AAbu Ghraib prison, 158accountability and accountability mechanisms, 20, 228–31accountable policing, 110–11Action Plan to Address the Growing Problem of Illicit Drug Trafficking, Organized

Crime and Drug Abuse in West Africa, 118active-personality jurisdiction, 148Act to Ban Trafficking in Persons within the Republic of Liberia (2005), 58Advanced First Responder Network (AFRN), 48Advocacy and Legal Advice Center (ALAC), 185Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC), 45Afghan Interim Authority (AIA), 45Afghanistan: assessment team in, 48

Bonn Agreement and legal framework of, 57challenges of judicial capacity building in, 37–38counternarcotics strategy in, 134–36, 192domestic laws in, 61drug trafficking in, 11, 19international engagement in, 220international mentoring of justice system personnel in, 211–12judicial system assessment in, 52justice system assessment in, 62prison building in, 158transitional justice based on national consultation in, 45

Agreement on Human Rights, 57Akashi, Yasushi, 125–26Allaw, Kamal, 160al-Qaeda, 79–80Angola, 59anonymity, of witnesses, 84–85Anti-Corruption Commission (Sierra Leone), 41anticorruption units, 115

INDEX

270 Index

Anti-Crime Unit (Misrata, Libya), 25Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement, 57assessment(s): accessing, done by international military forces, 52

capacity and challenges outside criminal justice sector, 41–46capacity and challenges within criminal justice sector, 30–40conducting, 46–55defined, 22importance of, 22–26of international engagement needs, 217–19makeup of team conducting, 46–49methodology for, 49–53moving to strategy from, 53–55of nature of serious crimes problem, 27–30new approaches to, 43–44reports, 50, 51scope of, 26–27of security threats, 162, 164timing of, 53

assets of crime, seizure of, 90–96Association for a More Just Society, 185

BBamdar, Awad Hamad, 160bashingantahe (community mediators), 120Bonn Agreement (2001), 57, 62, 134border control and security unit, 113borders, thinking beyond, 21Bosnia and Herzegovina: assessment of judicial system in, 52

confiscation of instrumentalities of crime in, 91corruption in, 12intelligence sharing in, 176international criminal tribunals for, 124–25international military forces in, 197–98, 199Joint Centre for Police Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,

and Serbia, 104mechanism to prosecute serious crimes in, 129–33peace agreement and legal framework of, 57specialized police units in, 117United States Institute of Peace study of, 13witness protection in, 167

Bozizé, François, 9Brazil, 166Burundi, 57, 120

CCambodia: Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, 42, 146, 213, 224

judicial mentor program in, 222

Index 271

political resistance to Khmer Rouge prosecution, 42prosecution of human rights violations cases in, 125–26

Camp Bondsteel, 160Central African Republic, 9, 133Central Criminal Court of Iraq (CCCI), 137–38Central Narcotics Tribunal (CNT), 135citizen help desks, 195. See legal literacyCivilian Police Assistance and Training Team (CPATT), 110, 203civil society, working with, 183–89civil wars, effects of, 1–2close protection, 115, 161–64, 228Colombia, 10, 26, 57, 116Combating Serious Crimes in Postconflict Societies, 13Commander of International Force for East Timor (COMINTERFET) Interim Detainee

and Disarmament Policy, 198commitment, and determining type of international engagement, 220–21confidentiality, in witness protection, 167Confiscation and Assets Law (2013, Bosnia and Herzegovina), 91confiscation of instrumentalities of crime, 90–96conflict-affected state(s): availability of reliable information in, 49–50

defined, 4legal framework in, 53vulnerability of, to serious crimes, 6

constabulary forces, 199–200constitutions, 62Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts, 98cooperation, cross-border, 97, 101–05cooperation agreements, 89cooperative witnesses, 87–90Copic, Zoran, 91corruption: anticorruption units, 115

combating, 41extraterritorial jurisdiction over, 100in Honduras, 185international instruments on, 67of police, 110in prosecution of drug offenses in Afghanistan, 135regional instruments on, 69in Sicily, 186

Council of Europe, 96Counter Narcotics Justice Center (CNJC), 136Counter Narcotics Police of Afghanistan (CNPA), 134–35Criminal Defence Resource Centre (CDRC), 149criminal intelligence, 80–81, 114, 169–80criminal investigation, international instruments on, 67criminal justice sector: capacity and challenges within, 30–40

importance of diversity in, 108

272 Index

criminal justice sector (cont.)legal framework as backbone of, 30–31, 56modifications to, 77. See also institutional reformslegal framework

Criminal Justice Task Force (CJTF), 135, 136criminal procedure codes: and identifying legal framework, 63

modifications to, 75–76criminals living abroad, testimony from, 103customary justice: challenges of using, 24

defined, 4enhancing popular legitimacy through, 120

cybercrime, 69

DDanilovic, Rajko, 85Dayton peace agreement (1995), 12, 57, 72defense counsel: mentoring, 211

protection of, 115, 160restrictions on right of access to, 151–54right to, 149–51right to access evidence, 154–55

detention, based on intelligence, 176–77. See also prison systemdiamonds, 71

blood diamonds, 71conflict diamonds, 71

diversity, in criminal justice system, 108Djindjic, Zoran, 85, 140Dodik, Milorad, 12drug trafficking: in Afghanistan, 11, 19, 134–36, 192

in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 117extraterritorial jurisdiction over, 100international instruments on, 67in Liberia, 7narcotics units, 114

due process rights, 20–21, 76, 138–39

EEast Timor: international military forces in, 197

intervention in, 207, 209memorandum of understanding in, 204rules of engagement in, 198special courts for war crimes-related cases in, 122–23United Nations Security Council resolutions and legal framework of, 72, 73

economic marginalization, 233–34effects doctrine, 148El Salvador, 57, 157environmental degradation, 234

Index 273

European Arrest Warrant (EAW), 99European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR)., 57European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, 103European Court of Human Rights, 81, 86European Judicial Training Network (EJTN), 102European Police Office (Europol), 175Europe/European Union: extradition between states of, 99

redistribution of confiscated assets in, 96Europol (European Police Office), 175evidence: defense counsel’s right to access, 154–55

versus intelligence, 174exclusion, 233–34Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on the Laundering, Search,

Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds of Crime, The, 91–92Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) matters, 201extradition, 67, 70, 96–101, 148Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal, 146Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), 42, 146, 213, 224extraterritorial jurisdiction, 99, 100, 147–48

Ffair trial rights, 20–21, 76, 138–39Fiji, 137financial and economic crimes units, 115financial investigations units, 114financial resources, problem of inadequate, 78firearms possession, criminalized in Kosovo, 60firearms trafficking, 7, 69forensic work, outsourcing of, 112forfeiture of instrumentalities of crime, 90Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacíon Nacional, 57full immunity, 88–89. See also immunity

Ggacaca, 120gang activity, 60, 157goal-setting, realism in, 18Governance and Economic Management Assistance Program (GEMAP), 140Guatemala, 26, 83, 141Gulf Cooperation Council agreement, 77

HHabré, Hissène, 146Haiti, 14“hard law,” 71high-risk prisoner transport, 115–16, 156Honduras, 185

274 Index

human rights: education, 111principles and instruments, 66, 70prosecution of violations in Cambodia, 125–26standards and practices for police, 109–10violations in Iraqi prisons, 158

Human Rights Education and Training Center, 111Human Rights Standards and Practice for Police, 109–10human trafficking: in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 117

civil society’s role in aiding victims of, 185international instruments on, 69in Kosovo, 60, 229legislation concerning, 74in Liberia, 7, 58migrants, smuggling, 68regional and international instruments on, 69

Hun Sen, 42Hussein, Saddam, 85, 160Al-Hussein, Zeid R’ad Zeid, 229

IIFOR (NATO Implementation Force), 197, 199immunity: for cooperative witnesses, 87–90

for criminals living abroad, 103Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC), 5individual responsibility, 236–37informal justice, 25information verification, 50, 53institutional reforms, 77, 106–09

judicial system, 118–55police, 109–18prison, 155–59security measures, 159–68. See also legal framework

instrumentalities of crime, seizure of, 90–96intelligence

intelligence function, 170–71, 173, 174intelligence gathering, 80–81, 169–80, 181intelligence process, 170–71, 172–74software, in intelligence process, 172–73

interagency cooperation, 117–18interested state: prosecution of serious crime by, 146–49

and US jurisdiction over Baz Mohammad, 145“interests of justice” test, 150internal affairs/professional standards units, 116Internal Force for East Timor (INTERFET), 197, 198International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (La Comisión Internacional

contra la Impunidad en Guatemala [CICIG]), 141International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, 148

Index 275

International Criminal Court (ICC), 83International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), 175International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 86, 133international criminal tribunals, 86, 124–25, 133, 144–45international engagement, 207–08

authorization for, 213–15determining type of, 216–21general considerations for, 208–12issues regarding, 221–31reactions to, 220types of, 215–16

international judges, 136, 137international military forces: accessing assessments done by, 52

roles of, 195–203transition to civilian police, 204–06

international personnel: accountability of, 228–31issues related to use of, 221recruitment and length of deployment of, 223–25resources for, 227–28selecting qualified, 222–23, 225–27specialization, 225–27

international standards, 57interpersonal skills, 227Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization), 175Iraq: Advanced First Responder Network (AFRN), 48

building of police force in, 110defense attorneys killed in, 160human rights violations in prisons of, 158inadequate due process protections in, 138–39peace versus justice in, 10prosecution of serious crimes in, 137–38sectarianism and credibility of police in, 34training of police in, 203witness protection in, 85

Italy, 19

JJaish-Al-Mahdi, 34Janabi, Sadoon, 160Joint Centre for Police Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,

and Serbia, 104joint investigation, 101Jovanovic, Zvezdan, 85judges: international, 136, 137

mentoring, 211protection of, 115

judicial cooperation networks, 102

276 Index

judicial independence, 77, 142judicial system: assessment of capacity, 36–39

ethnic bias in Kosovo’s, 219general principles in considering specialized mechanisms, 142–44mentoring program in Cambodia’s, 222military personnel as witnesses in civilian courts, 201prosecution by interested state, 146–49reforms regarding defense counsel, 149–55reforms to, 118–49security measures in, 159–68specialized mechanisms to prosecute and adjudicate cases, 121–41

jurisdiction: confusion regarding, 25extraterritorial, 99, 100, 147–48over Baz Mohammad, 145specialized, 121–24territorial, 147

Justice and Security Dialogue (JSD) Program, 43–44, 187–88justice system: in Afghanistan, 62

as factor facilitating serious crime, 6–7knowledge regarding domestic, 226mentoring of Afghan, 211–12monitoring of Kosovo’s, 214specialized skills in, 225

KKarzai, Hamid, 45, 135, 192Kenya, 83Khmer Rouge, 42, 151Kimberly Process, 71. See also diamondsKosovo: access to defense counsel in, 153–54

civil unrest due to lack of public awareness in, 190, 193and Criminal Defence Resource Centre, 149criminal intelligence unit in, 179, 180detention based on intelligence in, 176–77ethnic bias in judiciary of, 219ethnic violence in, 6failed assessment of legal framework of, 31financial resources of, 78international criminal tribunals for, 124international engagement in, 220international military forces in, 196–97, 202intervention in, 207justice-sector security in, 37Kosovo Force (KFOR), 126–27, 156, 176, 178–80, 196–97, 201, 202Kosovo Organized Crime Bureau (KOCB), 180Kosovo Special Prosecutor’s Office (KSPO), 128Kosovo War and Ethnic Crimes Court, 126

Index 277

legal framework of, 59, 60memorandum of understanding in, 204military intelligence in, 178, 179misconduct by international actors in, 229monitoring of justice system in, 214outsourcing of forensic work in, 112peace versus justice in, 10prisoner escape in, 160prosecution of serious crimes in, 126–28prosecution of war crimes in, 129securing qualified international personnel in, 222–23seizures in, 94shortage of prison space in, 156transfer of equipment in, 212United Nations Security Council resolutions and legal framework of, 72, 73United States Institute of Peace study of, 13witness anonymity in, 85witness protection in, 166, 167

Krijestorac, Kujo, 85

Llanguage, 226. See international personnelLaw on Organisation and Jurisdiction of Government Authorities in Suppression of

Organised Crime, Corruption and other Severe Criminal Offenses (2004, Serbia), 140

Law on Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor’s Office (2015, Kosovo), 125, 129laws: domestic, in identifying legal framework, 61–64

implementation of, 58legal aid. See defense counsellegal framework: assessment of, 30–32

deficiencies in, 59extradition and, 96–101identifying, 61–72immunity and sentence mitigation and, 87–90importance of understanding, 56–58modifications to, 73–78and seizure and confiscation of instrumentalities of crime, 90–96and specialized mechanisms, 143surveillance and, 79–82witness protection and, 82–87. See also institutional reforms

legal literacy, 194–95legal services clinics, 194–95paralegals, 194

Legal Systems Monitoring Section (LSMS), 214Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against

Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocol Thereto, 82, 86, 87, 90, 104–05

278 Index

Legislative Guide to the Universal Anti-Terrorism Conventions and Protocols, 104–05Liberia: GEMAP reforms in, 140

prisoner transport in, 159self-help mechanisms in, 26trafficking and trafficking laws in, 7, 58

Libya, 8, 25local consultation, 48local populations, working with, 183–89long-term vision, 18, 19

Mmarginalization, 233–34medical planning, 164memorandum of understanding (MOU), 204–05mentoring, 210–12, 222military forces, 195–204

military intelligence, 175–76, 178, 179military participation, 170military personnel, as witnesses in civilian courts, 201

Milosevic, Slobodan, 31minority communities, 108. See diversity, in criminal justice systemMINUSCA, 9Misrata, Libya, 25mitigated sentences, for cooperative witnesses, 87–90“Model Code of Criminal Procedure,” 74, 81–82, 86, 90, 101, 105Model Codes for Postconflict Criminal Justice, The, 75Mohammad, Baz, 145money laundering, 69, 74multilateral treaties, 64, 70Multi-National Force–Iraq (MNF–I), 138Multi National Security Transition Command–Iraq, 203mutual legal assistance, 101–05mutual legal assistance treaties, 67,101Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty Creator, 105

Nnarcotics units, 114National Consultative Council, 209National Counter Narcotics Strategy (Afghanistan), 134National Interdiction Unit (NIU), 134National Register of Victims (RUV),116National System for the Attention and Reparation of Victims, 116NATO Training Mission—Afghanistan (NTM–A), 211–12Nepal, 44, 51, 188Network of West African Central Authorities and Prosecutors against Organized Crime

(WACAP), 102No. 154 Brigade, 25

Index 279

nonbinding human rights principles, 70nonprosecution agreements, 89Northern Ireland, 5Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement (1998), 5

Oobjectivity, in assessments, 49Office of the High Representative (OHR) (Bosnia and Herzegovina), 130–31one-stop community justice centers, 195operational intelligence, 170–71. See criminal intelligenceoperational security, 163–64. See criminal intelligenceopium, 11, 134–35, 192. See drug traffickingOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 214organized crime: in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 117

combating, 19extraterritorial jurisdiction over, 100international instruments on, 68legislation concerning, 74in Northern Ireland, 5special chamber for, in Serbia, 140transnational, 97, 184

organized crime units, 114–15Orlando, Leoluca, 186Osman, Hussain, 99

PPappalardo, Salvatore, 186partial immunity, 88–89passive-personality jurisdiction, 148peace, versus justice, 10peace agreements, 57, 61, 72peace operation, 4personal security, 227–28personnel. See international personnelpiracy, 98Plan Colombia (1999), 57plea bargaining, 89Los poderes paralelos (The Parallel Powers), 83police: accountable policing, 110–11

assessment of capacity, 33–36building of force in Iraq, 110and importance of diversity in criminal justice system, 108interagency and transnational cooperation, 117–18international military assistance to, 203, 205mentoring, 211–12modifications to procedures, 76reforms, 109–18

280 Index

police (cont.)regulations and identifying legal framework, 64specialized functions and skills of, 113–17, 225–26technical and resource elements of, 112–13training of Iraqi, 203transition from international military forces to, 204–06

police and customs cooperation centers (PCCCs), 104political will of authorities, assessment of, 42–43poppy cultivation, in Afghanistan, 11, 19, 134, 192. See drug traffickingpopular legitimacy, enhanced through customary justice, 120Practitioner’s Guide: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Rule of Law Research, 43“prevention nodes,” 235prisoner transport, 115–16, 156, 159prison system: assessment of capacity, 39–40

detention based on intelligence, 176–77and international military forces, 196–97, 198prisoner escape in Kosovo, 160reforms to, 155–59

proceeds of crime, seizure of, 90–96professional standards units, 116prosecutors: mentoring, 211

protection of, 115protection measures, 115, 159–68. See also witness protectionprotective principle, 148Provisional Criminal Procedure Code of Kosovo, 153–54public attitudes and expectations: assessment of, 43–46

and local consultation, 48public awareness, 46, 170, 189–95

QQaddafi, Muammar, 8qualitative and quantitative data, gathering of, 43–44

RRamadan, Taha Yassin, 160redistribution of confiscated assets, 95, 96Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI), 136Regional Judicial Cooperation Platform for Sahel countries, 102regional treaties, 64–72relocation, 86–87, 163, 166, 167representative policing, 109–10Republika Srpska, 12, 132resources: for combating serious crimes, 18

and determining type of international engagement, 220–21for international personnel, 227–28ongoing support for, 210

responsive policing, 110

Index 281

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), 10Revolutionary United Front, 71rules of engagement (ROE), 198, 199,200Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Tribunal for

Rwanda, 123Rwanda, 120, 123, 124, 144–45

SSahel Judicial Platform, 102Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 77Santos, Juan Manual, 116Sary, Ieng, 151Security Council Resolution 1244, 196security measures, 115, 159–68, 227–28. See also witness protectionseizure of instrumentalities of crime, 90–96self-help mechanisms, 26

mob justice, 26Senegal, 146Sensitive Information and Operations Unit (SIOU), 180sentences, mitigated, 87–90Serbia, 85, 140serious crimes: assessing nature of problem, 27–30

association with violent conflict, 1challenges of using customary justice to tackle, 24concept of, 2–3defined, 4development and implementation of programs, 14as driver of conflict in Central African Republic, 9effects of, 9–12evolution of, 234–35guiding principles in combating, 17–21informal justice and security actors addressing, 25motivations and catalysts for, 28–29origins of and factors facilitating, 5–7, 18–19perpetrators of, 29political, economic, and social factors in, 29–30recognizing importance of, 14types of, 27–28. See also strategies for addressing serious crimes

SFOR (NATO Stabilization Force), 176, 197–98Sicily, 186Sierra Leone: Anti-Corruption Commission of, 41

outsourcing of forensic work in, 112Special Court for, 123, 124special courts for war crimes-related cases in, 123trade in conflict diamonds in, 71

“soft law,” 71–72Solomon Islands, 136, 150

282 Index

Somalia, 156South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC), 111Special Administrative Unit for Assistance and Integral Reparation for Victims, 116Special Chamber for Organized Crime (Serbia), 140Special Court for Sierra Leone, 123, 124Special Criminal Court in the Central African Republic, 133Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR), 212specialized jurisdictions, 121–24special operations, police units, 114Special Section for War Crimes in the State Court and Prosecutor’s Office of Bosnia and

Herzegovina, 132Special Trafficking Operations Programme (STOP), 117stability police units (constabulary forces), 199–200standard operating procedures (SOPs), 63, 64, 82state: defined, 4

legal framework of, 30–32strategic intelligence, 170–71. See criminal intelligencestrategies for addressing serious crimes, 169–70

criminal intelligence gathering, 169–70developing, 53–55general considerations for, 208–12international military forces, 195–206public awareness campaigns, 189–95targeting, 181–82working with civil society and local populations, 183–89

surveillance, 78, 79–82, 114cell phones, 79covert surveillance, 79–82Internet, terrorist use of, 79mobile phones, 79portable devices, 79privacy, 81

sustainable capacity, 21

Ttactical intelligence, 170–71tactical response teams, 113Taliban, 79targeting, 170, 181–82Taylor, Charles, 7technology: and evolution of serious crimes, 234–35

in intelligence process, 172–73territorial jurisdiction, 147terrorism: criminalized in Kosovo, 60

drug trafficking and, 134extraterritorial jurisdiction over, 100and intelligence sharing, 176

Index 283

international instruments on, 68legal framework of counterterrorism measures, 6–7recruitment in, 79regional instruments on, 69

Thaar Allah (“God’s Revenge”), 34thuwar, 8, 25transactional immunity, 88–89transfer of responsibility, planning, 210–11, 212transnational cooperation, 97, 101–05, 117–18transnational crime units, 118transnational organized crime, 97, 184Transparency International, 185treaties: bilateral treaties, 64, 70

extradition, 99–101, 148in identifying legal framework, 64–72international treaties, 64–72mutual legal assistance, 67, 101, 104–05

UUnited Nations

United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), 99, 104United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 58, 86, 88,

90, 99United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 98United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 109–10United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 120, 222United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) Model Mutual

Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Bill, 105United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), 37, 73, 94, 126–28, 177, 179–80,

212, 229UNMIK Regulation 2000/34, 127UNMIK Regulation 2000/6, 127UNMIK Regulation 2000/64, 127UNMIK Regulation 2001/20, 176, 191UNMIK Regulation 2001/28, 153

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime’s Regional Programme for West Africa, 184

United Nations Security Council resolutions, 72, 73United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), 73,

122–23, 209UNTAET Regulation 2000/15, the Establishment of Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction

over Serious Criminal Offences, 122–23UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH), 117UN personnel: allegations of abuse by, 229–30

problems enforcing accountability of, 230UNSC Resolution 2178 (2014), 72UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), 125–26

284 Index

United States, asserts jurisdiction over Baz Mohammad, 145United States Institute of Peace, 13use immunity, 88–89U.S.-led Unified Task Force (UNITAF), 198

Vverifying information, 50, 53victim assistance, 117, 167Victim’s Law (Colombia, 2011), 116Vieira de Mello, Sergio, 209vigilantism, 26. See self-help mechanisms

WWaki Commission, 83war crimes-related tribunals, 124–25weapons trafficking, 7, 69West Africa, 118, 184witnesses: cooperative, 87–90

criminals living abroad as, 103military personnel as, in civilian courts, 201

witness protection, 82–87, 115, 163, 165–68, 191–92Witness Protection Unit (WPU), 166

YYemen, 77Yugoslavia, 124

ZZimbabwe, 188–89al-Zubaidi, Adil Muhammad, 160