication (Guthmann& Graham, 2004). Communication barrierswithin the family, isolation from others, fear ofbeing stigmatized, and concerns dealing withconfidentiality within treatment are risk factorsmany deaf individuals experience.

At least ninety percent of deaf children are bornto hearing parents (Guthmann & Graham, 2004).It has been widely documented that most hearingparents do not learn sign language in order tocommunicate with their deaf or hard of hearingchildren. Often times, parents of deaf and hard ofhearing children are not informed of thecommunication and educational options availableto their children. This leads to the preferences ofthe parents’ mode of communication with thechildren not being considered. A large number of

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9 ATOD • Issue Two – 2009

deaf individuals are raised in families and attendschools in which their mode of communicationisolates them from the information flowexperienced by hearing individuals. Graduates ofdeaf education programs in the United Stateshave an average reading level of third grade.Many deaf individuals, despite being intelligent,do not demonstrate proper English regardingreading or writing skills. This is often due toAmerican Sign Language being the primarylanguage of deaf and hard of hearing individualsand English being the secondary language(Guthmann & Graham, 2004).

Because of the differences in language, amisconception that the hearing population hasabout deaf individuals is that they are not asbright or as educated and themselves. Thisassumption is often made secondary to deafindividuals never learning how to speak or thestruggle with utilizing proper English grammar.Most deaf and hard of hearing people attempt tolearn English usage and have speech training, butnaturally enough they may find it easier to usetheir primary sign language in order tocommunicate more often than not. Another mythabout deaf people shared by many in the hearingpopulation is that a deaf person’s unusualsounding speech means that the person ismentally retarded. Speech development dependsgreatly on one’s ability to hear his or her ownvoice. For the deaf person, that foundation forlearning speech is not there. Hearing people often

take this foundation for granted since they haveonly experienced the ability to hear. The ability tohear or speak clearly does not correlate withintelligence. Another misconception is that deafindividuals are mute. This assumption by many isincorrect. Some deaf people may choose not touse their voices if they think they will be difficultto understand or have inappropriate pitch orvolume.

In order to be culturally aware, it is essential forpeople to understand that terms like “deaf-and-dumb” or “deaf-mute” are outdated andconsidered offensive today. Deaf-and-dumb is arelic from the medieval English era. Greekphilosopher Aristotle pronounced that deafindividuals were “deaf-and-dumb,“ because hefelt that deaf people were incapable of beingtaught, of learning, and of reasoned thinking.Historically, “deaf-mute” stems from the 18th or19th century and was a term used by hearingpeople to identify a person who was not onlydeaf but was one who could not speak either.“Mute” means silent and without voice. Thislabel is inaccurate since deaf and hard of hearingindividuals typically have functional vocalchords. The descriptor “hearing-impaired” couldalso be considered offensive by some. This term isoften preferred by hearing people, largely becausethey view it as politically correct. In themainstream society, to boldly state one’s disability(e.g., deaf, blind, etc.) is typically consideredsomewhat rude and impolite. “Hearing-

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impaired” is a well-meaning phrase; however, itcould be resented by deaf and hard of hearingpeople. Deaf and hard of hearing people feel thatthe words “D/deaf” and “hard of hearing” arenot negative at all. Overall, deaf and hard ofhearing people believe that there is nothingwrong with either word and that their culture,language, and community are just as fulfilling asthose experienced by the mainstream society.

Deafness is typically viewed from two differentperspectives: the pathological (or medical) modeland the cultural model (Guthmann & Graham,2004). The pathological model focuses ondeafness being a disability and that somehowdeafness needs to be fixed or cured. The culturalmodel focuses on deafness being a differencerather than a disability. The latter model alsofocuses on having pride in being deaf and being apart of the deaf culture and the deaf community.Individuals that have pride in deafness arereferred to as “Big D” Deaf. Individuals whoconsider their hearing loss as a medical diagnosisare typically referred to as “little d” deaf or hardof hearing. As with any cultural diversity ordifference, it is necessary to research the variousattributes in order to provide the most effectivetreatment for the individual.

Jessica Holton, MSW, LCSW, LCAS, is a licensed clinical social worker.She has a private practice in Greenville, NC, specializing in treatingmental health disorders, substance abuse disorders, and trauma, as wellas working with deaf, deaf-blind, and hard of hearing individuals. She isa member of the Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drug (ATOD) SectionCommittee and can be reached at jessahallman@hotmail.com.

ReferencesGuthmann, D., & Graham, V. (2004). Substance abuse: A hidden

problem within the D/deaf and hard of hearing communities.Journal of Teaching in the Addictions, 3(1), 49-64.

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2004). Facts ontrauma and deaf children. Retrieved fromwww.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/edu_materials/FactsonTraumaandDeafChildren.pdf

Western Interstate Commission of Higher Education (WICHE)Mental Health Program. (2006). Information gaps on thedeaf and hard of hearing population: A background paper.Retrieved from http://wiche.edu/info/publications/InformationGapsResearchPaper.pdf

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