2.2 Rome & the Rise of Christianity

The Emergence of Rome

The Emergence of Rome Indo-European peoples

moved into Italy from about 1500 to 1000 B.C.

One people spoke Latin, an Indo-European language, and lived as herders and farmers on Italy’s hills

After 800 B.C., other people, including the Greeks and Etruscans, settled in Italy

Early Rome was ruled by kings, some of whom were Etruscan

The Emergence of Rome

In 509 B.C., the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic

In a republic the leader is not a king and certain citizens have the right to vote

Enemies surrounded Rome, and so the young republic began a long period of continuous warfare

By 264 B.C., Rome had defeated the Greeks and remaining Etruscan states and controlled almost all of Italy

The Emergence of Rome To rule, the Romans

devised the Roman Confederation

Some people had full Roman citizenship

Other groups were allies who controlled their local affairs but gave soldiers to Rome

Such people could become Roman citizens

Thus many of the conquered peoples felt invested in Rome’s success

The Emergence of Rome Rome faced a strong power in the

Mediterranean–Carthage, which was founded around 800 B.C. on the coast of North Africa

Carthage had a large trading empire in the western Mediterranean

The Romans fought three wars with Carthage- The Punic Wars

During the Second Punic War, the victories of Carthage’s greatest general, Hannibal, almost brought Rome to disaster

After creating new armies and a navy, the Romans defeated Hannibal’s forces

Spain became a Roman province, and Rome controlled the western Mediterranean

Rome completely destroyed Carthage in 146 B.C.

The Emergence of Rome In the second

century B.C., Rome also conquered Macedonia and Greece.

In 129 B.C., Pergamum became Rome’s first province in Asia

Rome was now master of the Mediterranean Sea

The Roman State The Romans distrusted kingship

because of their experience with Etruscan kings

They built a different form of government

Early Rome was divided into two groups, the patricians and the plebeians

Patricians were large landowners who formed Rome’s ruling class

The plebeians were the less-wealthy landholders, craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers

Members of both groups were citizens and could vote

Only patricians could be elected to public office

Patricians were members of the small amount of wealthy Roman families.

Plebeians were the majority of the population (workers, shopkeepers,

and peasants).

The Roman State The chief executive officers

of the Roman Republic were the consuls and praetors.

Two consuls ran the government and led the army into battle

The praetor directed the civil law–law as it applied to citizens

Later another praetor was added to handle the law as it applied to non-citizens

The Roman Senate was especially important

About three hundred patricians who served for life made up the original Senate

At first only an advisory body, by the third century B.C. the Senate had the force of law

The Roman State The most important people’s assembly was the

centuriate assembly It elected the consuls and praetors, and passed laws It was organized by classes based on wealth, so the

wealthiest citizens always were the majority There was often conflict between the patricians

and the plebeians The plebeians wanted political and social equality Finally, in 471 B.C., a popular assembly called the

council of the plebs was created New officials, called the tribunes of the plebs, were

empowered to protect the plebeians

The Roman State

By 287 B.C., all male Roman citizens were supposedly equal under the law However, a few wealthy patrician and

plebeian families formed a new senatorial ruling class that came to dominate political office

the Roman Republic had not become a democracy

From Republic to Empire Between 509 and 264 B.C., Rome

expanded to control most of what is present-day Italy

By 129 B.C., Rome controlled the Mediterranean Sea Rome’s republican institutions could not rule

an empire The Senate became the real governing body Rival factions within the Senate fought for

power and created disorder In the first century B.C., Roman leaders began

to recruit armies that swore allegiance to the general and not to the state

From Republic to Empire Between 82 and 31 B.C., various individuals

including Julius Caesar competed for power After Caesar’s assassination, his grandnephew

Octavian took control of the Roman world The period from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14 is known as the Age

of Augustus In 27 B.C., the Senate awarded Octavian the title of

Augustus (“the revered one”) Augustus controlled the army and thus had great power The Senate gave Augustus the title imperator

(commander in chief) from which our word emperor is derived

Augustus became the first emperor of the Roman Empire.

The Early Empire The period called the Early Empire lasted from

A.D. 14 to 180 During part of this time (A.D. 96–180), a series of five so-

called good emperors–Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius–led Rome and created a time of peace and prosperity called the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”)

The good emperors respected the ruling classes, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace, and supported domestic policies that benefited the empire

These emperors, however, also took power away from the Senate

Officials appointed and directed by the emperor began to run the government

The Early Empire

The good emperors instituted programs to help the people Trajan provided funds to help the poor educate

their children Trajan and Hadrian were especially active in

building public works–aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities

By the second century, the Roman Empire covered about three and a half million square miles and had a population estimated at over 50 million

The Early Empire

The Early Empire was prosperous Internal peace helped trade grow Merchants from across the empire came to the

main Italian ports Trade went beyond the empire’s frontiers and

included silk goods from China Large amounts of grain were imported to feed

the people, and luxury items came in for the rich

Farming, however, remained the chief occupation and the basis of Roman prosperity

Roman Law One of Rome’s most important

contributions to society was its system of law

Rome’s first code of law, the Twelve Tables, was adopted in 450 B.C.

Later Rome adopted a more sophisticated system of civil law, which applied to Roman citizens only

As Rome expanded and special rules were needed, a body of law was developed known as the Law of Nations, which the Romans considered as natural law, or universal law based on reason

These standards included principles still recognized today:

a person was innocent until proven guilty people accused of wrongdoing were

allowed to defend themselves judges weighed evidence carefully before

arriving at a decision.

Slavery in the Roman Empire No people relied on slavery as much as the

Romans As Rome conquered the Mediterranean area,

large numbers of war captives were brought to Italy as slaves

Greeks were prized as tutors, musicians, doctors, and artists

Slaves worked in shops, made crafts, and performed household tasks such as cleaning and gardening

Slaves also built roads and public buildings, and farmed large estates of the wealthy

Conditions for slaves were often pitiful One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper to

work slaves to death and replace them than to care for them

Slavery in the Roman Empire Some slaves revolted The most famous slave

revolt in Italy was led by the gladiator Spartacus in 73 B.C.

Seventy thousand slaves joined Spartacus and defeated several Roman armies before being defeated in 71 B.C.

Spartacus was killed, and thousands of his followers were crucified

Daily Life in the City of Rome Rome had the largest population of any city in the

empire, close to one million by the time of Augustus

Rome was overcrowded and noisy Wagons and carts were banned from the streets

during the day to ease the congestion There was a great gulf between rich and poor While the rich lived in comfortable villas, the poor

lived in apartment blocks called insulae As tall as six stories, these poorly constructed

buildings often collapsed Fires were a constant threat

Daily Life in the City of Rome High rents forced entire families to live in one

room The apartments did not have any plumbing or

central heating These uncomfortable conditions caused many

Romans to spend most of their time outdoors in the street

Rome had unequaled public buildings–such as baths, temples, theaters, and markets–but poverty remained a problem

Beginning with Augustus, the city’s two hundred thousand poor received free grain from the emperor

Daily Life in the City of Rome

Grand public spectacles entertained the people

Emperors often mounted these spectacles as part of religious festivals

The festivals featured horse and chariot races at the Circus Maximus, dramatic performances in theaters, and very popular gladiatorial shows

Roman Culture Latin literature’s high point was during the Age of Augustus. The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was

Virgil, who wrote his epic poem the Aeneid in honor of Rome

The character Aeneas displays the virtues of the ideal Roman–duty, piety, and loyalty

By establishing the Romans in Italy, Aeneas started the city on its divine mission to rule the world

In the third and second centuries B.C., the Romans developed a taste for Greek art

Greek statues adorned their cities and homes Reproductions became popular Roman sculptors added realistic, even unpleasant, features

to the idealized Greek forms

Roman Culture The practical-minded Romans excelled in

architecture The Romans continued to use Greek styles

(colonnades and rectangular buildings) and created forms based on curved lines: the dome, arch, and vault

They were the first people to use concrete on a massive scale

The Romans were first-class engineers who built enduring roads, bridges, and aqueducts.

They built 50,000 miles of roads throughout the empire

Rome’s many aqueducts supplied one million people with water

The Emergence of Christianity

By A.D. 6, Judaea, which covered the lands of the ancient kingdom of Judah, was a Roman province under the direction of a procurator

Unrest was common in Judaea, even among factions of Jews

A Jewish revolt began in A.D. 66 but was crushed by the Romans four years later

The Emergence of Christianity

A few decades before the revolt, a Jewish prophet named Jesus began to preach throughout Judaea

Jesus taught that inner transformation was more important than adhering to laws or rituals

Individuals should treat others as they would like to be treated

People should love God and love each other, treating all as neighbors

Jesus taught the virtues that would later shape the value system of Western civilization: humility, charity, and love of others

The Emergence of Christianity

Jesus’ opponents turned Jesus over to the Roman authorities because they feared he might cause people to revolt against Rome

The procurator, Pontius Pilate, ordered Jesus crucified

Followers of Jesus, however, believed he overcame death

Many Jewish followers believed that Jesus was the Messiah, the long-expected savior of Israel

The Spread of Christianity Simon Peter was a prominent leader in early

Christianity Peter and the other apostles taught that Jesus

was the Savior and Son of God come to Earth to save all people

Jesus’ death had made up for people’s sins and made salvation possible

Individuals had only to accept Christ as their Savior to be saved

Another prominent leader was Paul, who followed Jesus’ command to preach the gospel to both Jews and non-Jews, or Gentiles

He founded many Christian communities in Asia Minor and along the Aegean Sea

The Spread of Christianity Christian teachings were passed down

orally, and some were preserved in writing by Jesus’ disciples and followers

Between A.D. 70 and 100, these writings became the basis of the written Gospels (“the good news”)

The Gospels tell of Jesus’ life and teachings, and they form the basis of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible

By 100, Christian churches had been established throughout the eastern empire and parts of the western empire

The Triumph of Christianity

Romans came to see Christianity as harmful to the public order because Christians would not worship the Roman gods, an act of treason

Christians believed in one God only and would not worship false gods or the emperors for fear of endangering their salvation

Roman persecution of Christians began under Nero (A.D. 54–68), who blamed them for the fire that destroyed much of Rome

He subjected them to cruel deaths

The Triumph of Christianity Roman persecution strengthened Christianity by forcing it

to become more organized The emerging control of bishops over Christian

communities was an important part of this change The Christian Church created a new structure in which the

clergy (church leaders) were distinct from the laity (everyday church members)

Christianity attracted many followers First, it was more personal than the Roman religion and

offered eternal life and salvation Second, it gave people a sense of belonging to a

community Third, Christianity appealed to every class and was

especially attractive to the poor and powerless Every individual, regardless of status, could gain salvation

The Triumph of Christianity

Christianity prospered in the fourth century

Constantine became the first Christian emperor

In 313, his Edict of Milan proclaimed official toleration of Christianity

Under Theodosius the Great, the Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion

The Decline A long period of civil wars, political disorder, and economic

decline followed the death of the last good emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in A.D. 180

At the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth centuries, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine revived Rome, founding a state called the Late Roman Empire

This state had a new governmental structure, a rigid economic and social system, and a new religion–Christianity.

Diocletian ruled from 284 to 305 Believing the empire was too large for only one ruler, he

divided the empire into four sections, each with its own ruler

Diocletian’s military power gave him ultimate authority over the other three rulers

Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, extended many of Diocletian’s policies

The Decline Both emperors expanded the bureaucracy

and enlarged the army to five hundred thousand troops.

Their expansion of the civil service and the military drained the treasury

More money was needed, but a lack of population growth meant that the tax base could not be increased

To preserve the existing tax base, the emperors issued edicts forcing people to stay in their assigned jobs

The Decline By 324, Constantine was the sole ruler of the Roman

Empire His biggest project was building a new capital city in the

east on the site of Byzantium on the shores of the Bosporus Constantine filled his “New Rome” with a forum, large

palaces, and an amphitheater Constantinople would become the center of the Eastern

Roman Empire and one of the world’s greatest cities. The policies of Diocletian and Constantine were based on

control and coercion In the long run, they stifled the vitality that the empire

needed to survive

The Fall The empire restored by Diocletian and

Constantine continued for another hundred-plus years

It was divided into two parts and had two capitals, Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east

In the second half of the fourth century, Huns from Asia moved into eastern Europe and put pressure on the German Visigoths

The Visigoths moved south, crossing the Danube River into Roman territory

Initially Roman allies, the Visigoths revolted and defeated a Roman army in 378

The Fall More Germans crossed into Roman lands. In 410 the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome In 455 another group called the Vandals also

sacked the city Our modern word vandal comes from the name of

this ruthless tribe In 476 the western emperor, Romulus Augustulus,

was deposed by the Germanic head of the army This event is usually used to mark the end of the

Western Roman Empire The Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine

Empire, however, continued to thrive