Adapted from: Ms. Susan M. Adapted from: Ms. Susan M. PojerPojer

Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NYNY

The Eighteenth The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Century: An Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

““Dare to know! Have Dare to know! Have the courage to use the courage to use

your own your own intelligence” –intelligence” –Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant

The Eighteenth The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Century: An Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

““Dare to know! Have Dare to know! Have the courage to use the courage to use

your own your own intelligence” –intelligence” –Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant

An Overview of the 18c

► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason (apply scientific method to all

of life.

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy “Age of Aristocracy”

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18c Politics► BRITAIN – – Constitutional Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy

► FRANCE Royal AbsolutismRoyal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA “Enlightened “Enlightened Despotism”Despotism”

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditionaltraditional empire empire

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Drive was to find laws to govern human society through reason.

The Paths to Enlightenment• Many were like Newton, but hard to understand • Bernard de Fontenelle Plurality of Worlds

– Light heartedly communicated ideas

– Down played religion

• Pierre Bayle (Protestant)– Attacked superstition, religious intolerance and dogmatism

– Historical and Critical Dictionary “Bible of the 18th Century, states would benefit from many religions

• Travel Literature– Showed many different cultures– James Cook; Travels New Zealand and Australia– “natural men” far happier– “noble savage”– China and Confusicism very civilized

• Newton “greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the instruction of the species” model to find natural laws for politics, economy, justice, religion, and arts

• Locke; Essay Concerning Human Understanding – No to Descartes innate ideas = tabula rasa– “brave new world” built on reason

The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking the new thinking CHANGE & CHANGE & PROGRESS!PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.reforms.

The Philosophes

• Not just philosophers, most social reformers

• All classes

• French dominated

• Rationalism – appeal to facts and experiences

• Freedom of Expression (censorship)– Pseudonyms, anonymous, abroad, double

meanings– Banning made items more popular

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Charles de Charles de SecondatSecondat

► Persian LettersPersian Letters, , 1721 1721 ►Attacked Attacked Catholic Church Catholic Church and French and French MonarchyMonarchy►Wanted Wanted religious religious tolerationtoleration►No slaveryNo slavery►Use of reason Use of reason ►No prejudicesNo prejudices

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► On the Spirit of LawsOn the Spirit of Laws► Three types of Three types of

government:government: Monarchy. (midsize, Monarchy. (midsize,

rulers must adhere to rulers must adhere to the laws)the laws)

Republic. (small states Republic. (small states w/citizen involvement)w/citizen involvement)

Despotism.( large, rulers Despotism.( large, rulers depend on fear)depend on fear)

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Wanted French nobles to Wanted French nobles to have more voicehave more voice

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.(upper middle class, (upper middle class, law education, law education, playwright, witty playwright, witty and argumentative)and argumentative)

► Essay on the Essay on the Customs and Spirit Customs and Spirit of Nationsof Nations, 1756, 1756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759► Philosophical Philosophical

DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764► Treatise on Treatise on

TolerationToleration► Religious Religious

toleration caused toleration caused no problems in no problems in EnglandEngland

► ““all men are all men are brothers under brothers under God”God”

Voltaire’s Philosophic Letters on the English

• Endorsed freedom of press, political parties and religious tolerance

• Made English sound better and criticized the French (so he had to move there)

• Criticized traditional religion, pro tolerance• Calas affair: Jean Calas (Prot) accused of torturing and

killing his son (wanted to convert to Cath)• Deism: God created the mechanical world and let it run

with no involvement

►

Voltaire’s “Wisdom”

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do.good he didn’t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh.audience too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.necessary to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right when It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.the government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.►Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers.rather than by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference.virtue that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without Prejudice is opinion without judgment.judgment.► The way to become boring is to The way to become boring is to say everything.say everything.► I may not agree with what you I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.death your right to say it.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

►All things must All things must be examined, be examined, debated, debated, investigated investigated without without exception and exception and without regard without regard for anyone’s for anyone’s feelings.feelings.

►We will speak We will speak against against senseless laws senseless laws until they are until they are reformed; and, reformed; and, while we wait, while we wait, we will abide we will abide by them.by them.

Diderot’s Encyclopédie *Encyclopedia

Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of thinking.change the general way of thinking.28 volumes.28 volumes.Alphabetical, cross-referenced,Alphabetical, cross-referenced,illustrated.illustrated.First published in 1751.First published in 1751.1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.* Christianity fantastical and unreasonable•Attacked religious superstition•For tolerance•Social, legal and political improvements

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

David Hume (1711-1776)

► Beginning of Beginning of “sciennce of “sciennce of man” aka social man” aka social sciencessciences

► Scottish Scottish PhilosopherPhilosopher

► The Natural The Natural History of History of Religion Religion [][][[(1755]).[[(1755]).

► Belief in God Belief in God rested on rested on superstition and superstition and fear rather than fear rather than on reason.on reason.

► Focus on Focus on observations and observations and reflectionsreflections

ECONOMIC THEORYECONOMIC THEORY

• Physiocrats: founders of modern economics

• Francois Quesnay (1694 – 1774)

– Doctor & Economist

– Called for the end of price controls (reject Mercantilism)

– Higher prices for goods would encourage production

– Land is the only source of wealth, so focus on agriculture

laissez-faire – leave it alone – capitalism

- Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) - free enterprise, free trade, law of supply & demand - Professor at University of Edinburgh - Wealth of Nations (1776)

- Invisible hand – any government interference will damage the economy - Humans, if left, will optimize their best interest - If so, economy will operate as efficiently as possible - Individuals can effect the economy by their decisionsTrue wealth is in LaborersGovernment (army to protect, police for justice, roads and canals)

The Later Enlightenment• Baron Paul d’Holbach

– Wealthy German– Atheist– Materialist– System of Nature: all is

matter in motion

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)►Progress of the Progress of the

Human MindHuman Mind, , 17941794

An expectation An expectation of universal of universal happiness.happiness.

Every individual Every individual guided by guided by reason could reason could enjoy true enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a He advocated a free and equal free and equal education, education, constitutionalisconstitutionalism, and equal m, and equal rights for rights for women.women.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)► Born in Born in

GenevaGeneva► Kept man of Kept man of

wealthy wealthy older womanolder woman

A Discourse on the Origins A Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Manof the Inequality of ManGovernment is a Government is a necessary evilnecessary evil

Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.education should education should

foster natural instinctsfoster natural instinctsBalance the heart/mind Balance the heart/mind and instinct/reasonand instinct/reason

Rousseau• The Social Contract, 1762.The Social Contract, 1762.

– True freedom is living by the laws you makeTrue freedom is living by the laws you make– The right kind of political order could make The right kind of political order could make

people truly moral and free.people truly moral and free.– Individual moral freedom could be achieved only Individual moral freedom could be achieved only

by learning to subject one’s individual interests to by learning to subject one’s individual interests to the “the “General WillGeneral Will.”.”

– Individuals did this by entering into a social Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.contract not with their rulers, but with each other.» This social contract was derived from human This social contract was derived from human

nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

►QuestionQuestion Does progress Does progress in the arts and sciences in the arts and sciences correspond with progress correspond with progress in morality?in morality?

As civilizations progress, As civilizations progress, they move away from they move away from morality.morality.

Science & art raised Science & art raised artificial barriers between artificial barriers between people and their natural people and their natural state.state.

Therefore, the revival of Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had science and the arts had corrupted social morals, corrupted social morals, not improved them!not improved them!

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

� Virtue exists in the Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”lost in “society.”

� Man is born free, yet Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in everywhere he is in chains.chains.

The concept of theThe concept of the ”Noble Savage.””Noble Savage.”

� Liberty, Equality, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Fraternity.

Civil liberty Civil liberty invest invest ALL rights and ALL rights and liberties into a liberties into a society.society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)

Had a great influence Had a great influence on the French on the French revolutionaries of revolutionaries of 1789.1789.

His attacks on private His attacks on private property inspired the property inspired the communists of the 19communists of the 19cc such as Karl Marx.such as Karl Marx.

Didn’t practice what Didn’t practice what he preached in he preached in regards to parenting regards to parenting and childcareand childcare

“Women’s Question”• Diderot and Voltaire

• Mary Astell – Daughter of wealthy coal merchant– A Serious Proposal to the Ladies

(need to become better educated)– Some Reflections Upon Marriage

(equality of spouses within a marriage)

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

• (1759 – 1797)• Vindication of the Rights of

Woman (1792)• An attack on Rousseau’s ideas• Women obeying men = slavery• We have reason = rights• Promoted political, economic &

educational equality for women• Mother of Mary Wollstonecraft

Shelley

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

Mostly aristocrats and upper middle classLiterate!!

A Parisian Salon

•Many said these gave women to much power•Some other groups meet in public•Other private groups formed

•Select Society of Edinburgh•American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia•Freemasons (London, France, Italy, and Prussia)

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Other Female Salons

► Wealthy Jewish women created Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin.Berlin.

► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania.Poland-Lithuania.

► Middle-class women in London Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.to publish women’s writings.

Female Philosophes

► Emilie du Chatalet, Emilie du Chatalet, a French noblewomana French noblewoman(1706-1749).(1706-1749).

► Wrote extensively aboutWrote extensively aboutthe mathematics andthe mathematics andphysics of Gottfriedphysics of GottfriedWilhelm von Lebnitz andWilhelm von Lebnitz andIsaac Newton.Isaac Newton.

► Her lover, Voltaire, learned much Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.of his science from her.