a course for translators and interpreters of social science...

The College of Nyíregyháza

Institute of Linguistics and Literary Studies

Department of English Language and Culture

A Course for Translators and Interpreters

of Social Science and Economics

ANF1322L

Course Notes

Dr. Granville Pillar

Intercultural Communication

ANF1322L Intercultural Communication Dr Granville Pillar

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Course Outline

Aim

Recent trends in Translation Studies advocate a focus on translation as a form of

intercultural communication. This course introduces you to the fundamental principles

and issues of intercultural communication from an interdisciplinary perspective. It

proposes to develop a perception of and appreciation for different cultural perspectives

and values.

Content

In this 10-hour course, the following main themes are covered:

1. What is Intercultural Communication?

2. Identity, Stereotypes and Communication

3. Intercultural Encounters and Adaptation

Reading Resources

The course written and video content can be accessed on the web site:

http://zeus.nyf.hu~granville.pillar.

Assessment

Based on the course content, you will prepare a questionnaire to illicit

relevant information to form a coherent profile of a person who has had

extensive intercultural (cross-cultural) experience, and whom you will

interview to gain this information. You will be assessed on the quality of

your questions and on your oral communication skills during the interview,

which will take place in the classroom. The interview should be

approximately 10 minutes.

http://zeus.nyf.hu~granville.pillar/


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1. What is Intercultural Communication? Intercultural communication as a human activity is ancient. Intercultural

Communication as an academic discipline is however relatively new.

In this section we will discuss intercultural communication as an academic discipline:

historic overview of the field

the academic field of intercultural communication

studying culture and communication

1.1 Historic Overview of Intercultural Communication

For the proper name of the field "Intercultural Communication" credit is often given to

American anthropologist Edward T. Hall, who used it for the first time in his book The

Silent Language in 1959. The book is sometimes called "the field's founding document"

(Hart 1998). Prior to publishing the book, Hall was a staff member at the Foreign

Service Institute, USA (1951-1955), where he, together with his colleagues, worked

out what can be called the first original paradigm for Intercultural Communication:

Main elements of Hall's paradigm for Intercultural Communication (Hart 1998) were:

systematic empirical study and the classification of nonverbal communication

(defined as communication that does not involve the exchange of words)

emphasis, especially in nonverbal communication, on the out-of-conscious level of

information-exchange

focus on intercultural communication, not as earlier on macro-level monocultural

studies

a non-judgmental view toward and acceptance of cultural differences

participatory training methods in Intercultural Communication.

The beginning of Intercultural Communication was for applied purposes rather than for

theoretical considerations: Training was the main issue. The first target audience

comprised American diplomats and development personnel whose intercultural skills

had to be improved.

From the Foreign Service Institute, Intercultural Communication teaching and training

spread to the universities and other organizations. University courses were given and

academic textbooks in Intercultural Communication started to appear in the USA in a

larger scale in the 1970s. In Europe, the first university courses in Intercultural

Communication took place in the 1980s.


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From the earlier, more applied focus on teaching and training, Intercultural

Communication has in the recent decades developed and matured also as an

academic field with its own theory building.

1.2 The Interdisciplinary Field of Intercultural Communication To understand and to study intercultural relations and communication, various

perspectives are necessary. Intercultural Communication is therefore an

interdisciplinary field of inquiry. The primary academic disciplines involved in

Intercultural Communication studies are:

Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, Linguistics and Communication.

The scope of Intercultural Communication and the main contributions of the various

fields can be seen as follows (Bennett 1998):

perception, interpretation, attribution (psychology, linguistics, communication)

verbal communication (linguistics, communication)

nonverbal communication (communication)

communication styles (linguistics, communication)

values (psychology, anthropology, sociology)

Researchers from these disciplines have worked in the past, basically, from their own

perspectives, with their own focuses and with their own methods. In general, they have

not learned complementary theoretical approaches, and hardly any dialogue between

researchers of different scientific orientations has existed. Actual "intercultural"

communication between the representatives of the various disciplines has therefore

often been problematic, with each discipline claiming its legacy to the field.

1.3 Studying Culture and Communication Culture has been and is being studied in many fields. Therefore, there are many

definitions of culture as well, depending on from which perspective the researchers

approach it.

Below are some definitions. Please try to think from what kind of academic, or other,

background the authors of these definitions come from, and what is their focus in their

studies of culture:

"Culture is communication" (Edward T. Hall)

"Culture is the collective programming of the mind" (Geert Hofstede)

"Culture is how things are done here" (John Mole)

"All communication is more or less cross-cultural" (Deborah Tannen)


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"Culture is a kind of storehouse or library of possible meanings and symbols" (Ron

Scollon)

1.3.1 Various Definitions of Culture (video)

Galina Elizarova speaking about basic approaches to the concept of culture.

https://m3.jyu.fi/m3videos/jyumv/0001540/0001540-

000006206.jyumv.mobile.88402d94c3a03d1c0def63b8f5c1817b55ccb37b.mp4

1.3.2 "Culture" in the Field of Intercultural Communication Please read Dr. Stephan Dahl's paper: An Overview of Intercultural Research to

become familiar with the different concepts of culture within the field of Intercultural

Communication.

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=658202&rec=1&srcabs=658221

2. Identity, Stereotypes and Communication This theme addresses the dimensions of identity, stereotypes, and perception, as well

as verbal and nonverbal communication in different cultures. Through video

presentations and readings, you will explore the nature of

Identity (specifically cultural identity)

Stereotypes

Verbal and nonverbal communication (including conversation styles, politeness,

and expectations related to time and space)

2.1 Identity Ethnic and cultural identity

In today's world, increasing globalization raises more awareness of cultural diversity.

Cultural identities and ethnicities are becoming more relational and contextual, as well

as constantly evolving. They are complex, ambiguous and multifaceted.

Individuals undergo self- and cultural identity transformation in order to achieve

understanding, harmony and balance within themselves and their environment, and in

their connection with others. Cultures also change in this process, because social,

political, economic and historical influences affect cultural and intercultural interactions.

Cultural groups reflect, re-create, unify, and maintain their ethnic and cultural identities.

https://m3.jyu.fi/m3videos/jyumv/0001540/0001540-000006206.jyumv.mobile.88402d94c3a03d1c0def63b8f5c1817b55ccb37b.mp4https://m3.jyu.fi/m3videos/jyumv/0001540/0001540-000006206.jyumv.mobile.88402d94c3a03d1c0def63b8f5c1817b55ccb37b.mp4http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=658202&rec=1&srcabs=658221


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Cultural identities are negotiated, co-created, and reinforced in communication with

others. They reflect our unique, personal life histories and experiences. They may also

be seen as manifestations of social reality.

Racial identity

Race has been defined as a group of persons related by common descent or heredity.

It is a classification of modern humans based on an arbitrary selection of physical

characteristics as skin colour, facial form, or eye shape. Race is a social construction

of human difference that is used to classify human beings into separate value-based

categories. Some researchers use the singular term racial / ethnic rather than

separating race and ethnicity. Race and ethnicity represent social categories that

develop during early socialization and maintain a central place in self, culture and

communication process.

Ethnic identity

Ethnicity has been defined in various ways. Ethnic refers to a group of people sharing

a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, etc. Furthermore, it has been

explained as the attribute of membership in a group set off by racial, territorial,

economic, religious, cultural, aesthetic, or linguistic uniqueness. Ethnicity has also

been seen as a cultural marker that indicates shared traditions, heritage, and ancestral

origins; ethnicity is defined psychologically and historically. On the other hand ethnic

identity may be explained as an emotional bond that people share that originates from

their past and that gives them an emotional force to claim their common historical

origins. Since the end of the 1990s, the terms ethnicity and race have been less

commonly used. Instead culture has become the preferred term.

Cultural identity

It is commonly understood that culture and cultural identity are umbrella terms that

subsume racial and ethnic identity. Culture has been defined as learned and shared

values, beliefs, thinking patterns and behaviour common to a particular group of

people. Culture forges a group's identity and assists in its survival. Institutions,

language, social structures and various practices shared by a group of individuals are

also part of culture. In addition, the individuals are connected by an ancestral heritage,

often linked to a particular geographical location. Individuals have a sense of belonging

to a particular culture or ethnic group.

Cultural communication is a system of symbols, meanings and norms that are

shared by group members and passed down to the following generations.

2.1.1 Plurality of Identity Every person has multiple dimensions of identities. In communication and daily

interactions we define who we are. According to Fong, we negotiate our identities with


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people who are similar to us and different from us. Our identities are developed in

social interactions.

Castells points out that identity must be distinguished from what, traditionally, has been

called roles and role-sets. Roles - for example to be a worker, a father, a neighbour, a

basketball player and a smoker at the same time - are defined by norms defined by the

institutions and organizations of society. Their influence on people depends on

negotiations and arrangements between individuals and these institutions and

organizations.

Identities organize the meaning while roles organize the function. The essential

question is how, from what, by whom, and for what identities are constructed. Building

materials are to be found in history, biology, institutions, collective memory, personal

fantasies and power apparatus. Individuals, social groups and societies process these

materials. The social construction of identity always takes place in a particular context

where power relationships rule.

Sometimes identities may start as resistance and they gradually become dominant in

the process. The building of identity may lead to a different life, from an oppressed

identity to the transformation of society. An example of this is a post-patriarchal society,

which liberates women, men and children through the realization of women's identity.

2.1.2 Properties of Cultural Identity Avowal and ascription

How a person perceives himself or herself is called avowal. It means in what way a

person demonstrates to others "who I am". Ascription is how others perceive and

communicate a person's identity.

Modes of expression

The second property of cultural identity are the modes of expression, which include

core symbols, names and labels, and norms. Core symbols are cultural beliefs and

interpretations of people, world and the functioning of society. The shared use of

symbols and ideas provides people the membership of a group. Names and labels are

categories of core symbols. Norms affect our cultural identity. Cultural groups create

norms for appropriate conduct and acceptable behaviour.

Defining who we are includes what and how we should behave in a particular situation.

Individual, relational and communal identity

Individual identity refers to the individual's interpretation of his or her cultural identity,

which is based on his or her own experiences. It includes understanding multiple

degrees of differences and similarities among group members.

Relational identity refers to relationships between persons. There are norms for

appropriate behaviour in relational contacts, which occur for example between friends,


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colleagues, co-workers or neighbours. Expectations for behaviour vary according to

types of interactions, situations and topics. Communal identity is identified by

observing a group's communal activities, rituals, rites and holiday celebrations. Group

members use cultural membership to maintain community with one another. Examples

of ceremonies are baptisms, graduations and weddings. Informal conventions include

such as greetings, leave-taking, compliments, and gift exchanges.

Enduring and changing aspects of identity

Identity features enduring and changing aspects. Cultural identities may change due

to several types of factors that influence a group of people. These factors may be

social, political, economic or contextual.

Manuel Castells underlines the fact that today our world and our lives, as well as our

identities, are strongly being reshaped by globalization and information technology

revolution. People are influenced by pervasive, interconnected and diversified media

systems. Work has become flexible and unstable, labour is being individualized.

Globalization and the restructuring of capitalism are part of the process that is

reforming societies and people's identities.

2.1.3 Social and Cultural Identities Gender identities

Our gender identity is influenced by the way we are treated by our parents, other

relatives, neighbours and friends. Boys and girls are dressed in different colours and

they are introduced to different types of toys. In every culture there are

communications and interactions which are considered feminine, masculine or

androgynous. Nowadays the media influences our identity, in what is considered

feminine, masculine or androgynous.

Age identities

Age is also one aspect of our identity. Cultures view and treat people of different

ages in different ways. For example, in Asian cultures, getting old is seen as positive.

Elderly people are respected and they are cared for by their children. In some

European cultures, however, not all elderly people are highly respected. In many

cases they may live separated from the younger generation and feel lonely.

Spiritual identity

Depending of the culture and context spiritual identity can be more or less apparent.

In some countries people might even be ready to die for their beliefs. People's

spiritual identity may even lead to conflicts or, in worst cases, war.

Class identity

Our social class identity influences how we behave and communicate towards other

people. A person's class identity is not necessarily noticed until he or she encounters

another person representing another social class.


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National identity

A person's citizenship of a nation is referred to as national identity. Depending on the

person, his or her national identity may be stronger than his or her ethnic or cultural

identity, and vice versa.

Regional identity

In every country there are regions with which people identify themselves. In some

countries regional identities are stronger than the national identity. Regional identities

may also carry positive, negative, real or not real generalizations about people living

there.

Personal identity

Our personal identity means how we perceive ourselves. Our personal identity is vital

for us and we communicate and negotiate that with other people.

2.1.4 Language and Culture The influence and power of language is meaningful to cultural and ethnic group

members. In each speech community -- ethnic, racial, cultural or gender-related --

language use is of vital importance. Each speech community has its norms, forms and

codes for communication. The interactions of a group of people vary in many respects:

in frequency and value of speaking, interpretation of speaking performances, and

shared language forms. The speech community maintains the norms and rules of

communication, but it may gradually change them. On the other hand, in every speech

community there is a degree of individual deviation from the norms. Not all group

members communicate in the same way.

The group members share a speech code, a system of symbols, signs, meanings and

rules in a specific situation and interaction. Several aspects, like the relationship, age,

gender, social status and generation, affect communication. Likewise, the proportion

of verbal and nonverbal communication vary in different speech communities.

Rules of speaking determine what is appropriate and inappropriate in a situation with

particular communication partners. We are automatically aware of what to say and not

to say, and in what a way.

Rules of interaction help a person to know how to act towards others in a particular

situation.

Language is not only used as a means of communication, but also as a marker or

indicator the speaker's cultural identity. The identity is communicated through a

particular language use during interaction (discourse markers). Certain types of

expressions are used to express belonging to a group, but likewise they are sometimes

used to exclude, separate or discriminate.


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Intercultural communication takes place when interacting participants represent a

different communication system. Differences may occur in verbal and nonverbal

communication, for instance, eye contact, gestures, touch, pauses, turn-taking or use

of time. They are potential sources of clashes or conflicts in intercultural

communication. In a case of an intercultural communication clash, there may occur

feelings of confusion, tension, embarrassment and frustration.

2.2 Stereotypes (pdf link) In his article, Professor Jaakko Lehtonen from the University of Jyväskylä discusses

stereotypes, identification and perception.

Jaakko Lehtonen

Stereotypes and collective identification

Published with the Author's permission. In Petkova & Lehtonen (Eds.), Cultural

Identity in an Intercultural Context (pp. 61-85). University of Jyväskylä. Publication of

the Department of Communication. 2005.

https://moniviestin.jyu.fi/ohjelmat/hum/viesti/en/ics/16/2008-01-17.2002750388/view

The contents of the article are

Stereotypes and identity

What are stereotypes and why do they exist?

Why stereotypes?

Descriptive and evaluative stereotypes

Classifying cultural stereotypes

Perceptual biases

Changing harmful stereotypes

Organizational identity and image as organizational stereotypes

Self-esteem and self-handicapping stereotypes

2.3 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Verbal and nonverbal communication are part of the complete interaction process and,

in practice, are inseparable. For research purposes, verbal and nonverbal

communication can, however, be looked at as distinctive objects of study. Verbal

communication, i.e. what is being said or written, has traditionally been the focus of

Linguistics. Nonverbal communication, i.e. how something is being said or written or

done, is one of the focuses of Communication science.



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In the field of Intercultural Communication, Edward T. Hall was the first scholars to

carry out systematic empirical studies and classification of nonverbal communication.

He also emphasized the out-of-conscious level of information exchange. Hall defined

nonverbal communication as communication that does not involve the exchange of

words.

2.3.1 Verbal Communication In this section we will discuss:

low and high context communication processing

communication styles

cultural speaking rules

politeness

perception, interpretation and evaluation

- Low and high context communication processing The concepts high-context communication and low-context

communication originate from Edward T. Hall and are widely used today. In low-

context communication, verbal communication gets emphasized. Information is coded

in words that are expected to correspond relatively accurately to what is meant.

Nonverbal communication is generally not very contradictory to verbal communication.

Anger or sadness, for instance, can visually be seen and verbally heard.

In high-context communication, only a part of information is expressed verbally. A great

portion of a message is being "read" from the context: the person, his appearance and

nonverbal behaviour, personal history, the communicative situation, and the interaction

process. These kinds of messages are often called metamessages. Metamessages

are interpreted with the help of certain cues which carry cultural meanings. A smile, for

instance, is a cue for interactional interpretation. In many cultural contexts it may mean

well-being or happiness; in some cultures, a smile is also being used in certain

situations to express embarrassment or even hate (e.g., China, Japan). Differing

interpretations of these contextual cues can be a source of intercultural

misunderstandings.

For verbal communication, rhetorical organization can be a contextual cue. In Anglo-

Saxon cultures, for instance, people expect the main points of a presentation to be

mentioned at the very beginning of the presentation. We will discuss contextual cues

(also sometimes called orientation cues) more in the section on nonverbal

communication.

- Communication styles


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In Intercultural Communication studies, the following styles of verbal communication

have, among others, been identified (e.g., Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey 1988; Gudykunst

1998):

direct/indirect communication style

elaborate/succinct communication style

personal, or person-centered/contextual communication style

instrumental/affective communication style

These styles are present in all cultures, and the use of different styles varies depending

on the context (e.g., formal or informal situation, personal distance or current

relationship of the interactants). Culturally, one particular style might however be

considered more appropriate in a given situation. In Finland, for instance, direct,

succinct and instrumental styles are in general preferred when presenting information

in professional contexts. There are, however, situations when Finns may become very

indirect also in professional contexts. These involve, for instance, occasions where

there is a need to express criticism.

Direct and indirect communication style

In direct communication style, both parties, the speaker/writer and the listener/reader,

expect explicit verbal expression of intentions, wishes, hopes, etc. (e.g., "I am hungry",

"I love you"). In indirect communication style the speaker/writer expresses his/her

thoughts implicitly, or using hints or modifiers (e.g.. "perhaps", "maybe"). The

listener/reader is expected to monitor the nonverbal communication, to read contextual

cues, to relate what has been stated to all information available about the

speaker/writer and the situation at hand in order to read the real meaning.

Communication styles have been associated with cultural values: direct style with

individualism and indirect style with collectivism (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey 1988;

Gudykunst 1998). (See more on values in the Theme 3: Cultural value orientations.)

Indirect communication is often used in situations where mutual harmony is considered

important for maintaining good relationships. This is the case in collectivistic cultures,

where people in general feel more mutual interdependency than in individualistic

cultures. Open criticism, for instance, would be inappropriate in public situations, for

face-saving reasons. In some Asian cultures, for example, indirectness is also

considered to be an elegant style of communication. Training for paying attention to

minimal cues and considering the feelings of the other starts in early childhood.

Nevertheless, there are communicative situations where communication is very direct.

Increasing industrialization, urbanization, and lately, globalization, influence

communication behaviour, also in Asia. There are considerable differences in

directness and indirectness also between the generations.

Indirect communication can tell about achieved harmony also in individualistic cultures.

To be able to communicate successfully indirectly, mutual rapport and understanding


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is needed. This is often the case in old established relationships (e.g., couples or

working partners).

In cross-cultural studies where cultural groups are compared, or when people

compare themselves to others, Northern Europeans often come out as being very

direct and straightforward (see Vasko, Kjisik & Salo-Lee, 1998). However, these kinds

of assumptions should been seen in relative terms (Müller-Jacquier, 2003). Finns, for

instance, who consider themselves direct, are, in certain situations, considered by

Spanish to be very indirect (Salo-Lee, 2002).

We should remember that all features and phenomena can be found in all cultures,

and there are no "typical" individuals. The use of directness and indirectness varies,

depending on whether the situation is formal or informal, or how close or distant the

interlocutors feel to be to each other.

Elaborate/succinct communication style

The amount of speech as well as one's expressiveness are criteria for the elaborate

and succinct communication styles. Volubility and rich language are characteristic for

everyday discussions in the cultures of Middle East, for instance. Metaphors, idioms,

and proverbs are common. Characteristic for the succinct style are frequent pauses,

silence and "low key" verbal expressions that go to the point. Again, there are

contextual and individual variations within cultures.

Personal, or person-centred/contextual style

Like directness and indirectness, personal and contextual communication styles also

are related in cross-cultural studies to individualism and collectivism. Gudykunst and

Ting-Toomey (1988) suggest these styles also express cultural differences in power

distance (hierarchy). Person-cenrered communication style is informal and

emphasizes the individual and equalitarian relationships. The person-centeredness is

reflected, for instance, by the use of the pronoun. The contextual style is status and

role oriented. Formality and asymmetrical power distance is often emphasized.

Personal pronouns are not often used. All information does not need to be explicitly

expressed. Yet common background knowledge is assumed, or in essential parts

conveyed during the interaction, often indirectly.

Instrumental/affective style

Instrumental and affective communication styles can be also related on one hand to

individualism and collectivism, on the other hand to low- and high-context approaches,

respectively. Instrumental communication style is goal oriented and sender focused.

Affective communication style is process oriented and listener focused. Verbally this

means explicitness (instrumental style) and implicitness (affective style). Instrumental

style is gradually becoming the style of international business and other professional

contexts, particularly in the Western world.

- Cultural speaking rules


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Communication is culturally patterned. Speaking rules in different cultures have been

studied more systematically since 1960s, particularly in ethnography of speaking (or

ethnography of communication), founded by Dell Hymes.

A typical example of this approach is the following characterization of Finnish speaking

rules, proposed by Donal Carbaugh (1995):

Do not say the obvious!

When you speak say something worth of everybody´s attention!

Do not bring forth conflicting or questionable issues! Try to keep harmonious

relationships!

Be personally committed in what you are saying!

What you say forms a basis for the subsequent interactions!

According to Carbaugh these rules are very demanding. Speech becomes deliberate

and perhaps scarce. When people using these kinds of rules meet others from different

cultures, such as mainstream Americans, misunderstandings are possible.

Carbaugh goes further in describing that in the USA there are many cultures, each with

their own speaking patterns and rules. According to him, in general it is important for

the Americans to be able to express oneself by speaking. Everyone has the right to

speak and to be heard. The social worth of the speech is less important than its

personal significance. In these kinds of circumstances the amount of speech is large,

and the topics of conversation are often personal experiences, thoughts and feelings.

This may contribute to members of cultures representing other speaking patterns

perceiving the Americans as being "superficial" (Carbaugh 1995).

Conversation has been a particular focus of linguists and discourse analysts for several

decades. In intercultural studies, many regularities of conversation and joint features

have been found. Conversation is like a ball game: It has its own rules. The participants

need to know how to open conversation, to respond appropriately, to maintain

conversation and to finish it. Turn giving and taking has been found to be systematic

and is signalled by, for example, nonverbal means (e.g., eye contact, body position) or

paralinguistically (e.g., intonation). In intercultural encounters, different conversational

rules can cause misunderstandings. Pauses between turns, for instance, have been

found to be longer in Finnish than in German conversation. This may lead to turn taking

by Germans, which might be perceived by Finns as rude interruptions. Overlapping

speech is common in Southern European conversation and is perceived as

involvement and a sign of presence. In many Finnish contexts, overlapping speech is

perceived as impolite.

- Politeness


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Politeness is one of the central features of human communication. It is a human

phenomenon, yet expressed differently in different cultures. Politeness is

communicated both verbally and nonverbally. One of the well-know classifications of

linguistic politeness is that of Brown and Levinson (1978). They talk

about positive and negative politeness.

Positive politeness refers to an atmosphere of inclusion and mutuality created by

linguistic means such as compliments, encouragement, joking, even the use of "white

lies." Small talk is one expression of positive politeness; that is, creating linguistically

a connection to other people.

Negative politeness involves respecting the privacy of other people and leaving a "back

door" open, that is, showing some reservation. The use of distance-creating linguistic

devices (e.g., passive forms), irony, or general vagueness is characteristic for this kind

of linguistic politeness.

Developing the concept of politeness further, Scollon & Scollon (1995) distinguish two

kinds of linguistic politeness strategies: involvement strategies and independency

strategies. These strategies reflect the general human social needs to be connected

to other people, yet to be independent and unique.

Some examples of involvement strategies include:

Paying attention to the other person or taking care of him/her (e.g., "You have a

beautiful dress"; "Are you feeling better today?").

Being optimistic ("I believe that we will make it").

Being voluble (speaking as such already indicates a willingness to participate).

Using the other person´s language or dialect.

Some examples of independency strategies include

Giving the other person the possibility to retreat ("It would have been nice to have a

cup of coffee together but you must be busy").

Speaking in general terms ("The rules of the company require…...").

Not speaking much.

Using your own language or dialect.

The core of politeness, in all cultures, is to take other people into consideration, to take

care. This can, however, be done in different ways. In the Finnish social context,

leaving somebody in peace, respecting his/her privacy, may be considered as polite in

certain contexts (e.g., in times of sorrow or illness). In some other cultures, this kind of


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behaviour could be judged as impolite, or even rude. Politeness norms and behaviours

are culturally and socially learned, and misunderstandings are therefore interculturally

common.

- Perception, interpretation and evaluation The interpretations people make about each other during an interaction are results of

simultaneous functioning of various messages: verbal, paralinguistic and nonverbal.

The information conveyed by these messages are present in a certain context. The

context and earlier information about the other and all relevant aspects related to the

situation influence interpretations.

Contextualization cues

During interactions, people process a large number of verbal and nonverbal cues, so-

called contextualization cues (Gumperz, 1992). On the basis of these cues they make

interpretations about each others´ intentions and their mutual relationship. Effective

communication depends on how well people perceive each others´ intentions and how

they interpret the messages. The perceptions, i.e., what is perceived and how that is

interpreted, are culturally learned. One's own culture provides the measure for which

something is evaluated, for instance, as being "beautiful" or "ugly", "polite" or "impolite".

People are, in their own culture, not particularly conscious of contextualization cues

(sometimes also called orientation cues). When all parties seem to understand each

other, and there is no obvious miscommunication, interpretation processes are not paid

attention to. If misunderstandings occur, their origin is difficult to pinpoint. There is no

widely accepted language for talking about, for instance, someone's conversational

style. The following example by a Finn working in a multicultural organization in

Mozambique illustrates this difficulty (Vasko, Kjisik & Salo-Lee 1998):

"I came back from the holiday, noticed that something had changed in the office, there

was a new guy. He was a nice guy, something in his speech, or behaviour was such

that it didn't fit there. He was eager and effective, maybe it was his way. I told him too

that he should change but I couldn't say what it was".

Important contextualization cues in oral communication are, for instance, intonation,

pitch or loudness. These are metamessages that tell how to interpret the verbal

message. Decisive is not only WHAT is said but HOW something is said.

Linguistic awareness of cultures and recognition of cultural differences can be

developed (e.g., Müller-Jacquier, 1993, 2003). According to Müller-Jacquier, linguistic

awareness of cultures (LAC) means that "all cultural differences are ´hidden´ in

linguistic manifestations. These expressions of cultural difference are found in all

languages and they can be classified in different grammatical and lexical categories or

even expressed non-verbally. ... There is a source of mutual misunderstanding when

these linguistic indicators or manifestations are not perceived by the interactors" (2003:

53).


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Müller-Jacquier (2003) has elaborated LAC criteria for the analysis of communicative

events. There might be cultural differences in interpretation along the following criteria:

social meaning, lexicon

speech acts, speech act sequences

organization of discourse, conventions of discourse

choice of topic

directness/indirectness

register

paraverbal factors

nonverbal means of expression

culture-specific values/attitudes

culture-specific behaviour (including rituals)

behaviour sequences

2.3.2 Nonverbal Communication Studies in nonverbal communication include following aspects:

time

space

touching

body language: expressions, gestures, movements, body position

eye contact

smell

physical appearance

clothing, artefacts

living environment

- Time The structuring of time is a culture-bound phenomenon. The ways in which people

locate their present relation to the past and the future as well as the ways in which they

feel that time is available for a variety uses have a significant impact on how people

order their lives.

Culturally different time concepts have turned out to be a considerable barrier in

multicultural work. Differences surface, for instance, in punctuality requirements,


18

adherence to schedules, attitudes towards cancellations and rescheduling, planning,

methodical working, or what is found to be relevant or irrelevant to do within a certain

time frame. In intercultural interactions, the differences in relation to time can be

perceived by the representatives of different cultural groups as, for

instance, unprofessional, an insult, or a personal trait (e.g., "an inflexible person").

In intercultural studies, various culturally different orientations to time have been

identified. One of the most common one in antropogical studies is the classification

into past, present and future time. We will discuss here Hall's classification of

monochronic and polychronic time orientation. His classification has influenced also

subsequent intercultural communication researchers (e.g., Trompernaars).

Monochronic and polychronic time orientation

Edward T. Hall distinguished two basic time orientations: monochronic and

polychronic. The monochronic orientation involves focusing on one task or one issue

at a time, and bringing that to completion before starting a new one. Plans how to carry

out the task have, in general, been made in advance. In the polychronic orientation,

several tasks and issues can be dealt with simultaneously. No exact plans have been

made in advance, changes and surprises can be accommodated at a short notice.

Completion of the task takes preference over the personal relationships in

monochronic time orientation. In polychronic systems, involvement of people and

completion of transactions are preferred to adherence to preset schedules.

Finns, as a cultural group, have been classified by Hall, together with, e.g., with the

Swiss, Germans, other Scandinavians, British and Americans, as having tendency

toward the monochronic time orientation. It should be remembered, however, that

people in all cultures behave differently in different situations and there are no "typical"

individuals.

- Proxemics, kinesics, and artefacts Contact/low contact nonverbal communication

Proxemics can be one criteria for the classification of nonverbal communication: We

talk about contact and low-contact communication. Proximity is communicated, for

instance, through the use of space, distance, touching, and body position. The use of

space, the physical distance between people, and the options for touch are closely

related and culture specific. Hall distinguishes four types of informal distances: public,

social-consultative, personal and intimate distance. Personal distance is common in

communication between friends. Social-consultative distance is used in professional

and unofficial social occasions. People from different cultural backgrounds can for

example value personal space differently.

Gestures, facial expressions, body language, eye contact (kinesics)

Certain nonverbal means of communication indicate immediacy, expressiveness,

warmth and willingness to contact. In addition to touching and physical proximity, such

signals are, for instance, eye contact, smiling, and body position.


19

Eye contact is a powerful means of nonverbal communication. Its use is culturally

regulated but in general people are not aware of the rules or their own eye contact

behaviour. Eye contact can be a source of interpretations and attributions. Based on

eye contact, someone can be perceived as aggressive, disrespectful, or flirtatious,

depending on the culture.

Clothing, artefacts, living environments

The "material culture," that is, how we live, what we carry with us, and how we dress

have been traditional focuses of anthropology and ethnology. Increasingly, however,

attention has been paid to these issues also in intercultural communication, and related

areas such as intercultural marketing. Cultural meaning of colours, and the change of

meanings within a culture, for instance, have been studied from marketing point of

view. Red has been traditionally one of the favourite colours in Chinese culture

because the colour represents happiness and wealth. While black in earlier years had

not enjoyed popularity among Chinese, today that colour, particularly glossy and

brilliant black, has turned out to be a colour of luxury. White used to be the colour of

sorrow in China; today, brides dress in white for their weddings. Yet the traditional red

might still be present in various shades in decorations, or even as an additional

wedding dress to be changed into later during the festivities.

3. Intercultural Encounters and Adaptation Meeting people from different cultural backgrounds has become more and more

common in the globalizing world. However, we are often not aware of our own culture

until something surprising or shocking happens. Our own habits, values and beliefs

feel just natural to us. It is only when we meet someone from a different culture that

we notice the basic assumptions are not the same everywhere. Our reactions in such

a situation can be very different -- rejection, acceptance and adaptation are some

examples of how people can take cultural differences.

In this chapter we will discuss intercultural encounters and adaptation to a new culture.

The contents are

Encounters and emotions

Culture Shock

Intercultural adaptation

o U-curve model

o W-curve model

o Stress-Adaptation-Growth

Expatriate assignment cycle

3.1 Encounters and Emotions (video)


20


000006234.jyumv.mobile.6f4ce2fb62ffab43fd1e5596e4c2dbdf422165e9.mp4

3.2 Culture shock People move from one country to another for different reasons. Studying or working

opportunities abroad, intercultural marriages, as well as unstable political situations

can make people leave their own country. These different situations can be viewed in

terms of short-term or long-term, and voluntary or involuntary migration. Someone

who is just attending a three-week language course in a foreign country will probably

have different experiences than someone who is going to work abroad for three years.

The situation is different as well between those who actively choose a foreign country

to work or study there, and those who go there as refugees.

In the beginning there are many practical matters that require attention. Moving to a

new apartment, taking care of administrative matters, and even buying food at a

grocery store can be very challenging issues in a new environment. At the same time

finding new social contacts and facing situations where your own behavioural patterns

don't seem to work at all may create a feeling of confusion. The term culture shock is

often used to cover all these different dimensions of encountering a new cultural

environment.

When talking about culture shock, it is good to be aware of the different layers of

culture. The iceberg metaphor is often used to show how many things are actually

invisible in a culture. Traditions and food habits are something we can learn by

observing the culture long enough, but it is much more difficult to understand the beliefs

and values that lie beneath the behaviour, "under the surface". This is what also

happens in adaptation to a new culture - it is easier to start with some visible features

of the culture, and slowly go deeper in the adaptation process.

The symptoms of a culture shock can be very different in different people. Some

experience only a little discomfort for a few weeks, while others may be struggling for

several months or even years. Previous international experience, personality,

expectations, motivation, and cultural distance (i.e., how different the home culture

and the host culture are) all play an important role in the process. Symptoms can be

both physical and mental, since people react differently to changes. Eating and

sleeping problems are an example of physical symptoms, while mental symptoms have

more to do with feelings of anxiety and personal loss. Even if culture shock in itself

may sound like a very negative experience, it is an important element in the adaptation

process.

3.3 Intercultural Adaptation

https://m3.jyu.fi/m3videos/jyumv/0001547/0001547-000006234.jyumv.mobile.6f4ce2fb62ffab43fd1e5596e4c2dbdf422165e9.mp4https://m3.jyu.fi/m3videos/jyumv/0001547/0001547-000006234.jyumv.mobile.6f4ce2fb62ffab43fd1e5596e4c2dbdf422165e9.mp4


21

There are different models for the intercultural adaptation process. For instance, a

traditional viewpoint has been to see the process as a U-curve (Lysgaard, 1955; also

Chang, 1973; Oberg, 1960), where a migrant moves from initial excitement about the

new place into a crisis, and then to adjustment. Later on some scholars expanded the

U-curve into a W-curve, where they also took into account the re-entry shock and

readjustment of a migrant who returns to her/his home country. Adaptation can be also

seen as an ongoing process, where a migrant gradually adapts to the new

environment. This is called a Stress-Adaptation-Growth model (Kim, 2001).

It is useful to know something about culture shock and intercultural adaptation before

moving to live in a new country. Awareness of what one can expect always helps in

the process, but it is also important to remember that there is no one right formula,

since every experience is unique.

3.3.1 U-curve The U-curve model for adjustment was first introduced by a Norwegian sociologist

Sverre Lysgaard in 1955, and it has been developed by other scholars during the

following decades (e.g. Oberg, 1960; Chang, 1973). According to this model, the

adaptation process goes through four stages:

honeymoon period

crisis period

adjustment period

biculturalism period.

W-curve

When migrants return to their home countries, they often have to go through a similar

kind of adaptation process. Scholars refer to this with a W-curve model, where the

second curve is meant to describe the re-entry shock and readjustment. This

process is sometimes even more difficult, since people don't expect any culture shock

when returning home. The re-entry shock can be described as a set of unmet

expectations from both the migrant and the environment, which used to be familiar to

him/her.

While one has been staying abroad, there may have been changes in the home

country's political situation, technology, or popular culture, for instance. Friends and

family are maybe not the same any more, and also the migrant is probably a different

person after having spent some years in a different environment - even if people would

expect him/her to be the same. After adapting to a new culture, it is actually natural to

feel disintegration with home culture. It is all part of the process.

3.3.2 Adaptation Curves and Examples (video)


22


000006238.jyumv.mobile.308fc9039cb9629a394ed37d6aaa195307be66f7.mp4

3.3.3 The Stress-Adaptation-Growth Process Another perspective to intercultural adaptation is to see it as an ongoing learning

process, where an individual moves gradually toward adjustment. The challenges met

on the way are all important for the process and personal growth. Maybe the adaptation

process never comes to an end, but rather changes its form and becomes easier, with

more experience.

There are some different terms related to the adaptation process, and how culture is

adopted by an individual. Enculturation refers to how culture is adopted at early age,

through socialization and cultural learning. Deculturation happens when an individual

loses some features from his/her own culture, through learning and adapting to a new

environment. Acculturation is an active process where an individual acquires

elements from a new culture (such as food habits or behavioural norms). Acculturation

can be seen as a more cognitive process than enculturation.

Young Yun Kim (2001) sees the adaptation process as a spiral, where every new

experience in the host culture adds to personal growth. Whenever an individual faces

a situation where the old cultural patterns don't work, he/she will experience stress (at

some level), deriving from the feeling of confusion. Negative stress often activates

defensive responses, which means the individual may try to keep his/her old habits,

and reject the new culture. However, with time and some effort, the individual will

probably start to respond to the new environment by changing his/her behaviour, which

then gradually leads to adaptation and growth.

3.4 Expatriate assignment cycle (pdf link) People that are sent abroad for international assignments are called expatriates. In her

article, Sini Konivuori describes the expatriate assignment cycle. What elements make

the adaptation process of an expatriate different from someone who moves abroad to

work for an undefined period of time?


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