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English Reformation

The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th centuryEnglandby which theChurch of Englandfirst

broke away from the authority of thePopeand theRoman Catholic Church.

These events were, in part, associated with the wider process of the EuropeanProtestant Reformation, a religious and

political movement which affected the practice ofChristianityacross most of Europe during this period. Many factors

contributed to the process: the decline offeudalismand the rise ofnationalism, the rise of thecommon law, the

invention of theprinting pressand increased circulation of theBible, the transmission of new knowledge and ideas

among scholars and the upper and middle classes. However, the various phases of the English Reformation, which

also coveredWalesandIreland, were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion

gradually accommodated itself.

Based onHenry VIII's desire for an annulment of his marriage, the English Reformation was at the outset more of a

political than a theological dispute. The reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing

theological disputes to come to the fore.[1]

Before the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the

church that decided doctrine. Church law was governed by thecode of canon lawwith final jurisdiction in Rome.

Church taxes were paid straight to Rome and it was the Pope who had the final say over the appointment of bishops.

The split from Rome made theEnglish monarchtheSupreme Governorof the English church by "Royal Supremacy",

thereby making theChurch of Englandthe established church of the nation. Doctrinal and legal disputes now rested

with the monarch and the papacy was deprived of revenue and the final say on the appointment of bishops.

The structure and theology of the church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations. These disputes were finally

ended by acoup d'tatin 1688, from which emerged a church polity with an established church and a number ofnon-

conformistchurches whose members at first suffered various civil disabilities which were only removed over time, as

did the substantial minority who remained Roman Catholic inEngland, whose church organization remained

illegaluntil the nineteenth century.

Contents

1 Background

o 1.1 Role of Henry VIII and royal marriages

o 1.2 Parliamentary debate and legislation

o

1.3 Actions by the king against English clergy

o 1.4 Further legislative acts

2 Theological radicalism

o 2.1 Dissolution of the Monasteries

o 2.2 Reformation reversed

3 Edward's Reformation

4 Catholic Restoration

5 Elizabethan Settlement

o 5.1 Act of Supremacy

o 5.2 Act of Uniformity 1558

o 5.3 Puritans and Roman Catholics

6 Legacy
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[edit]Background

[edit]Role of Henry VIII and royal marriages

Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17. He made a dynastic marriage withCatherine of

Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummer's Day. Unlike his father,

who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared to be the epitome of chivalry and sociability, seeking

out the company of young men like himself; an observant Catholic, he heard up to fivemassesa day (except during

the hunting season); of "powerful but unoriginal mind", he allowed himself to be influenced by his advisors from whom

he was never apart, by night or day; he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear.[2]

Between his young

contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, CardinalThomas Wolsey, there was thus a state of hostility. As long as

Wolsey had his ear, Henry's Catholicism was secure: in 1521 he had defended theCatholic ChurchfromMartin

Luther's accusations ofheresyin a book he wrote, probably with considerable help fromThomas More,

entitled TheDefence of the Seven Sacraments, for which he was awarded the title "Defender of the Faith" (Fidei

Defensor) byPope Leo X. (Successive English and British monarchs have retained this title to the present, even after

the Anglican Church broke away from Catholicism.) Wolsey's enemies at court included those who had been

influenced by Lutheran ideas,[3]

among whom was the attractive, charismaticAnne Boleyn.

Anne arrived at court in 1522, from years in Europe, as maid of honour toQueen Catherine, a woman of "charm, style

and wit, with will and savagery which made her a match for Henry".[4]

By the late 1520s, Henry wanted to have his

marriage to Catherineannulled. She had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood and Henry wanted a

son to secure theTudor dynasty. Before Henry's fatherHenry VIIascended the throne, England had been beset

bycivil warfareover rival claims to the English crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the

succession.[5]Catherine's only surviving child wasPrincess Mary.

Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God".[6]

Catherine

had been hislate brother's wife, and it was therefore againstbiblicalteachings for Henry to have married her

(Leviticus20:21);[7]

a specialdispensationfromPope Julius IIhad been needed to allow the wedding in the first

place.[8]

Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry askedPope

Clement VIItoannulthe marriage, but the Pope refused. According toCanon Lawthe Pope cannot annul a marriage

on the basis of acanonical impedimentpreviously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine's

nephew,Holy Roman EmperorCharles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope

prisoner.[9]

The combination of his "scruple of conscience" and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of

his Queen compelling.[10]

The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey forpraemunirein 1529 (and subsequent

death on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason in November 1530)[11]

left Henry open to the opposing

influences of the supporters of the Queen and those who countenanced the abandonment of the Roman allegiance,

for whom an annulment was but an opportunity.

[edit]Parliamentary debate and legislation

In 1529, the king summonedParliamentto deal with annulment, thus bringing together those who wanted reform but

who disagreed what form it should take; it became known as theReformation Parliament. There were Common

lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts;[12]

there were those who had been

influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the theology of Rome;Thomas Cromwellwas both. There
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were those, like Foxe and Stokesey, who argued for the Royal Supremacy over the English Church. Henry's

Chancellor,Thomas More, successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: he wanted new laws against heresy.[13]

Cromwell was a lawyer and a Member of Parliament, an evangelical who saw how Parliament could be used to

advance the Royal Supremacy, which Henry wanted, and to further evangelical beliefs and practices which both he

and his friends wanted.[14]

One of his closest friends wasThomas Cranmer, soon to be Archbishop.

In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible: the Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V

than of Henry. Anne and Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope; but in October 1530 a meeting of

clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the Pope's prohibition.

Henry thus resolved to bully the priests.[15]

[edit]Actions by the king against English clergy

Having brought downCardinal Wolsey, his Chancellor, Henry VIII finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy

withpraemunirein order to secure their agreement to his annulment. Praemunire, which forbade obedience to the

authority of foreign rulers, had been around since the 1392 Statute of Praemunire and had been used against

individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings. Now Henry, having first charged the Queen's

supporters,BishopsJohn Fisher,John Clerk,Nicholas WestandHenry Standishandarchdeacon of ExeterAdam

Travers, then decided to proceed against the whole clergy.[16]

Henry claimed 100,000 from

theConvocationofCanterburyof theChurch of Englandfor their pardon, which was granted by the Convocation on

24 January 1531. The clergy wanted the payment to be spread over five years. Henry refused. The Convocation

responded by withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees before they agreed

to give him the money. Henry refused these conditions, agreed only to the five-year period of payment and then, to the

payment which Henry wanted the Convocation to accept, added five articles:

1. that the clergy recognise Henry as the "sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of

England"[17]

2. that the King had spiritualjurisdiction

3. that the privileges of the Church were upheld only if they did not detract from theroyal prerogativeand the

laws of the realm

4. that the Kingpardonedthe clergy for violating the statute of praemunire, and

5. that thelaitywere also pardoned.

[edit]

Further legislative actsIn Parliament, BishopJohn Fisherchampioned Catherine and the clergy; he had inserted into the first article, the

phrase "as far as the word of God allows".[18]

In Convocation, however,Archbishop Warhamrequested a discussion

but was met by a stunned silence; then Warham said, "He who is silent seems to consent", to which a clergyman

responded, "Then we are all silent." The Convocation granted consent to the King's five articles and the payment on 8

March 1531. That same year Parliament passed thePardon to Clergy Act 1531.

The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little. In 1532, Cromwell brought before Parliament

theSupplication Against the Ordinarieswhich listed nine grievances against the Church, including abuses of power

and Convocation's independent legislative power. Finally, on 10 May, the King demanded of Convocation that the

Church should renounce all authority to make laws and, on 15 May, theSubmission of the Clergywas subscribed,

which recognisedRoyal Supremacyover the church so that it could no longer makecanon lawwithout royal licence,

i.e. without the permission of the King; thus completely emasculating it as a law-making body. (This would
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subsequently be passed by the Parliament in 1534 and again in 1536.) The day after this More resigned as

Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. (Cromwell never became Chancellor; his power came and

was lost through his informal relations with Henry.)

Several Acts of Parliament then followed. The Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates, which proposed that the clergy

should pay no more than 5% of their first year's revenue (annates) to Rome proved at first controversial, and required

Henry's presence in the House of Lords three times and the browbeating of the Commons.

[19]

TheAct in Restraint ofAppealswhich was drafted by Cromwell, apart from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters, declared

that "this realm of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head

and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of

all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality, be bounden and owe to

bear next to God a natural and humble obedience",[20]

thus declaring England an independent country in every

respect. English historianGeoffrey Eltonhas called this Act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it

expounded a theory ofnational sovereignty.[21]

TheAct in Absolute Restraint of Annatesoutlawed all annates to Rome,

and also ordered that ifcathedralsrefused the King's nomination for bishop, they would be liable to punishment by

praemunire. Finally in 1534 theActs of Supremacymade Henry "supreme head in earth of the Church of England"

and disregarded any "usage,custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or] prescription".[22]

Meanwhile, having taken Anne to France on a pre-nuptial honeymoon, Henry was married to her in Westminster

Abbey in January 1533. This was made easier by the death of Archbishop Warham, a stalwart opponent of an

annulment, after which Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as his successor asArchbishop of Canterbury; Cranmer

was prepared to grant the annulment[23]

of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required. Anne gave birth to a

daughter,Princess Elizabeth, three months after the marriage. The Pope responded to the marriage

byexcommunicatingboth Henry and Cranmer from the Roman Catholic Church (11 July 1533).[24]

Henry was to be

excommunicated again in December 1538.

Consequently in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from

the Pope to the Crown. TheAct Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensationsoutlawed the annual payment by

landowners ofone pennyto the Pope. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only

yourGrace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable

usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.[25]

In case any of this should be resisted Parliament passed theTreasons Act 1534which made ithigh

treasonpunishable by deathto deny Royal Supremacy; the following year Thomas More and John Fisher were

executed under this legislation. Finally in 1536 Parliament passed theAct against the Pope's Authoritywhich removed

the last part of papal authority still legal. This was Rome's power in England to decide disputes concerningScripture.

[edit]Theological radicalism

The break with Rome was not, by itself, a Reformation.[1]

That was to come from the dissemination of ideas. The

views ofMartin Lutherthe German reformer and his school were widely known and disputed in England.[26]

A major

manifestation of theological radicalism in England wasLollardy, a movement deriving from the writings ofJohn

Wycliffe, the fourteenth-century Bible translator, which stressed theprimacy of Scripture. But after the execution of

SirJohn Oldcastle, leader of the Lollard rebellion of 1415, they never again had access to the levers of power and by

the fifteenth century were much reduced in numbers and influence. There were still many Lollards about, especially in

London and the Thames Valley, in Essex and Kent, Coventry, Bristol and even in the north, who would be receptive to
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ohn_Wycliffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_scripturahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_scripturahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_scripturahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oldcastlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oldcastlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oldcastlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oldcastlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_scripturahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wycliffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wycliffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollardshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-scruton1996p470-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_Reformation&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_against_the_Pope%27s_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_treasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_treasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasons_Act_1534http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Gracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%27s_Pencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_Concerning_Peter%27s_Pence_and_Dispensationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicating#Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterburyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custom_(law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Supremacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_in_Absolute_Restraint_of_Annateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Eltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_in_Restraint_of_Appealshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_in_Restraint_of_Appealshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-18


5/18

the new ideas when they came,[27]

who looked for a reform in the lifestyle of the clergy. They held the Word to be the

more necessary sacrament, the Eucharist but a memorial, but they were not party to the actions of the

government.[28]

Other ideas, critical of thepapal supremacywere held, not only by Lollards, but by those who wished

to assert the supremacy of the secular state over the church[29]

but also by conciliarists such as Thomas More and,

initially, Cranmer. Other Catholic reformists, includingJohn Colet, Dean of St Paul's, warned that heretics were not

nearly so great a danger to the faith as the wicked and indolent lives of the clergy.

History of Christianity

in England

General

Anglican Communion

Roman Catholic Church

in England and Wales

Calendar of saints

(Church of England)

Early

Joseph of Arimathea

Legend of Christ in Britain

Christianity in Roman Britain

Post-Roman

Anglo-Saxon Christianity

Reformation

Wars of the Three Kingdoms

Dissolution of the Monasteries

Anglicanism

English Reformation

Marian Persecutions

Oxford Martyrs

Post-Reformation

Puritanism and the Restoration

English Civil War
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18th Century Church of England

19th Century Church of England

Catholic Emancipation

Church of England (Recent)

v

d

e

The impact of Luther's thinking was of a different order. The main plank of his thinking,justification by faith

alonerather than by good works, threatened the whole basis of the Catholic penitential system with its endowed

masses and prayers for the dead as well as its doctrine ofpurgatory. Faith, not pious acts, prayers or masses, in this

view, can secure the grace of God. Moreover, printing, which had become widespread at the end of the previous

century, meant that vernacular Bibles could be produced in quantity. A further English translation byWilliam

Tyndalewas banned but it was impossible to prevent copies from being smuggled and widely read. The Church could

no longer effectively dictate its interpretation. A group in Cambridge, which met at the White Horse tavern from the

mid- 1520s and became known as "Little Germany", soon became influential. Its members includedRobert

Barnes,Hugh Latimer,John FrithandThomas Bilney, all eventually to be burned as heretics.[30]

Cranmer's change of

mind, borne partly by his membership of the team negotiating for the annulment, finally came through his stay

withAndreas Osianderin Nuremberg in 1532. (Cranmer also secretly married Osiander's niece).[31]

Even then the

position was complicated by the fact that the Lutherans were not in favour of the annulment. Cranmer (and Henry) felt

obliged to seek assistance from Strassburg and Basel, which brought him into contact with the more radical ideas

associated withZwingli.[32]

Cromwell's programme, assisted by Anne Boleyn's influence over episcopal appointments, was not merely against theclergy and the power of Rome. He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to

bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes.[33]

There also seemed to be a possibility that

Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, might act to avenge his rejected aunt (Queen Catherine) and enforce the Pope's

excommunication. It never came to anything but it brought to England Lutheran ideas: three sacraments only

baptism, Eucharist and penance which Henry was prepared to countenance in order to keep open the possibility of

an alliance. More noticeable, and objectionable to many, were the Injunctions, first of 1536 and then 1538. The

programme began with the abolition of many feast days, "the occasion of vice and idleness" which, particularly at

harvest time, had an immediate effect on village life.[34]

The offerings to images were discouraged, as were

pilgrimages these injunctions took place while monasteries were being dissolved. In some places images were

burned on the grounds that they were objects of superstitious devotion, candles lit before images were prohibited,

Bibles in both English and Latin were to be bought.[35]

Thus did the Reformation begin to affect the towns and villages

of England and, in many places, people did not like it.[36]

[edit]Dissolution of the Monasteries

Main article:Dissolution of the Monasteries

In 1534, Cromwell initiated aVisitation of the Monasteriesostensibly to examine their character, in fact, to value their

assets with a view to expropriation. The Crown was undergoing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, incontrast to its political weakness, made appropriation of church property both tempting and feasible.

[37]Suppression of

monasteries in order to raise funds was not unknown previously. Cromwell had done the same thing on the

instructions of Cardinal Wolsey to raise funds for two proposed colleges at Ipswich and Oxford years before. Now the
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Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries possessed, and the visiting commissioners claimed to have

uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst themonksandnuns, which became the ostensible

justification for their suppression. The Church owned between one-fifth and one-third of the land in all England;

Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount

of Church lands, and that any reversion back to pre-Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful

people in the realm.[38]

For these various reasons theDissolution of the Monasterieswas begun in 1536 with

theDissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act, affecting smaller houses, those valued at less than 200 a year; the

revenue was used by Henry to help build coastal defences (seeDevice Forts) against expected invasion, and all their

land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy. Whereas the royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows, the

attack on abbeys and priories affected lay people.[39]

Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings; the

suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places. InNorthern Englandthere were a series

of uprisings by Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537. In the autumn of 1536 there was a great

muster, reckoned to be up to 40,000 in number, at Horncastle in Lincolnshire which was, with difficulty, dispersed by

the nervous gentry. They had attempted without success to negotiate with the king by petition. ThePilgrimage of

Gracewas a more serious matter. Revolt spread through Yorkshire, and the rebels gathered at York. Robert Aske,

their leader, negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty six northern monasteries, which had actually been

dissolved. However, the promises made to them by the Duke of Norfolk were ignored on the king's orders. Norfolk was

instructed to put the rebellion down. Forty-seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed and 132 from the northern

pilgrimage.[40]

Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537, and in Walsingham (in Norfolk) which received

similar treatment.

It took Cromwell four years to complete the process. In 1539 he moved to the dissolution of the larger monasteries

which had escaped earlier. Many houses gave up voluntarily, though some sought exemption by payment. When their

houses were closed down some monks sought transfer to larger houses. Many became secular priests. A few,

including eighteenCarthusians, refused and were killed to the last man.

[edit]Reformation reversed

The abolition of papal authority made way not for orderly change but for dissension and violence;iconoclasm,

destruction, disputes within communities which led to violence, and radical challenge to all forms of faith were daily

reported to Cromwell, something which he tried to hide from the King.[41]

Once Henry knew what was afoot, he

acted.[42]

Thus at the end of 1538, a proclamation was issued forbidding free discussion of the Sacrament[43]

and

forbidding clerical marriage, on pain of death. Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November

1538 for denying thereal presence. At the same time, he shared in the drafting of a proclamation giving Anabaptists

and Sacramentaries ten days to get out of the country. In 1539 Parliament passed theSix Articlesreaffirming Catholic

practices such astransubstantiation,clerical celibacyand the importance ofconfessionto apriestand prescribed

penalties if anyone denied them. Henry himself observed theEaster Triduumin that year with some display.[44]

On 28

June 1540 Cromwell, his longtime advisor and loyal servant, was executed. Different reasons were advanced: that

Cromwell would not enforce the Act of Six Articles; that he had supported Barnes, Latimer and other heretics; and that

he was responsible for Henry's marriage toAnne of Cleves, his fourth wife. Many other arrests under the Act followed.

Cranmer lay low.[45]

In 1540 Henry began his attack upon the free availability of the Bible. In 1536 Cromwell had instructed each parish to

acquire "one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume in English" by Easter 1539. This instruction had been

largely ignored, so a new version, theGreat Bible(largelyWilliam Tyndale's English translation of
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theHebrewandGreekScriptures), was authorised in August 1537. But by 1539 Henry announced his desire to have

it "corrected" (which Cranmer referred to the universities to undertake). Many parishes were, in any case, reluctant to

set up English Bibles: now the mood of conservatism, which expressed itself in the fear that Bible reading led to

heresy. Many Bibles which had been put in place were removed.[46]

By the 1543Act for the Advancement of True

Religion, Henry restricted Bible reading to men and women of noble birth. He expressed his fears to Parliament in

1545 that "the Word of God, is disputed, rhymed, sung and jangled in every ale-house and tavern, contrary to the true

meaning and doctrine of the same".[47]

By 1546 the conservatives, the Duke of Norfolk, Wriothesly, Gardiner and Tunstall were in the ascendency and were,

by the king's will, to be members of the regency council, on his death. But by the time he died in 1547, Edward

Seymour, Earl of Hertford, brother ofJane Seymour, Henry's third wife (and therefore uncle to the future Edward VI),

managed, by a number of alliances with influential Protestants such asLisle, to gain control over the Privy Council and

persuaded Henry to change his will and to replace them as his executors by his supporters.[48]

[edit]Edward's Reformation

When Henry died in 1547, his nine-year-old son,Edward VI, inherited the throne. Edward was a precocious child, who

had been brought up as a Protestant, but was of little account politically.Seymourwas made Lord Protector. He was

commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers. Now madeDuke of Somerset, he proceeded at first

hesitantly, partly because his powers were not unchallenged. When he acted it was because he saw the political

advantage.[49]

The 1547 Injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of 1538 but they were

more fiercely enforced, at first informally, and then by instruction. All images in churches were to be

dismantled;stained glass,shrines,statueswere defaced or destroyed;roodsand often their lofts and screens were

cut down, bells were taken down;vestmentswere prohibited and either burned or sold;church platewas to be melted

down or sold[50]and the requirement of the clergy to becelibatewas lifted; processions were banned; ashes and

palms were prohibited.[51]

Chantries, means by which the saying of masses for the dead were endowed, were

abolished completely. How well this was received is disputed; Dickens contends that people had "ceased to believe in

intercessory masses for souls in purgatory";[52]

others, such as Duffy, argue that the demolition of chantry chapels and

the removal of images coincided with the activity of royal visitors.[53]

The evidence is often ambiguous.[54]

In 1549

Cranmer introduced aBook of Common Prayerin English. In 1550 stone altars were exchanged for wooden

communion tables, a very public break with the past, as it changed the look and focus of church interiors.[55]

Less visible, but still influential, was the new ordinal which provided for Protestant pastors rather than Catholic priests,

an admittedly conservative adaptation of Bucer's draft;[56]its Preface explicitly mentions the historic succession but it

has been described as "another case of Cranmer's opportunist adoption of mediaeval forms for new purposes".[57]

In

1551 the episcopate was remodelled by the appointment of Protestants to the bench. This removed the obstacle to

change which was the refusal of some bishops to enforce the regulations.

Henceforth, the Reformation proceeded apace. In 1552 the prayer book, which the conservative BishopStephen

Gardinerhad approved from his prison cell as being "patient of a Catholic interpretation", was replaced by a second

much more radical prayer book which altered the shape of the service so as to remove any sense of sacrifice.

Edward's Parliament also repealed his father's Six Articles.

The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a fight. Conformity was the order of the day, but

in East Anglia and in Devon there wererebellions,[58]

as also in Cornwall, to which many parishes sent their young

men; they were brutally put down. In other places the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down[59]

but by
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rmation#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer_Book_rebellionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gardinerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gardinerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerical_celibacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalice_(cup)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Somersethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Duke_of_Somersethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VI_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_Reformation&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dudleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Seymourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_for_the_Advancement_of_True_Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_for_the_Advancement_of_True_Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language


9/18

July throughout southern England, there was "quavering quiet" which burst out into "stirs" in many places, the worst of

which was the so-calledKett's Rebellionin Norwich. And apart from these more spectacular pieces of resistance, in

some places chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so; opposition to the removal

of images was widespread, so much so that when during the Commonwealth,William Dowsingwas commissioned to

the task of image breaking in Suffolk, his task, as he records it, was enormous.[60]

In Kent and the southeast,

compliance was mostly willing and for many, the sale of vestments and plate was an opportunity to make money (but

it was also true that in London and Kent, Reformation ideas had permeated more deeply into popular thinking). The

effect of the resistance was to topple Somerset as Lord Protector, so that in 1549 it was feared by some that the

Reformation would cease. The prayer book was the tipping point. But Lisle, now made Earl of Warwick, was made

Lord President of the Privy Council and, ever the opportunist (he was to die a public Catholic), he saw the further

implementation of the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals.[61]

Outwardly, the destruction and removals for sale had changed the church forever. Many churches had concealed their

vestments and their silver,[62]

and had buried their stone altars. There were many disputes between the government

and parishes over church property. Thus, when Edward died in July 1553 and the Duke of Northumberland attempted

to have the ProtestantLady Jane Greymade Queen, the unpopularity of the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity

to have herself proclaimed Queen, first in Suffolk, and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds.

[edit]Catholic Restoration

From 1553, under the reign of Henry's Roman Catholic daughter,Mary I, the Reformation legislation was repealed

and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with Rome. Her first Act of Parliament was toretroactivelyvalidate Henry's

marriage to her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne. Achieving her objective was however, not

straightforward. The Pope was only prepared to accept reunion when church property disputes had been settled,

which, in practice, meant allowing those who had bought former church property to keep it.[63]Thus did Cardinal Pole

arrive to become Archbishop of Canterbury in Cranmer's place. Mary could have had Cranmer, imprisoned as he was,

tried and executed for treason he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey but she had resolved to have him

tried forheresy. His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup for her. Unhappily for her, he

unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake, thus ruining her

government's propaganda victory.

If Mary was to secure England for Catholicism, she needed an heir. On the advice of theHoly Roman Emperorshe

married his son,Philip II of Spain; she needed to prevent her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown

and thus returning England to Protestantism. There was opposition, and even a rebellion in Kent (led bySir Thomas

Wyatt); even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir, received no

estates and had no coronation.[63]

He was there to provide an heir. But she never became pregnant; her apparent

pregnancy was, in fact, the beginnings of stomach cancer. Ironically, another blow fell. Pope Julius died and his

successor,Pope Paul IV, declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic. Mary

refused to let him go. The support which she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied her.

After 1555, the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden. The medieval heresy laws were restored. The

so-calledMarian Persecutionsof Protestants ensued and 283 Protestants were burnt at the sta

3 r's in england

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