A Synthesis of Generic Guidelines for Good

TeachingSummer Neel

Advanced Educational PsychologySpring 2012

Effective teaching begins with

diversityThe key to a well rounded and effective teaching environment

is rooted in the educator’s ability to utilize multiple

theories, instructional practices and schema to create a

consistent and comprehensive system of teaching

Supportive Classroom Climate Opportunity to Learn Curricular Alignment Establishing Learning Orientations Coherent Content Thoughtful Discourse Practice and Application Activities Scaffolding Students Task Engagement Strategy Teaching Cooperative Learning Goal-Oriented Assessment Achievement Expectations

12 principles of good teaching

Students learn best within cohesive and caring learning communities

Research has shown Productive learning occurs when there is an

ethics of caring evoked The supportive classroom promotes student

responsibility and teacher commitment

Supportive Classroom Climate

To create a climate for molding their students into a cohesive and supportive learning community, teachers need to engage in Conducive physical environment Effective Lesson content and delivery Positive interpersonal relationship with students Promoting Positive peer relationships Consistent organization & behavior expectations

Supportive Classroom Climate Implementation

Students learn more when most of the available time is allocated to

curriculum related activities the classroom management system emphasizes

maintaining their engagement in those activities Research indicates that teachers who approach

management as a process of establishing an effective learning environment tend to be more successful than teachers who emphasize their roles as disciplinarians

Opportunity to Learn

There are more things worth learning than there is time available to teach them, and so it is essential that limited classroom time be used efficiently

Effective teachers convey a sense of the purposefulness of schooling and the importance of getting the most out of the available time

Successful teachers are clear and consistent in articulating their expectations

These teachers spend a great deal of time actively instructing by elaborating content for students and helping them to interpret and respond to it

Opportunities to Learn in the Classroom

All components of the curriculum are aligned to create a cohesive program for accomplishing instructional purposes and goals

Research indicates that educational policy-makers, textbook publishers and teachers often become so focused on content coverage or learning activities that they lose sight of the larger purposes and goals that are supposed to guide curriculum planning

Curricular Alignment

Curricular Alignment in the classroom

A curriculum is not an end in itself; it is a means of helping students to learn what is considered essential for preparing them to fulfill adult roles in society and realize their potential as individuals

Goals in planning curriculum and instruction should develop capabilities that students can use in their lives inside and outside school, both now and in the future

Content developed with these goals in mind is likely to be retained as meaningful learning that is internally coherent, well connected with other meaningful learning and accessible for application

Teachers can prepare students for learning by providing an initial structure to clarify intended outcomes

Teachers must also cue desired learning strategies Research indicates the value of establishing a learning

orientation by beginning lessons and activities with advance organizers or previews

These introductions facilitate students’ learning by communicating the nature and purpose of the activity connecting it to prior knowledge cueing the kinds of student responses that the activity

requires

Establishing Learning Orientations

Advance organizers orient students to what they will be learning before the

instruction begins characterize the general nature of the activity give students a structure within which to understand

and connect the specifics that will be presented by the teacher or text

Such knowledge of the nature of the activity and the structure of its content helps students to focus on the main ideas and order their thoughts effectively

Establishing Learning Orientations in the Classroom

Other ways to help students learn with a sense of purpose and direction include calling attention to the activity’s goals overviewing main ideas or major steps to be

elaborated pretests that sensitize students to main points

to learn pre-questions that stimulate their thinking

about the topic

Establishing Learning Orientations in the Classroom

To facilitate meaningful learning and retention, content is explained clearly

Content is developed with emphasis on its structure and connections

Research indicates that networks of connected knowledge structured around powerful ideas can be learned with understanding and retained in forms that make them accessible for application In contrast, disconnected bits of information are likely to be

learned only through low-level processes such as rote memorizing, and most of these bits either are soon forgotten or are retained in ways that limit their accessibility

Coherent Content

skills are likely to be learned and used effectively if taught as strategies adapted to particular purposes and situations

Whether in textbooks or in teacher-led instruction, information is easier to learn to the extent that it is coherent the sequence of ideas or events makes sense and the

relationships among them are apparent Content is most likely to be organized coherently

when it is selected in a principled way guided by ideas about what students should learn from

studying the topic

Coherent Content in the Classroom

In order to enable students to construct meaningful knowledge that they can access and use in their lives outside of school teachers need to: retreat from breadth of coverage in order to allow time to

develop the most important content in greater depth represent this important content as networks of

connected information structured around powerful ideas develop the content with a focus on explaining these

important ideas and the connections among them follow up with authentic learning activities and

assessment measures that provide students with opportunities to develop and display learning that reflects the intended outcomes of the instruction

Combining Curricular Alignment & Coherent Content

Questions are planned to engage students in sustained discourse structured around powerful ideas

Questions to stimulate students to process and reflect on content, recognize relationships among and implications of its key ideas, think critically about it, and use it in problem solving, decision making or other higher-order applications

Questions should reflect sustained and thoughtful development of key ideas

Thoughtful Discourse

Tell me why you think that is true?

Well, First, I was reading the other day that ……

Questions should reflect sustained and thoughtful development of key ideas

In the early stages of units when new content is introduced and developed, more time is spent in interactive lessons featuring teacher/student discourse than in independent work on assignments

The teacher plans sequences of questions designed to develop the content systematically help students to construct understandings by relating it to their prior

knowledge Create a dialogue about content

forms and cognitive levels of these questions should be suited to the instructional goals in the curriculum

Thoughtful Discourse in the Classroom

Thoughtful discourse features sustained examination of a small number of related topics, in which students develop explanations make predictions debate alternative approaches to problems consider the content’s implications or applications

The teacher presses students to clarify or justify their assertions, rather than accepting them indiscriminately

In addition to providing feedback, the teacher encourages students to explain or elaborate on their answers to comment on classmates’ answers

Thoughtful Discourse in the Classroom

Students need sufficient opportunities to practice and apply what they are learning, and to receive improvement-oriented feedback

Research indicates that skills practiced to a peak of smoothness and automaticity tend to be retained indefinitely, whereas skills that are mastered only partially tend to deteriorate

Practice and Application Activities

they present information, explain concepts and model skills

they ask questions and lead their students in discussion about content being studied

they engage students in activities or assignments that provide them with opportunities to practice or apply what they are learning

There are 3 main ways teachers help their students to learn

Practice is one of the most important yet least appreciated aspects of learning in classrooms Successful practice involves polishing skills that are already

established at rudimentary levels in order to make them smoother, more efficient and more automatic

Most practice should be embedded within application contexts that feature conceptual understanding of knowledge and self regulated application of skills

Opportunity to learn in school can be extended through homework assignments that are realistic in length and difficulty given the students’ abilities to work independently

practice must involve opportunities not only to apply skills but also to receive timely feedback

Practice and Application Activities in the Classroom

The teacher provides whatever assistance students need to enable them to engage in learning activities productively

Research on learning tasks indicates the effectiveness of assignments is enhanced when teachers first explain the work and go over practice examples with

students then release them to work independently circulate to monitor progress and provide help when needed

Teaching within the students’ Zones of Proximal Development (ZPD) implies that students will need explanation, modeling, coaching and other forms of

assistance teacher structuring and scaffolding will be faded as the

students’ expertise develops

Scaffolding Students Task Engagement

if they are to have their full impact activities need to be effectively presented monitored followed up

Teachers must prepare students for an activity in advance provide guidance and feedback during the activity and lead the class in post-activity reflection afterwards

Teachers also need to assess performance for completion and accuracy and reteach when necessary

Full effectiveness cannot be reached unless the assignments are followed by reflection or debriefing activities

Scaffolding Students Task Engagement in the Classroom

The teacher models and instructs students in learning and self-regulation strategies

Research shows that Strategy teaching is especially important for less able students who otherwise might not come to understand the value of consciously monitoring, self-regulating and reflecting upon their learning processes

Strategy Teaching

Many students do not develop effective learning and problem solving strategies on their own but can acquire them through modeling and explicit instruction from their teachers

Strategy teaching is likely to be most effective when it includes cognitive modeling the teacher thinks out loud while modeling use

of the strategy

Strategy Teaching in the Classroom

Rehearsal repeating material to remember it more effectively

Elaboration putting material into one’s own words and relating it to prior

knowledge Organization

outlining material to highlight its structure and remember it Comprehension Monitoring

keeping track of the strategies used to construct understandings and the degree of success achieved with them, and adjusting strategies accordingly

Affect Monitoring Maintaining concentration and task focus minimizing performance anxiety and fear of failure

general study skills and learning strategies that teachers can model for

their students

Students often benefit from working in pairs or small groups to construct understandings or help one another master skills

Research indicates that there is often much to be gained by arranging for students to collaborate in pairs or small groups

Co-operative learning promotes affective and social benefits

Co-operative learning creates the potential for cognitive and metacognitive benefits by engaging students in discourse that requires them to make their task-related information-processing and problem-solving strategies explicit

Cooperative Learning

replaces individual seatwork time with opportunities for students to work together in pairs or small groups on follow-up practice and application activities

Co-operative learning can be used with activities ranging from drill and practice to learning facts and concepts, discussion and problem solving

It is perhaps most valuable as a way of engaging students in meaningful learning with authentic tasks in a social setting

Cooperative Learning in the Classroom

Some forms of co-operative learning call for students to help one another achieve individual learning goals

Co-operative learning methods are most likely to enhance learning outcomes if they combine group goals with individual accountability

Cooperative Learning in the Classroom

The teacher uses a variety of formal and informal assessment methods to monitor progress towards learning goals

Research has determined that well-developed curriculum includes strong and functional assessment components

These assessment components are aligned with the curriculum’s goals

They are integrated with its content, instructional methods and learning activities

They are designed to evaluate progress towards the major intended outcomes

Goal-Oriented Assessment

Effective teachers use assessment for evaluating students’ progress in learning and for planning curriculum improvements, not just for generating grades

Good assessment includes data from many sources and addresses the full range of goals or intended outcomes

Assessment should be treated as an ongoing and integral part of each instructional unit

Results should be scrutinized to identify learner needs misunderstandings or misconceptions that may need attention potential adjustment in curriculum goals, instructional materials or

teaching plans weaknesses in the assessment practices themselves

Goal-Oriented Assessment in the Classroom

The teacher establishes and follows through on appropriate expectations for learning outcomes

Research indicates that effective schools feature strong academic leadership that produces

consensus on goal priorities commitment to instructional excellence Positive teacher attitudes towards students

expectations regarding students’ abilities to master the curriculum

Achievement Expectations

Teachers’ expectations concerning what their students are capable of accomplishing shape what teachers attempt to elicit from their students what the students come to expect from themselves

It is helpful if teachers set goals for the class and for individuals in terms of floors (minimally acceptable standards), not ceilings

all students should be held accountable for participating in lessons and learning activities and for turning in careful and completed work on assignments

teachers should emphasize continuous progress relative to previous levels of mastery rather than how students compare with their classmates or with standardized test norms

Achievement Expectationsin the Classroom

Teachers are likely to be most successful whenthey think in terms of stretching students’ minds by stimulating

them and encouraging them to achieve as much as they can,

not in terms of ‘protecting’ them from

failure or embarrassment

ReferencesGeneva Switzerland. UNESCO. International Bureau of Education. By Jere Brophy. Web. <www.ibe.unesco.org/.../EducationalPracticesSeriesPdf/prac01e.pdf>.

Alexander, Patricia A., and Philip H. Winne. Handbook of Educational Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006. Print.