ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun

NDEKLER

Emine Grsoy Naskali, Sunu

TARHTEN RNEKLER 1 Neslihan Ko Keskin, 17. Yzyl Osmanl ve Amerikan Toplumlarnda Zinann

ntikam [162-172]

2 Sevim Ylmaz nder, Vengeance in the Chronicles Written in Old Anatolian Turkish

[173-211]

3 Samira Kortantamer, ecer ud-Durrun ntikam [212-218]

DESTANLARDA NTKAM 4 Abdulselam Arvas, Krgz Destanlarnda ntikam Duygusu ve ntikam Biimleri

[219-233]

NTKAM SZLER

5 zlem Demirel Dnmez, Divan Lgatit Trk ve Kutadgu Biligde ntikam Kelimeleri

[234-241]

6 Bahadr Gne, Genel A Szlklerinde ntikam/ ve lgili Kavramlarn Ele Aln [242-254]

7 Glcan olak Bostanc, Bir ntikam Haneri Olarak Kelimeler [255-275]

EDEBYATTA NTKAM

8 Fatih Yldz, Hiciv Oklarna ekilen Kl: Nefnin lm [276-290]

9 Nebahat Yusolu, Ahmet Midhat Efendinin Macera Romanlarnda ntikam [291-301]

10 Mevhibe Coar, ntikam: znesi de Nesnesi de Madur Bir Duygu [302-309]

11 Elmas ahin, Mektup Aklarnda ntikam [310-321]

12 Hikmet Kora, Rauf Parfinin iirlerinde ntikam [322-352]

NTKAM GELENEKLER

13 Sahure nar, Erzurum Hamamlarnda ntikam [353-358]

ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun

14 Mustafa Gne, Tasavvuf Kltrnde ntikam (Erzurumlu brahim Hakk rnei) [359-367]

15 Elmira G. Cahiyeva, Kumuklarda Kan Davas Gelenei [368-371]

ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun

Sunu

Acta Turcicann ntikam konulu says, kltrmzde intikam ile ilgili vaka ve

yaklamlarn tespit edilmesini amalamtr. Kltrmzde kim, kimden, ne sebeple ve ne

biimde intikam almay tasarlam veya intikam almtr sorularna cevap aramtr. Bu

almada, kltrmz intikam nasl alglar; intikam kavram ve olaylar ne ekilde tasnif

edilir, dilde intikam balamndaki kelimeler hangileridir gibi almlarla intikam etrafnda bir

yazl birikim sunulmak istenmitir.

Tarih metinleri intikam vakalarn kayda geirmitir. Gerek destan, gerek divan ve

tasavvuf edebiyat, gerekse modern edebiyat metinlerinde ve elektronik ortama den

kaytlarda intikam bahsi olaylarn dokusunda yer alm veya kurguya yn vermitir. ntikam

ifade eden kelimeler intikam kavramnn katmanlarna iaret etmitir.

Prof. Dr. Emine Grsoy Naskali

162

17. Yzyl Osmanl ve Amerikan Toplumlarnda Zinann ntikam The Revenge of Adultery in 17th Century Ottoman and American Society

Neslihan Ko Keskin*

zet:

Bu yazda, bir tr kiisel adaleti salama yntemi olan intikamn, cezalandrma yn

zerinde durulmutur. Bu balamda, 17. yzylda Amerikan toplumunda zina yapan Hester

Prynnea verilen kzl damga ve ayn yzylda Osmanl toplumunda zina yapan

kadn/erkee uygulanan baa necis ikembe geirme tehir cezalar karlatrmal olarak

incelenmitir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: ntikam, Zina, Ceza, Kzl damga, Hester Prynne, Necis ikembe, 17. yzyl, Osmanl.

Abstract:

This article compares two examples of public punishment given for adultery: One is

the punishment of red stamp given to Hester Prynne in 17th Century America and the other

is the punishment of placing tripe on the head which was dealt out for both men and women

as punishment for adultery again in 17th Century Ottoman rule.

Keywords: Revenge, Adultery, Punishment, Red stamp, Hester Prynne, 17th Century, Tripe, Ottoman.

Bacon, intikam, yasalarn skp atmas gereken vahi bir adalet duygusu olarak

tanmlar.1 Bu tanm ksa olmasna ramen aslnda intikamla ilgili ok nemli noktann

altn izmektedir: Bunlardan ilki, intikamn bir duygu olmasdr ki bu duygu; sevgi, nefret, * Yrd. Do. Dr. Neslihan Ko Keskin, Gazi niversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakltesi Trk Dili ve Edebiyat Blm retim yesi, Ankara. neslihank@gazi.edu.tr 1 Francis Bacon, stne, Denemeler, ev. Akit Gktrk, YKY Yaynlar, stanbul 1999, s. 36-37.

ACTA TURCICA Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun

evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies

www.actaturcica.com

163

korku, fke gibi insann doasnda doutan yer alr. Tanmdaki ikinci nemli nokta ise

vahiliktir. Her ne kadar intikam, insann doasnda olan bir duygu olsa da yabanilik,

yrtclk, kabalk, uyumsuzluk, sra dlk, zarar verme, ldrmevb. olumsuz armlar

zihnimizde uyandrmaktadr. Tanmn en arpc son noktas ise intikamn adaleti salamaya

ynelik olmasdr. Fakat bu adalet kiiseldir. Kiisel adalet bir anlamda kast ve sistemlilii

beraberinde getirir.

nsan intikam almaya iten pek ok sebep olabilir fakat intikamn vahilik ve kiisel

adaleti salama yn, en ok nc kiilerin neden olduu ihanette, sevdiini bakasyla

paylamann verdii fke ve zntyle ortaya kar. Sevdiini ve ona duyduu ak yitiren

kimse, araya giren nc kiiden ve belki de sevdiinden eitli yollarla intikam alarak

onlar cezalandrr. Allan Hillerynin Kller Kllere adl hikyesi bu bakmdan intikam ve

cezann i ieliini bize gsterir. Hikyeyi ksaca u ekilde zetleyebiliriz: Doktor Frank

Morrow, kars Melanienin kendisini ressam Robert ile aldattn zanneder. Kars iin bir

lm ilan verir. Kahvalt masasnda bu ilan okuyan Melanie, ok arr ve eine ilan okur.

Frank Morrow, soukkanllkla ilan kendisinin verdiini syledikten sonra, Melanieyi bir

yumrukla bayltr ve karsnn kalbine bir ine enjekte eder. neyle enjekte edilen ila

nedeniyle Melanie, bir l gibi kaskat kesilir. Durumdan haberdar edilen cenaze grevlileri

bir tabutla eve gelirler, kaskat kesilmi cesedi ipek bir kefene sararak ve lm belgesini

imzalayarak giderler. Yalnz kalan doktor, karsnn kefenini syrr, ameliyatlarda kullanlan

iplikle, karsnn dudaklarn ve ayaklarn birbirine, kollarn gsne diker daha sonra kefeni

tekrar sarar. Sakin geen bir cenaze treninden ardndan Melanie, iinde bulunduu tabutla

belediyenin cenaze yakma evine getirilir. Bu srada, ilacn etkisi gemeye balar ve kadn

yava yava kendisine gelir. Melanienin son hatrlad ey, kocasnn kendisine att

yumruktur. Konumaya ve kprdanmaya alr, bir yandan da scakl ve acy hissetmeye

balar. Bu ekilde aclar iinde yanarak lr. Doktor, leden sonra kendisini aldattn

dnd karsndan intikamn almann rahatlyla ikisini yudumlar. Hikyenin sonunda

ise Frank, Melanienin kendisinin aldatmadn ac bir ekilde renir.2 Bu hikyedekine

benzer ekilde, bu yazmzda aldatmann daha dorusu zinann intikamnn nasl alndn,

Amerikan ve Osmanl toplumunda verilen iki tehir cezas zerinden anlatmaya alacaz.

Zina yapan Hester Prynne ve cezas: Kzl Damga

2 Allan Hillary, Kller Kllere, ykleri Antolojisi, ev.Haluk Erdemol, stanbul 2002, s. 224-230.

164

Hester Prynne, Nathaniel Hawthorneun orijinal ad The Scarlet Letter olan romannn

bakahramandr. The Scarlet Letter, roman olarak Kzl Damga3 ve film olarak Krmz Leke4

adlaryla dilimize evrilmitir. Romana konu olan olaylar, 17. yzylda, Amerika

Massachusettste (Boston) gemektedir. Romann ana karakteri gen, gzel ve yoksul bir

kadn olan Hester Prynnedir. Hester, yal ama zengin bir doktor olan Roger Chillingworth

ile evlenir. Kocas iki yl boyunca ortadan kaybolan Hester, onu, kasabann gen rahibi Arthur

Dimmesdale ile aldatr. Bu beraberlikten hamile kalan Hester, zina suundan hapse girer ve

hapiste Pearl adl bir ocuk dnyaya getirir fakat Hestern cezas bununla bitmeyecektir.

Bostonun en eski kilisesinin saann altna tahta ve demir kullanlarak bir platform

oluturulur. Bu platform aslnda, sulunun yzn kapatmasn ve kprdamasn engelleyen,

demirden kskalar olan bir makine, bir alet grevini grmektedir. Hester, bu platformda

saat boyunca tehir edilme cezasna arptrlr. Ayrca hem tehir srasnda hem de kamusal

alanda, ngilizce zina/zinac (adultery/adulteress) kelimelerinin ba harfi olan, altn rengi

simle bezenmi, kpkzl bir A harfini elbisesinin zerinde tayacaktr. Romanda, bu A

harfinin, aylk bebein kapatamayaca kadar byk olduu belirtilir. Tehir srasnda onu,

sradan halkn yannda, kilisenin balkonundan vali, hkimler, bir general, din adamlarndan

oluan resm bir erkn ve hatta Hestern kocas ile kasabann gen rahibi Arthur Dimmesdale

da izler. Hester, tm srarlara ramen ne kocasnn adn ne de rahibin adn syler ve

hayatnn sonuna kadar bu A harfini zerinde tar.

Romandaki ilgin ve arpc diyaloglardan biri hapishaneye gelen Doktor Roger

Chillingworth ile Hester arasnda geer. Tehirden sonra sinir krizi geiren Hester ve srekli

alayan bebei sakinletirmek iin hapishaneye ziyaret bahanesiyle gelen Doktor

Chillingworthtan yardm istenir. Aslnda doktorun ziyaretinin sebebi, Hesterdan kendisinin

kimliini gizlemesini istemektir. Doktor nce bebei ilala sakinletirir daha sonra Hestera

imesi iin ila verir. Hester, kocasnn bu ilala kendisini ldreceini sanr. Doktor ona

yle der: Beni bu kadar az m tandn sen Hester Pryenne? Ben byle basitlikler yapacak

kadar s biri miyim? ntikam almay planlasam seni hayatn tm ktlk ve aclarndan

kurtaracak ilac vermek yerine, bu utancn gsn dalayp gitmesine izin vererek, yaaman

salamak ok daha gzel bir intikam olmaz m? ... Sen yaamalsn! Utancn zerinde

3 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Utku lban Cokunolu, Bilge Kltr Sanat, stanbul 2008; Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Z.Glmser Arer uhadar, Arion Yaynlar, stanbul 2002. 4 The Scarlet Letter filmi 1995 ylnda gsterilmitir.

165

tarken tm kadn ve erkekler bu damgay grsn. Kocan olarak sevdiin o adam da urada

yatan bebek de! Herkes her zaman grsn! Haydi yaamak iin bu ilac i imdi.5

Osmanl toplumunda zina yapan kadn/erkek ve cezas: Necis kembe

Fatih Sultan Mehmet zamannda yaam nl bir Bizans imparator ailesine

(Cantacuzeneler) mensup olan Theodore Spandounes/Spandugnino, The Origin of The

Ottoman Emperors6 adl eserinde zina yapan erkee uygulanan ilgin bir tehir cezasndan u

ekilde bahseder:7

Eer bir Hristiyan, Trk bir kadnla cinsel ilikiye girdii esnada yakalanrsa ya

krbalanr ya da Mslman olmaya zorlanabilir. Bu cezadan kamak iin 500, 1000 ve hatta

2000 duka altn deyen kiiler tanyorum. Eer bir Hristiyan veya Trk erkei, nikhl ei

olmayan bir kadnla yatakta yakalanrsa, kafasnda bir hayvann i organlar (ikembesi)

elinde de hayvann kuyruuyla eee ters bindirilerek ehirde gezdirilir. Bu durumdaki bir

kii 1500 duka altn deyerek bu ayptan ve cezadan kaabilir. 8

Theodore Spandounes/Spandugninodan sonra 17. yzylda Osmanlya gelen botanik

uzman Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, yazd seyahatnamesinde zina yaparken yakalanan

kadnlarn denize atldklarn sylerken, erkeklerin de balarna barsaktan yaplm bir ta

ve boyunlarna da ayn ekilde bir kravat taklp, eee ters bindirilerek tehir edildiini u

ekilde anlatmtr:

Zina Trkiyede ok sert biimde cezalandrlr. Yalnzca zina hlinde kocalar

karlarnn yaayp yaamamasyla ilgili karar verebilirler; zira eer kocalarn ruhu kinle

doluysa, sust yaplm ya da biimsel olarak kandrlm bu bahtsz kadnlar ii ta dolu bir

uvala konarak denize atlr; ne var ki; kadnlarn ou o kadar iyi yzer ki pek ender

5 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Utku lban Cokunolu, s. 76 6 Orijinal ad Discorso di Theodoro Spandugino Cantacusino Gentilhomo Costantinopolitano Dallorigine deprincipi Turchidir. 7 Metin And, XVI.Yzyl da Osmanllarda Cezalar balkl yazsnda bu cezay farkl olarak u ekilde aktarrr: Bir zmm bir Trk kadnyla zina ederse Mslman olmazsa yaklrd. Bir zmm veya Mslman Trk bir zmm kadnla zina ederken yakalanrsa, hem erkek hem kadn sokaklarda bir eein zerine ters oturtulur, bana koyun ikembesi sarlr, eein kuyruunu yular gibi tutarak sokakta dolatrlrd. Hayat Tarih Mecmuas, S. 3, 1 Nisan 1969, s. 32. 8 If a Christian is caught in sexsual act with a Turkish woman he can either be lashed or be forced to become a Muslim. I have known of men who have paid 500, 1,000, or even 2,000 ducats to avoid this penalty. If a Christian or a Turk is found in bed with a woman not his wife, he is paraded around the town sitting backwards on as ass with entrails on his head and the animals tail in his hand. A man of status in these circumstances escapes the penalty and the shame by paying 1,500 ducats. Theodore Spandounes, On the Origin of the Ottoman Emperors, Translated and edited by Donald M. Nicholl, Cambridge University Press, New York 2009, s. 130-131.

166

boulurlar. Eer kocalar hayatlarn balarsa, kadnlar bazen eskiye oranla ok daha mutlu

olurlar: nk bu kadnlar klaryla-eer klar Hristiyansa Mslman olma cezasna

arptrldktan sonra evlenmeye zorlanrlar. ou zaman erkek k, bir eee ters binip

eein kuyruunu dizgin gibi tutmak zorunda braklarak, bana barsaktan yaplm bir ta

ve boynuna da barsaktan bir kravat taklm vaziyette sokaklarda dolama cezasna

arptrlr. Bu zafer turundan sonra, brlerine ve tabanlarna birka sopa vurulur.9

Her iki yabanc yazarn bahsettikleri bu tehir cezasnn gerekten uygulanp

uygulanmad konusunda akla baz soru iaretleri gelmektedir. Fakat ilgin olan Evliya

elebinin Seyahatnamesinde de bu cezaya atfta bulunulmasdr. elebi, stanbuldaki oyun

kollarndan Yahudilerden oluan Semmr-ka kolunu anlatrken, onlarn dman olduklar

ingenelerle yaptklar bir gsteriden bahsetmitir. Gsteride, Yahudi bir erkekle zina

yaparken baslan ingene kadn, bir eee ters oturtulur, bana ceza olarak pis ikembe

geirilir ve baka bir eee bindirilen Yahudiyle birlikte gezdirilir:

On ikinci semmr-ka kol: 200 neferdir ve cmlesi Yahdlerdir. Bu Yahd

kollarnn istihrlar oldur kim cem-i hokkabz ve srhbz ve kzebz ve kadehbz ve

tebz ve ebbz ve perendebz ve mhrebz ve sinibz ve taklabz [ve] kullebz vel-hsl

cmle marifet-i bz-bzan bunlarn kollarnda mevcd olup ta sabha dek b-minnet fasl

iderler ve bunlar ingene kollarna gyet hasm olduklarndan bir kol ingeneden ve bir kol

Yahudiden dutup hasmne bir fasl Yahudiler ve bir fasl ingneler ide. Garb ve acb

temlar olur amm bu Yahudilerin ingenelerine galebe takldleri var kim grp istim

iden temclarn akl glmeden zil olur. Evvel ingneler ay oynatmala mehrdur.

Yahdler oynadrken gn-a-gn akalar idp, ingnelere sz atarlar. Bir ingne avratn bir

Yahdiyle dutup, Yahdye ve ingneye ikence idp, sylediklerinde [temdr] ve

ingne karsn necsli ikembe ile ters eee bindrp, Yahd dahi bir eek zre siyset ile

gerp, bir hy-h ile takld itdklerinde, dem glmeden mebht olur ve nie bunun emsli

ingnelere ramen takldleri vardr.10

Fakat Theodore Spandounes/Spandugnino ve Tournefort, necis ikembenin erkein

bana, elebi ise kadnn bana geirildiini belirtmitir.

9 Joseph de Tournefort, Tournefort Seyahatnmesi, ev. Zll Kl, stanbul 2005, s. 72. 10 Evliya elebi b. Dervi Mehmed Zll, Evliya elebi Seyahatnmesi Topkap Saray Badat 304 Yazmasnn Transkripsiyonu-Dizini I.Kitap stanbul, hzl. Orhan aik Gkyay, stanbul 1996, s. 308.

167

Hayat Tarih Mecmuasnda ceza bu ekilde grselletirilmitir.11

Gerek yabanc iki seyyahn gerekse elebinin bahsettii bu cezann izlerini, 17.

yzyl divnlarnda da taradk.12 Sadece Vecdnin Divnesinde yer alan bir matla beytinde

bu cezadan bahsedildiini tespit ettik. Vecd bu beytinde, mumu bir kadn, rzgr da onunla

ilikiye giren bir erkek olarak dnm, mumun bana snmesin diye kapatlan fanusu da

baa geirilen hayvan ikembesine benzetmitir. airi bu dnceye sevk eden eskiden

fanuslarn ikembeden yaplmasdr:

emn bu gice rzgr itdi tebeh nmsn

Geydrdi hir bana ikenbeden fnsn Vecd matla 1

Sonu

Kkeni Arapa olan intikam kelimesinin cezalandrma anlam, Kurnda birok

ayette geer ve yine Allahn esma-i hsnasnda geen bir ad da sulular cezalandran

anlamna gelen Mntakimdir.13 Bu yazda, intikam kelimesinin cezalandrma

11 Metin And, agm., s. 32. 12 Bu ceza ile ilgili aada ismi verilen divn airlerinin divnlar taranm fakat baka bir rnek bulunamamtr. Aty (. 1635), Bahyi (. 1654), Baht (. 1617), Cevr (. 1654), Fash (. 1699), Fehm-i Kadm (. 1647), Smkezde Feyz (. 1690), Hlet (. 1631), Hevy (. 1710), Hisl (. 1651), smet (. 1665), zzet (. 1681), Kelm (. 1686), Mantk (. 1635), Mezk (. 1676), Nb (. 1712), Ndir (. 1626), N'il (. 1666), Nm (. 1673/4), Nedm-i Kadm (. 1670), Nef' (. 1635), Net (. 1673), Nisr (. 1656), Ram (. 1640), Sbit (. 1712), Sabr (. 1645), Sabh (. 1647), Sheyl (IV.Murad dnemi), Skker (. 1686), ehr (. 1660), h (. 1683), T'ib (. 1683), Tyb (. 1679), Tecell (. 1688), Tfl (. 1660), Va'd (. 1678), Vahy (. 1718), Vecd (. 1661), Vech (. 1660) ve Yahy (. 1644). 13 Kurn- Kerm; Secde 22, Zuhruf 41, Duhan 16, Araf 136, Hicr 79, Zuhruf 25-55.

168

anlamndan yola karak, iki farkl toplumda zinann nasl cezalandrld konusunda

rnekler verdik.

Roman kahraman Hester Pryenne rneine bakldnda, kzl damga cezasnn

verilmesine etken olan Pritenizmi de gz nnde bulundurmak gerekir. Pritenizm, 17.

yzylda ngiltereden Bostona gelen gmenler tarafnda yaylmtr ve I. Elizabethin

ngiliz Kilisesinde balatt reformist harekete kar kan, kendini safl aramak olarak

tanmlayan bir Protestan doktrin ve ibadet eklidir.14 Romanda Hestera nce lm cezasnn

verilmesi kararlatrlm daha sonra ise kzl damgaya karar verilmitir. Bu ekilde onuru

ve haysiyeti zedelenen Hestern iledii su, hem kendisine hem de yaad topluma

unutturulmayacak, kzl damgayla tehiriyle devaml hatrlatlacaktr. Hestern kocas, ona

bu cezann verilmesinden memnundur nk bu ekilde kendisinin intikamnn alndn

dnr fakat yine de onun kocas olmaktan utanr, Hestern adn aklamasn istemez.

Rahip ise, Hesterla birlikte olduunu syleme cesaretini gsteremez.

ada hukuk sistemi asndan tehirin bir ceza olup olmad tartmaldr.15 Ceza,

sadece kanunla korunabilen; amac su iledii mahkeme kararyla sabit olan kimseyi yine

mahkeme kararyla kusurunun karl olarak baz yoksunluklara tabi klarak slah etmek ve

genel nlemeyi temin etmek iin korkutucu yaptrmdr.16 Ayn zamanda ceza, telafi

edilebilmeli, tamir edilebilmeli veya cezann geri alnmas mmkn olmaldr.17 Bu sebeple

tehir, hem insan onurunu ve haysiyetini zedelemesi hem de telafisinin mmkn olmamasyla

ada ceza hukukuyla badamaz. Buna ramen tehir Osmanlda yaygn uygulanan bir

cezadr. Mesel, aada, 1720 enliinden bir minyatr ayrntsnda, eksik arlk lleriyle

sust yakalanm bir esnaf ve samandan yaplm bir giysi iinde klk deitiren muhtesip

(muhtesip, zabta gibi, Osmanlda asayii salayan grevlilerdendir.) grlmektedir. (Resim

1)18 Bu esnaf bana geirilen tahtaya dizilmi arlk lleriyle tehir edilmektedir:

14 tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priten 15 Konuyla ilgili olarak u makaleye baklabilir: Ahmet Kln, Mukayeseli Hukuk ve Hukuk Tarihi Asndan Yaptrm Tr Olarak Tehir, Gazi niversitesi Hukuk Fakltesi Dergisi, C. XI, S. 1-2, 2007, s. 1007-1032. 16 Bahri ztrk-Mustafa Ruhan Erdem, Uygulamal Ceza Hukuku ve Gvenlik Tedbirleri Hukuku, Ankara 2006, s. 279. 17 Bahri ztrk - Mustafa Ruhan Erdem, age., s. 269. 18 Esin Atl, Levni ve Surname Bir Osmanl enliinin yks, stanbul 1999, s. 182.

169

Resim 1

Resim 2

Asl konumuzla ilgili olan baka bir tehir cezas da Seyyid Lokmann Hnernmesinde

minyatrize edilen engel cezasdr. Mslman kadnlarla zina eden gayr Mslimler,

minyatrdeki gibi engellere aslarak ikence ile idam edilirlerdi. (Resim 2)19

Bir tehir cezas olan necis ikembe ile ilgili ayrntl bir bilgiye sahip deiliz. Bu

cezann kadna m erkee mi yoksa ikisine de mi uyguland konusunda kaynaklarda farkl

bilgiler verilmitir. Dier taraftan slam hukukunda zinann cezas recmdir. Recmin de

Osmanl Devletinde sadece bir defa uyguland kaydedilmitir.20 Bu sebeple, necis ikembe

cezasnn slam kaynakl olmasna da pheyle baklmaldr. Bu cezayla kadn/erkein bana

pis hayvan ikembesi sarlarak onlarn pis bir i yapt, manen ve madden kirlendikleri, kzl

damgadaki gibi topluma tehir edilerek anlatlmtr. Zinann intikamnn bu ekilde

alnmasyla sokakta dolatrlarak aalanan kiiler ve ceza, toplumun bilincine de kaznm

olmaktadr.

Kaynaklar

Akku, Metin, Nef Divn, Ankara 1993. 19 Seyyid Lokman, Hnernme, C. II, TSMK H1524 vr. 172b, Ahmet Atilla entrk, Osmanl iiri Antolojisi, stanbul 1999, s. 228. 20 Mustafa Avc, Osmanl Hukukunda Sular, Gkkubbe Yaynlar, stanbul 2004, s. 1.

170

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Vengeance in the Chronicles Written in Old Anatolian Turkish Eski Anadolu Trkesinde Yazlan Tevrihlerde ntikam

Sevim Ylmaz nder*

zet:

Chronicles that were written in many aspects of social life, including daily life,

entertainment and sports, at a time when history writing was beginning to show some

methodology, describe vengeance as a sentiment that is required to survive and succeed. In

acts of vengeance narrated in chronicles, social structure manifests itself over three axes,

namely religion (Christian-Muslim), status (ruler-subject) and gender (men-women). In some

cases, an act that is too trivial to cause a feeling of vengeance warrants revenge simply

because of the social structure involved. Reasons for revenge in chronicles are divided into

two categories: social reasons such as observing a different religion or denomination,

apostasy, claiming to be prophets, uprising, bribery and personal reasons such as jealousy,

lack of protocol, murder of someone in the family. Vengeance is enacted in two different

ways: direct with the religious assistance or ploys and indirect with collective punishments

such as occupation, exile, pillage and individual punishments such as selling as slaves, killing

by weapons, decapitation, burning, skinning, confinement, filling the mouth with dirt. Since

all acts of vengeance become public to a certain degree, its aftermath is discussed in detail.

Therefore, the public nurtures different sentiments as celebration, mourning and regret after

the act of revenge. Victims try to find some ways to avoid revenge indirectly with the

assistance of Prophets (Mohammad or Jesus Christ) or Khidr and directly with his own

survival plan such as flight, converting, paying tribute. * Dr. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Yldz Technical University, Turkish Language and Literature Department, Istanbul. sevim.yilmazonder@gmail.com

ACTA TURCICA Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun

evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies

www.actaturcica.com

174

Anahtar Kelimeler: Vengeance, Apostasy, Gender, Uprising, Protocol, Tribute, Old

Anatolian Turkish, Ottoman historiography.

Abstract:

Tarih yazclnn bir metot izlemeye baland dnemde yazlan ve gndelik yaam,

elence, spor vb. birok sosyal konuda veriler sunan tevrhlerde intikam, hayatta kalmak ve

baar elde etmek iin gerekli bir duygu olarak tarif edilir. Tevrhlerde intikam alma

durumunda sosyal yapnn din (Hristiyan Mslman), stat (yneten ynetilen) ve cinsiyet

(kadn erkek) bakmndan farkl yapda ortaya kt grlr Bazen duygusu

yaratmayacak kadar nemsiz bir davran, sosyal yap nedeniyle ok byk cezalandrlmalar

gerektirir. Tevrhlerde intikam konusunun getii ksmlar incelendiinde sebepler asndan

farkl dinden veya mezhepten olma, din deitirme, peygamberlik iddias, isyan, rvet gibi

toplumsal sebeplerin yan sra kskanlk, protokol kurallarna uymama, aileden birinin

ldrlmesi gibi bireysel sebepler olmak zere iki trde olduu grlr. ntikam alma

trlerinde kullanlan yntemler incelediinde dolayl (dini yardm veya hile ile) ve dorudan

olmak zere iki farkl yol izlendii grld. Dorudan intikam almalarda topraklarn ele

geirilmesi, evlerin boaltlmas, yama gibi toplumsal cezalandrmalar ile esir olarak satma,

silahla ldrmek, attan drme, ban kesme, yakmak, derisini yzmek, zgrln

kstlamak, azna toprak doldurmak gibi bireysel cezalandrmalar eklinde uygulanr. Her

intikamn bir ynyle toplumsal olmas sebebiyle, intikam sonras yaananlar ayrntl

biimde anlatlr. Bu nedenle intikam alndktan sonra toplumda kutlama, yas tutma ve

pimanlk gibi farkl tepkiler oluur. Kurbanlarn Muhammet ve sa Peygamberlerin veya

Hzrn yardmyla intikamdan kurtulduklar dolayl yollarn yan sra kamak, din

deitirmek, hara vermek gibi kendi bulduklar kurtulu planlar da mevcuttur.

Keywords: ntikam, htida, Cinsiyet, Ayaklanma, Terifat, Hara, Eski Anadolu

Trkesi, Osmanl tarih yazcl.

Ottoman History Writing between the 13th and 15th Centuries

Historical texts in Ottoman Turkish are initially referred to as destn/dsitn

(legend), hikye (tale) or menkbnme (epic), but with the development of history

writing throughout the years, these texts are subsequently named trih (chronicle) or its

plural, tevrh.

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As with all nomadic peoples, history writing in the Ottomans occurs at a much later

phase. The first examples indicating a lack of history writing tradition tend to confuse fact and

legend, listing them as one narrative. A notion of causality does not appear until the late 15th

century. Occurrences that are completely void of credibility are narrated as they were facts. In

the example below, Seyyid Battal kills his enemy, skins him, dries and straightens the skin,

and then puts it on as a guise to deceive his enemys men:

Harsn mest old. Seyyid kalanna destr vrdi. Harsan alkod, halvet kalcak ier

girdi, iler yridi, bogazna yapd. ehdet kelimesin bua arz eyledi, ln feryd tmek

istedi. (Seyyid) bogazn berk dutd, cn cehenneme smarlad. Tz derisin yzdi, kend eliyile

dzledi, tabaglk eyledi. rteye degin kurtd. Sabh seg-srlar geldiler. Seyyid Harsnu

derisin geydi, dara kd, bunlara yz gsterdi. Dkelisi yz yre srdiler. (Battalnme, 568-

569)

Until the 15th century, Ottoman Turks sing the epic songs they have brought from their

homeland in Central Asia to Anatolia. Poets and musicians in court narrate the deeds of their

renowned forefathers and heroes accompanied by an instrument called kopuz. The most

distinguished hero of all is Ouz: the forefather and the first ruler of the group of peoples to

whom the Turks of Asia Minor belong. Although these early examples do not contain

information that is significant from a historical perspective, they do provide a painstaking

lineage of Turkic tribes and their chieftains.1

The first Ottoman chronicle that bears a semblance to contemporary works was written

in the early 15th century by Yahi Fakih, the son of shak Fakih, who was the imam of Orhan

Gazi. Known as the Yahi Fakih Menakbnmesi (Epic of Yahi Fakih), this work did not

survive. Its existence is known only by the references made by kpaazde when he was

writing his own work. This Epic has probably been a resource for the anonymous Tevrh-i

l-i Osman (Chronicles of the Ottomans), which were written on the founding stages of the

Ottoman Empire.2

The earliest recovered Ottoman chronicle today is the Chronicle that is annexed to the

skendernme by Ahmed, written in the early 15th century and presented to Emir Sleyman.3

Ahmed wrote this work in 1390, and subsequently added a chronicle until 1410.

1 Franz Babinger, Osmanl Tarih Yazarlar ve Eserleri, ev. okun ok, Ankara 1982, pp. 7-10. 2 Erhan Afyoncu, Osmanl Tarih Yazcl, Trk Edebiyat Tarihi, C. l., stanbul 2007, pp. 570. 3 smail nver, Ahmed, skendername, Ankara 1983, pp. 44-45.

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Following the invasion of the Mongols under the command of Tamerlane, the Ottoman

state was devastated, and along with it, history writing. There are no historical works

surviving from this period. However, as Sultan Murat II ascends to the throne and the state

begins to recover from the defeat at the Battle of Ankara, a methodology in history writing

begins to emerge.4 Dated back to the reign of Sultan Murat II, the anonymous chronicles are

among the most important works in Ottoman history writing. Called the Anonim Tevrh-i l-

i Osman, these chronicles begin with the arrival of Sleyman-ah at Anatolia, and end on

dates that encompass various periods.5

The developments in Anatolia and Thrace in the 15th century sparked further interest

and style in history. Contrary to the earlier stages of history writing, some works are written in

Turkish. A series of victories by the state nurtured an admiration of the Sultan and his family

this would be further entrenched in the society with the conquest of Constantinople. Sultans

must have felt a need to tell their past especially their triumphant past to the people as they

demanded that the historians of their times write the history of the Turks beginning with their

migration to Anatolia. Written in plain, straightforward Turkish, these texts were usually

dedicated to the sultans of their times. Originally a pleasure hoarded by the elite, history was

extended to the people with legendary works like Battalnme6 and Danimendnme7, both

popular among the people of Anatolia. During his time in Edirne, Ebul-hayr-i Rm was

commissioned by Cem Sultan, who had heard about the legends and tales surrounding Saltuk

the Blond in various parts of Thrace, and had wanted a compilation of these narratives, to

write the Saltuknme.8

Works on Seljuk and Ottoman history were specifically translated on orders from the

Sultan, and their translators were rewarded. Many anonymous Chronicles are dated to the

reign of Bayezit II. Examples of Ottoman history texts enriched by poems range from

Ahmeds skendernme9 to the Akpaazde Tarihi (Chronicles by Akpaazade)10 and Oru

Bey Tarihi (Chronicles of Oru Bey). Other important writers are the famous historian Ner,

4 Franz Babinger, Osmanl Tarih Yazarlar ve Eserleri, pp. 16-17. 5 Erhan Afyoncu, Osmanl Tarih Yazcl, pp. 570. 6 Yorgo Dedes, Battalname, Harvard 1996. 7 Necati Demir, Danimend-nme, Harvard 1999. 8 Timurta, eyhinin Harnamesi, stanbul 1981, p. 192; Necati Demir, Danimend-nme. 9 For the annals at the end of the work, cf. smail nver, Ahmed, skendername, pp. 44-45. 10 H. Nihal Atsz, Ak Paaolu Tarihi, stanbul 1992.

177

who wrote the Kitab- Cihn-nma (Book of the World),11 and Yazczde Ali with his

Tevrh-i l-i Seluk (Chronicles of the Seljuks). Although not completely scientific, these

works can be considered secondary resources that can be used to reinforce or expand the

information gained from primary resources like documents, edicts, mandates, private letters

and treaties.

The historical texts that comprise the foundation of this study are prose chronicles that

were written in many aspects of social life, including daily life, entertainment and sports, at a

time when history writing was beginning to show some methodology. In addition to legendary

chronicles like Battalnme and Dnimendnme written in old Anatolian Turkish, methodical

works such as Akpaazde, Oru Bey, Ner and Yazczde are included. These chronicles

are based on and refer to each other. Except Yazczde, all are chronicles of the Ottoman

State. Yazczde covers Ottoman history from the Ouz tribe to the Seljuks and the conquest

of Constantinople. However, this work is significant in the sense that it includes details on

social life, which are not found in the originals, and are presumed to be added by Yazczde.

It may be thought that the author added these details with reference to his own era, namely the

15th century. This is the reason Yazczdes work is frequently referred to in this study:

Although it narrates a previous era, the social data contained therein is more relevant to the

period at hand.12

The Notion of Vengeance in Chronicles

Chronicles describe vengeance as a sentiment that is required to survive and succeed.

Specifically, vengeance is explained as one of the key factors of military achievement.

Soldiers are infused with sentiments of grudge and vengeance so that they will show no

mercy during the fight, battle zealously to enact their revenge, and, naturally, kill their

enemies in the end:

Ve dmen zerine zafer bulmagu bir nie sebebleri vardur drdi. Birisi, ganmet

ve yagma mdi ki leker gllerinde rsih ola, cidd cehd tmekde mbliga derler. Ve

ganmet muhabbet[i] bunlaru glinden lm korkusn giderr. Ve ikincisi, dmene kn ve

intikm kasd yle ki leker dmenden acm olalar ve gllerinde aa kn dutm olalar.

Pes arada intikm kalbe mstevl olur. Havfa ve ihtiyta yol varmaz. ncisi, dmen

11 Orhan Kololu, Kitb- Cihnnma, stanbul 2008. 12 For more information cf. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Introduction Tevrh-i l-i Seluk, ll. cilt Rhat-s-Sudr ve yet-s-Srr tercmesi. stanbul 2009.

178

lekerin gllerine korku brakmak ki glde korku olcak azda kuvvet kalmaz.

(Yazczde, 76a)

A soldier filled with a will to avenge will kill anyone standing before him without any

sign of mercy. This is frequently described as a ravaged wolf attacking a herd of sheep in

chronicles:

Derhl kfirlere rip ol a kurt koyuna girer gibi kfirleri sdlar.

(Dnimendnme, 119)

When Muslims or Christians view themselves as superior to their enemies, ridicule

frequently comes before vengeance. Ridicule indicates that the forces are not equal and the

adversaries will be crushed, and is employed as a tactic to keep morale high. Meanwhile,

readers or listeners find an opportunity to be proud of their people and their army, and look

towards the future with confidence. Derogatory remarks are frequent in sections of ridicule,

and the enemy despite sometimes outnumbering the victors is described as an incompetent

horde. Enemies are likened to animals, which further humiliates them. People reading or

listening to these texts feel pride in their ancestors and scoff at the enemy:

Atua haber kld ki Kardau Kibriyanos, Melik elinde helk old ddi. Atu lan

n an iitdi bir delrmi dv gibi slm erisin arasnda ddi; ayu gibi bagrd, eek gibi

agrd, touz gibi hortlad, dah srdi (Dnimendnme, 119)

Mockery and ridicule sometimes become so over-the-top that it feels unreal. In the

early stages of history writing, when chronicles were very popular among people,

historiographers wrote with a sense of entertaining their audiences while keeping annals.

These entertainment sections become distinct parts of the chronicle, where the writer finishes

relating the event and begins a separate section under the heading of latife (banter) and tells a

joke to further ridicule the victim of the related event in the eyes of the reader. In the example

below, the testicles of enemy soldiers are removed to erect an awning. The battlefield then

becomes known as the Great Balls Plains:

Latfe: Tatarlaru haylaru kesp derilerini birbirine dikp bir syebn tdiler.

imdiki hlde dah ol sahrya Taak Yazus drler. (Ner, 67)

Since chronicles are usually written for future generations, they contribute greatly to

the formation of a collective memory. Remembering the past and taking revenge are inscribed

into the minds of the society. Consequently, some calls for revenge become social grudges

due to the efforts of history writers and the assertions of their chronicles, and are never

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forgotten or allowed to be forgotten even if centuries pass. An example is the grudge

related to the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and how this is passed down from

generation to generation. In chronicles, it is clear that the Greeks who have close ties to the

Ottoman throne after the conquest do not give up on this grudge:

Rm vezr Pdiha eydr: Hey devletl sultnum! Mahmd srdgi evleri teft

dp grdm, ekseri fakrlerdr ve hem az srdi ddi. Ve ganlerin srmedi ddi. Bu Rm

vezr stanbolu intikmn almaga gyetde kim mtk intizrd kim ehl-i slm[]

inciteyidi Murd buyd ki ehl-i slmn evlerin ykdurmagd. (k Paazde, 446).

In the immediate aftermath of the conquest of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas stands up

to lead a new crusade to avenge the conquest. In the communiqu he issues on 30 September

1453, he calls to the rulers of the West to unite against the Turks. Meanwhile, he urges the

bickering countries of Europe to cast civil wars aside and join forces against the enemies of

Christianity13. However, the common belief in Rome at the time was that the conquest was

an act of revenge in itself, that the Ottomans indirectly avenged the fallen of Troy, and that

the Greeks were now suffering for the violence they once committed. The resulting

resentment towards Byzantium and the realpolitik Sultan Mehmet II crafted out of the

ensuing quarrel ensured that the movement was left on paper.14

Although considered the revenge of Troy, the conquest of Constantinople is also

viewed as the attack of Muslims on Christianity by Greeks and many other Christian

nations, and revenge becomes inevitable. Particularly when the Ottomans enter a state of

decline, Christian countries like Russia and Austria lead a Greek Project to avenge the

revenge and to revive the old Byzantium.15

Social Structure in Vengeance

The social status of the person or community that will be punished when they feel

vengeance or later seek to enact vengeance should not be underestimated. In some cases, an

act that is too trivial to cause a feeling of vengeance warrants revenge simply because of the

social structure involved.

In acts of vengeance narrated in chronicles, social structure manifests itself over three

axes, namely religion (Christian-Muslim), status (ruler-subject) and gender (men-women):

13 Steven Runchiman, Konstantiniye Dt, stanbul 1972, p. 255. 14 Ibid. p. 259. 15 Armaolu, Siyas Tarih 1789-1960, Ankara 1973, p. 96.

180

Christians and Muslims

The key dividing factor between avengers and their victims in chronicles is religion.

Refuting each other although being introduced one after the other, Christianity and Islam are

often in clash. While Christians cannot come to terms with the newer Islam, Muslims, safe

in the belief that theirs is the last Godly religion, expect everyone to adopt their faith. Being

of the other religion is a crime in itself in the chronicles, and both sides wage holy wars

against the other. Believing that holy wars are among the greatest good man can do, both

sides fight enthusiastically:

(Cafer) Hak taldan istinet isterdi. Eydrdi kim y Hlik, nin nola bu b-re

miskn yetm kulua lutf ihsn dp yardm klasn, kudret ve kuvvet vresin, bu Rm

memleketin mslimnlk desin, kiliselerin ykam yerine, mescidler ve medreseler yapam.

(Battalnme, 350)

Wars waged in the name of religion require revenge in the name of religion. The

desecration of a mosque or church is regarded a tragedy almost as severe as the conquest of a

country. The destruction of places of worship causes great hatred in both religions, and is

used as an instrument to provoke the people:

Andan grdiler kim Melik erisiyle kala stine kapuya gelp ok kfir helk tdiler.

Kfir ygrp kala kapusna geldiler. Grdiler kim gzler kapuy krmlar. Hemn ehre

koyuldlar. Gavars ters yzine kaup kalaya kd. ehire haber old kim Sematorgos Diyri

alnm. Kfirler bun iitdiler, cnlarndan nevmd oldlar. Andan eytdiler: Biz cnumuz

Mesh yolna kurbn delm dyp birbirlerine eytdiler. (Dnimendnme, 190)

Attacks against religious elements are considered attacks against other countries of the

same faith, so warriors from other countries come to aid their brethren in the holy war. This

instills hope in the hearts of the warriors, who then launch verbal attacks against the enemy to

lower morale:

Kffrdan Alkan girdi eydr: y demrden yrekl kavm, serverzi biz oda

yakduk. Siz basuz bir kavmsiz. Ne zehreyile ubu kadar leker birle bize karu geldz?

Yenildz gerek. U Kaysar geli yrr, lekerin yr gtrmez ytmi iki millet ittifk

tmilerdr ki sizi ara yrden gtreler. (Battalnme, 462)

These two groups create their divide over religious differences, and transition between

the two groups is possible by converting to the others religion. A person who decides to

convert to the enemys religion is not merely a citizen with a different religion he becomes

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the enemy himself. Former Christian, converted Muslim Afroumiyeh now fights for the

Ottomans:

Kfirler kuvvet tutup mslmnlar sdlar. Ol arada bir tag vard. Gzler ol tagdan

yaa vardlar. Efrumiyye, ol gzler cmlesi mecrh olmlard. Ol tagn penh dindiler.

(Dnimendnme, 74)

Rulers and subjects

The dividing factor between people of the same religion is whether they are subjects or

rulers. This makes it clear that the social status of the avenger is important when

contemplating revenge. Some act that is quite ordinary for a person at the bottom of the social

pyramid becomes a punishable crime as the person moves up the pyramid.

When revenge is due upon a person who belongs to the upper levels of society, not

anyone can go to take revenge. A person who belongs to a lower level of society must obtain

the assent of the relatives of the dead or wronged person. Because enacting revenge is a

matter of honor in society, such honor must be bestowed by permission. The higher the social

rank of the person to be avenged, the greater the honor:

Eger buyurursa ben kulu varayn Mezd Beg intikmn ol kfirden alayn. ddi.

(k Paazde, 401)

When taking revenge, people of lower rank are killed first, and higher-ranking people

are left to be killed later. Furthermore, lower-rank people die an easy death while agony and

suffering increase as victims climb the ranks of society. If the victim is a Kaiser, an emperor,

then he is not killed by a ploy; he is usually called out onto the battlefield for revenge:

Kaysar on iki bi kul birle drt yz ydek nice nice begler rikbnca meydana tazm

birle geldi Seyyid eyitdi: ok syleme, eger sen beni zebn derse ben sen dne

girem. Ve ger ben seni ykarsam bes benm dnme gire misin? Kaysar rz old.

(Battalnme, 477)

State and religion remained two distinct realms until the reign of Selim I, who claimed

the title of khalifa for the Ottomans.16 Prior to this, when the Sultan and the khalifa were two

different people, and they confronted each other for some reason, the situation could easily

become a deadlock.17 Under normal circumstances, wronging the leader of the state and the

16 Azmi zcan, Hilafet slam Ansiklopedisi, C. 17, 1998, pp. 546. 17 For the khalifas position on the social pyramid, cf. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Tevrh-i l-i Selukta Hediyeleme ve Hediye Szleri, Motif Akademi Dergisi- Muhal Bali Armaan, stanbul 2009.

182

country would be inexcusable; however, if the wrongdoer is the khalifa, action will not be so

swift. Even when the issue is associated with women and the pride and honor of the parties

are at stake, negotiations, condemnation and warnings are favored ways of resolving the

situation. In asking for Seyyids assistance in taking the girl that his son wants to marry,

Abdulvahhab pits Seyyid and the Khalifa against each other. In these cases, someone other

than the Khalifa is responsible for the problems that ensue. In other words, there are people

like Ukba who provoke the Khalifa, and they are the true culprits. Always ready to act,

Seyyid merely disarms the assailant in the attack perpetrated in the presence of the Khalifa,

and sets out to uncover the truth:

Ukb (Halfeye) eyitdi: Byle sormagla i olmaz. Buyur Abdulvahhabu elin

baglasunlar, boynn ursunlar ddi. Celld klc ekdi, iler yrdi. Seyyid dyemedi,18

srad, celldu elinden klc ald, eyitdi: ah anu gnhn sbit eyle, andan ldr

ddi. Ukb feryd eyledi, eyitdi H grdz mi? Halfe yzine klc ekdz. imdi sen

kanu helldr. Seyyid eyitdi: Ben kimseye kl ekmedm. Klc zlim elinden aldum. Sen

otur aaga ben isteyem, kzu ahvlin hikyetin bileyin ddi. (Battalnme, 489)

Men and women

From a gender perspective, being a man or a woman does not have a bearing on

seeking revenge, with the exception of the Sultan, who occupies the highest position on the

social pyramid. Devout women or women who have recently converted to Islam go to holy

war alongside men. As the daughter of an aristocratic Greek family, Afroumiyeh converts to

Islam and fights alongside Muslim men on the battlefield in the name of Islam:

Efrumiyye tgin eline alup hamle kld. yle ceng tdi kim vasfa gelmez. Ol gce ok

kfir krdlar Efrumiyye ve syir gzler gceye degin ceng tdiler. (Dnimendnme, 73-

74)

Although the two genders may be portrayed as equals in holy war, the female warrior

is almost always wed to a male warrior at one point, becoming a warrior that is the wife of a

known man. As in the example of Afroumiyeh, sometimes religion comes to their assistance:

The great warrior Seyyid Battal appears to Melik Danimend in his dream, and says that the

two converts, Artuhi and Afroumiyeh are suited to each other:

18 Yorgo Dedes reads dyemedi as duyamad.

183

Ol gce Melik Dnimend rahmetullhi aleyhi- dinde iki cihn gnei Muhammed

Mustafy grdi. Cmle ashab, Seyyid Battal ve Abdul-vahhb bu cmle begler bir yre

cem olmlar. Melik bunlara karu vard, hdmet kld Hazret-i Resl dah Meliki bagrna

basd, arkasn sgad, htrn sord. Melik eytdi: Nite old, bizi sora m geldiz? ddi.

Seyyid Battl cevb vrdi kim Biz bunda Artuhnu dgnine geldk. Gerek kim rte dgn

yaragn klasz. (Dnimendnme, 89)

Besides avenging women, there are women who become the targets of revenge. Some

men, when they realize they have lost, murder their own women and children to save them

from the hands of the avengers:

Bu tarafdan kfirler azgunlar melnlar, Trke olmasun dy ehr bir

tarafna gherile saup ehri oda urdlar yakdlar. Baz kfirler melnlar azgunlar, ogln

kzn masm uacuklar ve avratlarn kend eliyle kldan gerdiler. (Oru Be, 202)

Reasons for Vengeance

Reasons for revenge in chronicles are divided into two categories: social reasons and

personal reasons.

l. Social reasons

1. Observing a different religion or denomination Social revenge occurs when people observe different religions or denominations.

People who hold believing in different religions one with disbelieving seek vengeance as a

community even if no actual clash exists:

Drt yz seksen sekiz senesinde askeri mlhiddr dy beyyine ikme dp

depeleyince eceli anda mukadderdr. (Ner, 19)

Regarding the believers of different religions as disbelievers is as common among

Muslims as it is among Christians. As a result, a Christian considers Muslims enemies that

have to be captured or killed, even if they may have done nothing, and seeks to punish them.

In the best case, they are imprisoned:

Malatyyeye gelrken bir yrde yatdlar. Meger yaknda bir kfir ehri vard. Adna

Klimiya drlerdi, pdihna Kaytur bin Ssn drlerdi. Bir ka kfir stlerine ridiler,

Muhammed dy dutdlar. Kaytura getrdiler, zindna koydlar. Bir ay bunlar zindnda

yatdlar. (Battalnme, 411)

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It is also clear that different denominations give rise to a feeling of vengeance similar

to different religions. This feeling sometimes translates to action and motivates assaults

against the followers of other denominations. When opportunity presents itself,

neighborhoods are invaded and houses are set on fire:

Bu ehr halk arasnda ihtilf- mezhib vard. Ol sebebden birbirine kn ve hkd19

derlerdi. imdi ki fursat buldlar, her gce birbirin mahallesin basarlard ve evlerin20

kalancasn dah oda ururlard. (Yazczde, 42a)

2. Refusing the call When a feeling of vengeance arises between two enemies or neutral parties that follow

different religions, a proselytizing call is made to the adversary. If the other party refuses the

call, his murder becomes incumbent on the caller. As part of their faith, Muslims invite the

non-Muslims they meet to their religion. When Danimend captures the Byzantine soldier

who fought against him, he asks him to convert to Islam. When he does not, he kills the

captive:

Melik Dnimend kendyi gsterdi ve eytdi21 kim: Benem Melik Dnimend Artuh

eytdi: Benem Artuh dyince melnlar bildiler kim hl nice old. Hemn dndiler kim

kaalar. Melik ve Artuh ol iki kiiyi tutdlar, imn arz tdiler. mna gelmeyp Melik ol

arada ikisin katl etdiler. (Dnimendnme, 16)

Sometimes the captive is informed that converting is the only way to avoid death, and

that he will be killed if he does not accept:

Ol yz kiiyi dne davet tdiler. On kii mslmn old, kalan mselmn olmadlar.

Melik Dnimend buyurd, burn ve kulagn ve sakallarn tr tdiler. Ve dah bir nme

yazdlar kim: Evvel nm- Hud, andan bilesin ki, Melik Dnimend katndan ki saa Nastor

ve attatsz. mn getrp mslmn olasz, lz vilyetz ile lmden kurtlasz. Ve ill

ne sizi koram ve ne erizi koram. Cmlezi kldan gerem. yle kim asluzdan bir

diri kii komayam ddi. (Dnimendnme, 67)

3. Apostasy Although conversion to another religion is the guarantee of ones life, sometimes it

becomes just the opposite: Apostates, either of their free will or by force, become targets of

19 hkd: hukd M. 20 evlerin: erlerin M. 21 eytdi: tdi M.

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vengeance for others. Revenge enacted on them will set an example to others, and they will

know what awaits them if they convert, and will remain true to their faith regardless of the

circumstances. Former Christian Abdullah decides to help his brethren. However, when trying

to rescue his family, Abdullah is forced to inform his wife that he has converted to Islam, and

that soldiers will be coming. When his wife tells of Abdullahs conversion, Abdullah is

severely tortured. Observing different faiths may even destroy families:

Abdullh kim yei mslmndur, ehl-i ayalin tara karmaga kalaya varup Melik

ahvlin haber vrr. Gel sizi tara karaym, yed bunda helk olasz dr.

Abdullhun avrat bu haberi iidr, kfirlere haber vrr. Kfirler Abdullh tutarlar.

Melik ahvlin ve kendn ahvlin sorarlar. Abdullh dmez, inkr der. hir Abdullha

ikence dp Melik kala stine gelmesi haberin alurlar. (Dnimendnme, 56)

If the convert is the child of an emperor, the situation becomes critical. Although the

convert feels good about his or her choice, the rest view this as a great shame, and may

sometimes fall sick with sorrow:

Sngn leker kaysara ridi, haber vrdiler, ogl hikyetin bildrdiler. Tcn gtrdi,

yre urd, aglad, feryd tdi. Ydi gn tahta oturmad. H kimse yzin grmedi, lokma dah

ymedi. Begler vezrler drildiler, katna girdiler, eyitdiler: h22, aglamakla i bitmez

bua yarak gerek, eri dvirelm. (Battalnme, 366)

If the convert is an aristocratic woman, especially if she has joined the ranks of the

warriors, she will be ridiculed if not killed. When taking to the battlefield, Afroumiyeh cuts

her hair the one visible property of womanhood and is ridiculed as the shorn:

Andan Nastor ve attat buyurd kim celldlar Efrumiyye[yi] getrp ol meclisde

siyset meydn dzdiler. attat, Efrumiyyeye ok herzeler syledi. Derhl buyurd kim

ldr bu sa bgi ddi. Nastor komad, hals kld. (Dnimendnme, 99)

4. Claiming to be prophets As Islam is proclaimed as the last holy religion, anyone who claims to be a prophet

after the prophet of Islam has been considered a sinner, and punished for his sins in the mortal

world. As a prominent figure in history, Babak claims to be a prophet. He upholds the idea of

sharing women and property, and kidnaps many women and girls to this purpose. This

becomes a method he employs to make those who do not believe in him suffer. Despite this

22 h: ha M.

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cruelty, the real reason he is killed is his insistence in claiming to be a prophet and reluctance

to accept Islam:23

Bbek eydr: Y Battal, ben peygmberem. imdiki vakt benm vaktmdr.

Muhammed devri gedi, ol yn erkn ko. Gel, benmle mutbbaat t kim yarn kymet

gninde benden utanmayasn ddi. Seyyid kakd tz buyurd, bir engel getrdiler, agzna

bragup dilin kartd, dibinden kesdrdi. (Battalnme, 596)

5. Abuse of fellow believers People who share a faith are inclined to regard a wrongdoing against their fellow

believers as an act against themselves, and seek revenge. Cruelty, murder, war and all other

forms of abuse warrant punishment:

Andan Melik kalaya kasd tdi. Andan Mihayil buyurd, elli esr getrdiler, burc

banda pre pre kldlar. Andan agrdlar kim Dn yohsa Artuhy dah pre pre

devz. n Melik bu haberi iitdi, resz olup gr dndi. Andan Melik erisiyle kala

stine geldiler Ol mslmnlar ile burca yryp ol elli kfire kl koydlar Kanda kim

kfir buldlarsa krdlar. (Dnimendnme, 56-57)

6. Uprising Any and all acts that may be considered a challenge to the rulers will be punished.

When the challenge becomes collective, in other words, an uprising happens, forgiveness is

not very common. Such punishment is required for the rulers to maintain their position of

power. When Lifon, who had previously escaped with his life and retained his religion by

agreeing to pay tribute, continues the same behavior, he is not allowed a second chance:

Ve andan sora Lifon harca kesp gr salvrdiler. Bir nie mddetden sora gr

isyn zhir old. Sultn bu defa dutup helk tdi. Ve memleketin mslmnlara ledrdi.

(Yazczde, 74b)

Betrayal by a trusted person also requires punishment. Since this will be an example to

others, punishment usually becomes inordinate:

Ve n Hruzm-h Hruzma geldi, vezrine thmet tdi ki Miycug baa sen

terbiyet derd ddi. Buyurd ki vezri ldrdiler. Ve Miycug Hrozm in ber-dr

eylediler. Ve nie gn turd. Ve kgrtdlar ki nimet hakkn bilmeyen ve kfrn gsteren

23 Hakk Dursun Yldz, Bbek slam Ansiklopedisi, C. 4, 1991, pp. 376-377.

187

cezs budur ddiler. Ve kendsi dah Seluklaru nimetine kfrn klup hakk- nimeti

yerine getr[me]midi. Bu kendye dah ey fl olmad. (Yazczde, 74a-b)

7. Refusing surrender If the vanquished side of a war refuses to abandon their posts or the commander of a

castle or other fortification does not march out, a feeling of vengeance arises. Emissaries are

sent to enemies who are perceived as weaker before the war, or during the battle when it

becomes clear that the enemy will lose, to urge them to surrender. The consequences of

refusing to surrender may be greater than that of surrendering. People who refuse to surrender

the castle or the castle commander are warned, and if they do not heed the warning, killed:

(Kir-Aleksi) tutsak olan beglerinden birisini ihtiyr tdi. Sultn hkmiyile ayagn

bagdan hals tdiler. Ve Tekvur katna iletdiler. Tekvur aa dil haberin vrp ehr iindeki

ululara gnderip eyitdi ki ehri sultnu kullarna teslm tsnler. dy. Ve eyitdiler ki:

Eger Kir-Aleksi tutsak oldysa anu ulu rimi ogullar vardur ki her biri kiver-drlk

dbyla rste Cnt [ve] Tarabizonda tururlar. Anlardan birini pdih derz. Bu

memleketi Trke ve mslmna vrmezz. ddiler Sultn ol hlden kat gazaba gelp

kakd. Buyurd ki Kir-Aleksiyi agr bend-ile ehr katna ileteler. Ve azb- balg birle

ikence deler. Ve eydeler ki Y ehri vr y Kir-Aleksiyi helk derz. diyeler.

(Yazczde, 129a-b)

8. Great casualties in war If a side takes too many casualties in war, they are filled with vengeance and become

determined to punish the enemy. After a battle where they suffer heavy casualties, warriors

gather and count the bodies of their fallen brothers, complete the funeral prayer and bury

them, and feel a greater dedication to battle fueled by the vengeance in them:

Bir ceng tdiler kim vasf olnmazd. Kfirler arh okyla ve ta ile ok Mslmn ehd

kldlar. Gzler dah aagadan yukaru okla ok kfir helk tdiler Melik Dnimend

erisin yoklad. Sekiz yz mslman ehid olm. Buyurd hedy bir yre cem dp

namzlarn kldlar, defn tdiler. (Dnimendnme, 170)

9. Bribery Although a personal offense at first, bribery soon becomes a widespread issue as

individuals who are at a disadvantage due to bribery lose their faith in their state, and the

power of the government diminishes. Individuals begin to pressure the government to put an

end to this problem, and it is the ruler that is charged with bringing an end it. Deciding to

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punish the corrupt judges who are detrimental to his authority, Sultan Yldrm Bayezid orders

these judges to be locked into a house and burned alive:

nki Kara Rstem Karamandan geldi, hle ve bidat hdis ola balad. Ve kdlar

dah azup ilmleriyle amel tmeyp rvet almaga baladlar. nki su badan ad,

Byezd Hn, kdlar teft tdrp, her birinde bir drl fesd bulup, hkm dp ne kadar

kd varsa, bunlar cem dp Yi-ehirde cmlesin bir eve toldurup buyurd ki tolayna

odun ygup od ura, t ki bu zlim kadlar cmlesi yaalar. (Neri 337)

ll. Personal reasons

1. Jealousy Among the most prevalent personal reasons is envy. This has fatal consequences

especially if between people in high seats. In the chronicles, holders of power are in a state of

ceaseless competition. Being the minion of the person at the top may result in irredeemable

consequences such as causing the suspension or even execution of someone else. As a very

strong vizier, Nizamlmlk had considerable influence over the sultan. When he was envious

of the interest the sultan showed in his adversaries, he did not hesitate to send them to the

gallows to rule out competition. This conflict among minions was recorded in chronicles:

Alp Arslan tahta gedi. Vezrler Nizml-mlk24 ve Hasan bin Ali bin shkd

Ve Nizml-mlk ki evvelden kendn mlzmyd, vezreti aa vrdi Ve n-ki celld

Amdl-meliki ldrmege getrdi, Amdl-melik cellddan mhlet dileyp bdest ald. Ve

iki rekat namz kld. Ve cellda yalvard. Ve and vrdi ve eyitdi: n-ki pdihu

fermnn yrine getrrsin, senden dilegim budur-ki bir haberm vardur pdih hazretine

dyesin. Ve bir haberm dah vardur vezri Hca Nizml-mlke diyesin. Amm pdiha

dyesin ki25 Ne baht ve sadet ki baa siz kapuuzda ald. Ve ne devlete ve izzetlere ki

siz hizmetzde ytidm. yle-ki bunca zamn ammu Tugrul Beg baa dny ululgn

erzn kld. Cem memleketleri benm hkmmde kod. Bi-hamdillh ki imdi sen hiret

ululugun erzn klup ehd kldu ki sen sebeb-ile hr cinn myesser old. Allh siz

asluzdan ve neslizden honz olsun ki hondam, dnyy ve hireti sizile buldum

ddi. Ve vezri Nizml-mlke dyesin ki zit bidat26 ve yaramaz kide kodu. Bu lemde

senden din yogd ki vezr ldreler. Korkaram ki bu snnet gr sen ve ikbu zerine

24 Nizml-mlk: Nizml-melik M. 25 dyesin ki: dyesin ki eyitdi ki M. 26 zet bidat: zt ve bidat M.

189

dah cr ola27 ddi. Ve andan sora celld an ehd klup bu haberleri sultna ve vezre

ytidrdi. Bunlar dah hayl mteessir oldlar. (Yazczde, 26a-b)

2. Lack of protocol Contempt, self-praise, failing to kiss the floor and other disrespectful acts are looked

down upon from a social perspective. The higher the rank of the person who is the target of

these acts, the greater the punishment will be. When the person is a sultan or a vizier,

disrespect to his person is considered disrespect to the state. Similarly, disrespect to

ambassadors, who are the representatives of their states, is considered disrespect to the state

and its ruler, and is always punished:

hir liye tahff tdiler, hakret-ile sz sylediler. li dah geldi, hep mcery

pdiha haber vrdi. Pdih- Rm bu harekete mell old. Bir dah advete sebeb bu old.

(k Paazde, 490)

3. Murder of someone in the family The murder of someone in the family requires retaliation; otherwise, the victims

blood will dry on the ground, which will bring shame on the men of the family. Therefore,

the father or the brothers of the deceased do their best to avenge the deceaseds blood and

save the honor of their family. This grants the avenger prestige in the society:

Osmnu birderi Sar-yaty anda ehd tdiler. Ol yrde bir am agac vardur,

kandill am drler. Zr gh gh anda bir ule grnr. Saru-yat anu dibinde ehd old.

Ve ol Kalanoz kfir dah anda dp Osmn Gzi buyurd, karnn yarup ve yri bir mikdr

p it gibi gmdiler. Ol sebebden imdi ol yre t-ini drler. (Ner, 85)

The family unites and decides who will avenge the deceased in what way. In the

chronicles, avenging the blood is common to Christians and Muslims. The Christian Astr

fights Seyyid on the battlefield to avenge his forefathers:

Astr kakd, drt yz zerrn kemerl kul ve hc peyker alemi birle meydna girdi.

Seyyide berber geldi, eyitdi: y Battal- kattal, bugn ol gndr kim atamu dedem

senden intikmn alam ddi. (Battalnme, 535)

If the deceased is of a high rank, his blood must always be avenged. This feeling of

vengeance becomes inscribed in the minds of individuals, and gradually becomes a collective

motive:

27 cr ola: cr olmasayd M.

190

Kfirler dah silh giyinp atlarna svr oldlar. Nastor ve Sunbat ve attat andan

Hisarbad karda Kiarbad svr olup Nastor katna geldiler. Eytdiler kim: Dilerz kim bu

gn Hisarbad karda Karbad meydna girp karda kann ala ddiler.

(Dnimendnme, 109)

Types of Revenge

Vengeance is enacted in two different ways: direct and indirect.

Indirect

A number of indirect methods are used when avengers or their men cannot directly

enact vengeance.

1. Religious assistance Religious assistance is very common in indirect revenge. People call for help from

celestial and holy beings during war. When under attack by swordsmen, Muslims cite the

prayer of Khidr and call the name of the Prophet, asking for help from these holy men:

Derhl Hzr peygamber duasn okd ve kendye frdi, rdi Melik Dnimend Gz

st lan kafsndan rdi. Eyitdi kim Be-nm- Hud, be-nr- pk- Muhammed

Mustafa dyp Atu lane bir darb- tg yle urd kim lan ba evgndan kar gibi

krk adm yr gitdi. (Dnimendnme, 120)

Prayer and adoration before going to battle are very common practices of ensuring

victory:

Grdiler kim ok mslman ehd olm. Melik an grp ok aglad. Andan Hakka

tevecch dp, yardm ve inyet ve meded diledi. (Dnimendnme, 113-114)

Christians take oaths to wage war against Muslims, and fight in the name of Jesus

Christ:

stanbulda ne kadar ulu kii varsa Seyyide muhibb oldlar. Kaysar iler geldi eydr:

Y dn ulus Mesh biz kullaryuz. Bir oglan peyd old, hayl ulu kiimz depeledi.

Buncalarumuz dah atalar dedeleri dninden kard. Muhammed dnine koyd. mdi

himmet bile olsun. U yarak de dururam ki kam ol oglan ele getrem. Temmet slm

lekerin klcdan gerem. Ol kabelerin ykam oda uram. Bagddda ol halfelerin dutam.

Mesh yzi suyn yrine getrem ddi. (Battalnme, 393)

After the avengers say their prayers, they usually go to sleep and dream a premonition,

which tells them what they may anticipate, and how to protect themselves. This sometimes

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has implausible consequences: While an entire city is ravaged by disasters, people who had

secretly converted to Islam are inexplicably protected from such disasters. Their homes and

families come to no harm:

Ol gce Melik dinde grdi kim bir nrn koca geldi. Sakal ggsine inmi, eytdi:

Ben Abdl-vahhb Gzyem. Yarn erini bu yazdan gider. Yce taglara varu kim hakk

tal Sisiyye kavmine hm eyledi. Bu gn gerek kim anlar helk yleye. Melik uyand,

ahvli eriye dy vrdi. Gp yce taglara vardlar. yle kim ol yazda bir mslmn

kalmad. Yarndas gn yleye karb olnca gk yzini bulut ald, grlti old. Gceye dek

yldrmlar old. Gcen bir bah gemiidi kim Nh Tfn gibi yagmurlar yagd. Taglar

gibi siyller old. Tarnu emriyle Sisiyye kavmi habersz uyand Ol ehr iinde ne varsa

siyle gitdi. Ancak b yz ev kald. Anlar dah kfirlkdan dnp tevbe klmlard. Vel

kfirlerden korkup ikre demezlerdi. (Dnimendnme, 183)

2. Ploys

Muslim or Christian heroes who claim ploy is the better part of heroism frequently

resort to ploys. Chronicles depict ploys by Muslims as clever ruses. Muslims secretly

infiltrate Christian ranks in battle, and call out a Muslim name. Thinking that they have been

compromised by Muslim soldiers, Christians turn to kill their own men:

Kend birka kez leker sagndan girdi, nara urd kim Menem Ahmed-i Turrn,

menem Tevbil-i Rm, menem Abds-selm dy. Yine rak yrden teferrc derdi

tururd. Leker birbirin krdlar. Kan gevdeyi gtrdi, kteler pte pte old, ykld. Ol

gce ytmi bi kfir klcdan gedi. rte old ki gz gzi grdiler ki aralarnda hi bigne

yok. Kendler birbirin krmlar. Kim atasn ldrmi, kim ogln ldrmi. (Battalnme, 459)

New converts play important parts in ploys. New Muslims cheat their former people

with particular ease, knowing their language and religion natively. When they want to deceive

someone, they tell them in Greek how they regret having converted, and they are awaiting

forgiveness to return to the true faith. They promise to bring the severed heads of the enemy

in consideration:

Ahmed Serkis haymesinde oturd, bir nme yazd Rm diline kim Titi miti, bu nme

benden kim Serkisem. Sen katua kim Nastorsn. Bilgil ve agh olgl kim ben kldugum

ilere pimn oldum. Dilerem ki siz katuuza varam. Gzlerle b yz kii atlandlar

Ahmed Serkis Rm diline agrd: Kapuy au ki benem, Serkis. Melik ban kesdm

getrdm. Birka serverler benm kasdm kldlar. Baa meded kluz kim benden intikm

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alurlar ddi. Kfirler Nastora haber kldlar. Buyurd kapuy adlar. Gzler ehre

girdiler. (Dnimendnme, 173)

If an avenger was seeking a ploy, the first thing he would do would be to change attire.

At a time when the attire of people varied from region to region, even from city to city, ones

attire would give clues about their religion, ethnicity, and even occupation.28 Therefore, a

person who wanted to enact revenge by ploys had to overcome certain barriers to reach his

victim. He had to dress like the person he intended to harm. Sometimes the success of these

ploys is exaggerated to the point of implausibility. The avenging Muslim speaks the language

of his victim perfectly, dresses as a priest, and reads passages from the Bible to convince

others:

Seyyid kalaya yakn gelicek haber eylediler, krk ruhbnla Tugn karu geldiler.

Seyyid birle gridiler, sordlar: Kimsin, adu nedr? ddiler. Seyyit eyitdi: Borz-

Akanam, bu yolda ok riyzetler ekip dururam. Zahmet bisyr grp dururam ddi.

Tagn eyitdi: Sakn sen Battal olmayasn? ddi. Seyyid aglad Beni sen kime

bezedrsin? ddi. Agzn ad, hb vzla bir iki yt ncil okud. (Battalnme, 396)

Intoxication is another common aspect of ploys, sometimes accompanied by sexuality.

Particularly men with homosexual tendencies are wooed by young and handsome men, whom

they follow without questioning, and are trapped in an act of vengeance:

Mihriyyil Caferi ileri okd, arb vrdi. Cafer eydr: Ahdlyem ol vakt ki atam

katndan gitdm, sakalum gelmeyince arb imeyem ddm. Evet sklk deym ddi.

(Mihriyyil) iler yridi, kadeh eline alup idi, mest old. Ol lan Cafer yzine nazar

kld, bir hb suratlu grdi, meyl eyledi kim birka eftlukrlk de. Turd, tahtdan aaga

indi, Cafer elin ald, tenh bahe bucagna bir halvet yre vardlar Cafer drd yaa

bakd, hi kimse grmedi eydr: D imdi ata kann al dyp yumrugn dgdi Ol kfir

herzeye balad, grdi kim mna gelmez, ban gvdesinden cd kld. (Battalnme, 355)

Direct

Avengers enact vengeance either personally or through dependable associates.

Punishments may be categorized as collective and individual.

l. Collective punishments

1. Occupation 28 Halil nalck, Some Remarks on the Ottoman Turkeys Modernization Process, Transfer of Modern Science & Technology to the Muslim World, stanbul 1992, p. 50.

193

The most severe punishment directed to a non-Muslim society is conquest. The

avenger both gains new territories, and does good work from a religious perspective:

Bayezd Hn nki Selnik vilyetin bazn feth dp Frenkle advet gsterp

gelp Burusada klad. Bahar olcak azm lekerle Geliboldan gep Edirneye varup kasd

tdi ki ngrse vara, gaz de. (Neri 325)

2. Exile If vengeance is not too intense, an appropriate punishment is the forced migration of

the community. Former settlements are usually not left to abandon, and are occupied by the

relatives of the avenger:

Evrenez-ogl Al Beg ddi: Devletl sultanum, Bu hisr cengi hayli mkildr.

Sultnum bun yagma tmek gerek kim bu alna ddi. Sultn Murd Hn- Gz eydr: Bre

hisr yagmadur gzler ddi. Allhuekber, nkim yagma haberin gzler iidecek her

tarafdan nerdbnlar getrdiler, yrdiler, gz adurmadlar. Def tarfetl-ayn iinde

hisra koyuldlar, feth old. Ml- ganmete gark oldlar. Kfirlerini esr tdiler. Acyib

toyumluklar old. ehr evleri hl kald. htiyr olup kalana evlerini milklige vrdiler. Ve

Vardar Yicesin halkn srp anda getrdiler. Selnik iinde skin tdiler. (k

Paazde, 390-91)

The same method is used by Christians: the Governor cannot keep the Muslims under

rule, and decides to exile them from Constantinople. Then, he orders the destruction of the

temple:

Amm kfir mslmnlara hkm demezdi. Byezd Hna kim Temr vartas vki

olcak tekr ol mahalleyi srdi stanboldan ve ol mescidi ykd. (k Paazde, 340).

3. Pillage The namesake of a Turkic tribe (Yama), pillaging is considered the taking of what

is rightfully theirs from the enemy. Also known as toyum/doyum (fill) or ganimet

(spoils), pillage motivates soldiers to war. Soldiers are more enthusiastic to take part in

battles where the spoils will be plenty, and practice pillage at times and locations deemed

appropriate by the commander, or the sultan who is the commander-in-chief. Within the

boundaries of the territory available to pillage, any property above or below the ground may

be taken. It is common that communities bury some of their property before the war, or hide

them in secret wells. After the war, precious metals like silver and gold, and items of value

including silken fabrics, carpets and mattresses are pillaged:

194

Ve Merve ki agr Beg zamnndan ber pdihlaru drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve

defyin dolu idi.29 Ve begler ve ayn ehri gizlemidiler. Guzlar gn tamm yagmaladlar.

Evvelki gn altun ve gmi ve harri aldlar. kinci gn demr ve bakyye-i altun aldlar ve

nci gn dek ve kl aldlar. Ve nihl ve bk hurdavt ne varsa hatt kapularn dah

karup aldlar. Ve ehr halknu ekserin esr tdiler. Ve yagmadan sora bunlara ikenceler

derlerdi ki gizl kuyular ve zr- zemnlerde nesne varsa eyitdrrlerdi. Fil-cmle yr

yzinde ve yr altnda h nesne komadlar, aldlar. (Yazczde, 41b)

4. Demolition Especially in large and beautiful cities, the destruction of magnificent structures and

surrounding gardens is considered a severe punishment for the community:

Ve buyurd ki Konyanu bglarn zarar baltalar ve kahr dehrileri birle kat tdiler

Ve bglar iindeki, kkler30 ve kasrlarn cef klngiyile31 ve intikm kazmalar birle harb

tdiler. (Yazczde, 102a)

Sometimes the city is torn down after pillage to prevent the enemy from mustering

forces. The community first loses all property by way of pillage, and then is left homeless and

without sustenance. As most young men are already dead due to the preceding war, the enemy

has no means to gather strength and muster a force to counterattack:

Ve Miycug dutd. Ve ne-kadar lekeri ve tevbii varsa krd. Hrozm-hu

lekeri her defa ki Irka gelrlerdi, mblaga nimetlerle giderlerdi. Bu defa nesne

bulamadlar. Pes andan Kazvne vardlar. Anda melhiden kalalar vard. Ol kalalar

feth tdiler Ve hayl nimetler hsl tdiler. Ve Irk harb ve vrn koyup gitdiler. Ve

bundan tamalarn kat tdiler. (Yazczde, 74a)

5. Destruction of property One of the milder ways to enact revenge is to destroy the property or livestock that the

enemy owns or wants to possess. Food stores, clothing items and weapons are destroyed or

livestock are slaughtered or mutilated to rid the enemy of its strength. Sometimes, victims

destroy their own property to deny their use to the enemy:

Ve Miycuk gr gelp memlekete mstevl old. Evvelden dah beter32 old zulm

tmekde. Pes Irku ayn ittifk dp Hruzm-ha bir garr mektb yazdlar. Ve 29 agr Beg zamnndan ber pdihlaru drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve defyindolu idi: agr Beg zamnndan ber drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve defyindolu idi pdihlaru M. 30 kkleri: kleri M. 31 klngiyile: klngleri.

195

Miycugu hlin ilm tdiler. Ve eger bu zulmi def tmezse cemmz33 hasm sen

olursn ddiler. Hruzm-h dah gazab dp fil-hl Irka tevecch tdi. Miycuk iidp

Lter tarafna revne old. Hruzm-h ardndan srp -bir ulu rmak vard- anu

kenrnda yetidi. Miycuk grdi ki leker yetidi, ne-kadar tavar varsa, cemin siirlerin

kesdrdi. Ve lt u esbb ne varsa suya dkdrdi. (Yazczde, 74a/ 1-10)

ll. Individual punishments

1. Social punishment The mildest punishment that will be given to high-ranking officials that make a

mistake or ignore mistakes is dismissal. Sometimes, not receiving intelligence about a

planned act or failing to inform superiors despite receiving intelligence are reasons for

punishment:

Ve n Abbs, Abdur-rahmnu ldgin itdi, Halfe Mukted34 birle ittifk tdi ki

bayram gni n ki sultn namza gele. Anda sahrda an dutalar. ttifk ol gn be-gyet

yagmurlar old ki h kimse evinden kmaga mecli olmad. Ve Hak sbhnehu ve tal

sultndan ol erri def tdi. Ve bir ka gnden sora Abbsu bu ittifk duyuld. Sultn

bun saryna getrtdi, dutd. Anda ban kesdi. Ve Abbsla Abdur-rahmnu veftlar

arasnda bir ay gemedi ki Sultn, Tced-dn Vezri dah bu srdan haberi vard dy,

azl tdi. (Yazczde, 47b-48a)

High-ranking officials may share power with the Sultan, in other words, they rule the

country in the name of the Sultan. As they are rewarded when they function meritoriously,

they are punished for even the smallest mistake. At times, viziers and other high-ranking

officials may become too involved in their vicarious power, and disregard the sultan in whose

name they rule. They may start allocating conquered lands to their relatives, strengthening

their position in power. In this case, the sultan must make a display of true power even if the

person in question is the Nizamlmlk and make an example of the offender. People who

influence the sultan in making this decision usually ascend to the post of the dismissed

official:

32 beter: biter M. 33 cemmz: cemmz M. 34 Mukted: Muktef R.

196

Bir gn Nizml-mlke35 dem gnderdi. Eytdi: Ne drsin? Benmle pdihlkda

erk misin ki benm meveretmsiz ve iczetmsiz tasarruflar dersin. Ve vilyetler iktn

ledrrsin. Ve memleketler[i] oglanlarua36 vrrsin. Diler-misin ki dem gnderem,

dlbendi baudan alalar.Nizml-mlk eytdi: Sultna eyd ki ol vakt ki anu bana

tc kodlar, benm bauma dlbend kodlar. kisi birbirine bagludur ve ulaukdur. Ayrlmag

olmaz ddi. Nakl denler sultna dah ziyde katup ayruks sretile eytdiler.37 T ki sultn

gazab dp Nizml-mlki azl tdi ve vezreti Tcl-melike vrdi. (Yazczde, 30a)

2. Selling as slaves Although not as brutal in the Ottoman society as in other countries, the sale and

purchase of humans was an accepted practice; women in particular were sold and bought to be

put to housework. A slave who began working in the house would gradually become an

extended member of the household. Slavery continued in this fashion until abolition in 1846

by Sultan Abdlmecid.38

One of the greatest sources of slaves is postwar pillaging. At a time when the enemy is

beaten and is powerless to resist, soldiers pillage all valuable property at the order of the

commander, and capture any young women and children they may find to sell them to human

traffickers at a later date. People who need servants in households shop slave markets to

purchase a slave that meets their needs:

Hnkr buyurd kim, Lz lini uru, kalalarn yku, halkn esr d ddi. Ol

vakt yle toyumluklar old kim drt yanda oglan skbde yigirmi akaya satdlar. (k

Paazde, 399)

Sometimes, high-value individuals like governors may become captives; in this case,

they are sold for great amounts of money to someone of the captives race and community:

Bu tekvur eytdi. Beni stanbula satu. Orhna haber gnderdiler. Bu tekvur

satalm m, yoksa ldrelim mi? ddiler. Orhn satu, gzlere harlk olsun ddi. (Ner,

139)

3. Psychological punishment Another arguably more effective method of punishment is humiliation. Working to

disrupt the psychology of the enemy and ridiculing him in front of his relatives and 35 Nizml-mlk: Nizml-melik M. 36 oglanlarua: oglanlar ki M. 37 eytdiler: tdiler M. 38 lber Ortayl, Osmanl Toplumunda Aile, stanbul 2001, p. 129.

197

acquaintances leave indelible scars on the soul. However, this gives rise to another

vengeance: the ridiculed individual begins to look for ways to punish those who have

subjected him to such ridicule. This becomes a feud that only ends when one of the parties

dies. The humiliation of a man by a woman in particular is narrated by historians humorously:

Yolda gelrken agaclara ugradlar, ymilerinden ydi, Seyyidi tutd, akl gitdi,

atdan ykld. Kz an grdi, Hsrevi bendden kard. Hsrev diledi kim Seyyidi ldre, kz

komad eyitdi. Mabza yoldalarndan kimse rie ddi. Seyyidi agaca bagladlar, atn

tonn aldlar, revne oldlar. (Battalnme, 486)

A very effective method of humiliation is shaving. Considering that the beard is a

status symbol in Eastern societies, this is a severe punishment for an adult.39 After reaching a

certain age, men no longer shave their beards or mustaches. Shaven men are called names like

hairless and ridiculed:

Seyyid eyitdi: Tz imdi mslmn ol yohsa sen bilrsin ddi. Bu lan herzeye

balad. Seyyid berk dutd bir bir sakaln yold. (Battalnme, 450)

If a more severe punishment is due, cutting the beard will not suffice. The victims

nose and ears are also cut off, his face is tarred, and he is put on a donkey to be paraded in

town. Sometimes this is accompanied by verbal harassment:

Seyyid eyitdi: Bu meln baa vr, bri bir hakkum alaym ddi. Halfe eyitdi: Sen

bilrsin nice kim sen bilrsin t ddi. Seyyid dur geldi, kend eliyle burnn, kulagn kesdi

buyurd, soydlar, sakaln yldiler, yzine karar drtdiler, eege bindrp ehri gezdrdiler

c gn Ukbay ehirde gezdrdiler grenler yzine tkrleridi, be-lanet derlerdi.

(Battalnme, 495)

Animal treatment is very frequent when the victim is to be paraded in town, and he

may be collared and leashed to be led around the town like a dog:

Sultn Mustafa dah Karahisrdan anlaru zerine yridi ve ol siler-ile bulud.

Ey sultn cengler olund. Uzun Hasandan gelen beg kim Ysuf mirzdur ve hem ol Uzun