151221 edanz shinshu
TRANSCRIPT
Strategies to Efficiently and Critically Read Research Articles
Shinshu University
21 December 2015
Dr Trevor Lane Dr Julian Tang
S
Be an effective and critical reader
Your goal is not only to research and publish, but also to read and learn from your peers
Search the literature; develop reading strategies
Read efficiently; make notes and discuss
Understand whole research articles
Searching the literature Section 1
Searching the literature
Searching the literature Importance of reading
Read often!
Stay up-to-date, identify trends
Identify knowledge gaps, research ideas
Notice article/journal quality, writing styles
Critical thinking & peer review practice
Discuss with colleagues
Searching the literature Importance of reading
Read often!
Learn how native English speakers write
Learn effective argument structure
Learn manuscript structures & genres
Learn new words & concepts
Discuss with colleagues
Searching the literature What should I read?
What do you already know? Understanding
Basic Advanced
Understand a new topic
(Your Introduction)
• Find a method (Your Methods)
• Compare your results (Your Discussion)
Latest developments; answer specific questions; find target journals
What do you want to know?
Review articles Primary literature
Searching the literature What should I read?
Research Article
Short Communication Case Study Technical Note Review Article Editorial Letter to the Editor
Brief report about a specific finding
Most common; full-length paper
Brief report about a specific situation
Brief report about a new methodology
Summary of recent advances in a field
Brief discussion about an interesting topic
Brief discussion about a published article
Searching the literature Finding articles
Databases IEEE Xplore, ChemWeb, PubMed, Springer Link, Web of Science, Scopus, SciFinder
Journal websites Recently published,
most viewed, editorials
Review articles Primary articles discussed in
review articles
Tip: Search XXX and YYY, XXX or YYY, XXX not YYY, (XXX or AAA) and (YYY or BBB), (XXX or YYY) and AAA not BBB, “XXX”, “define:XXX”
Searching the literature Databases
Search term
Sorting Filters
Other info
Searching the literature
Link
Related papers
Citations
Abstract
Databases
Searching the literature
Latest table of contents
Search for articles
Alerts/email table of contents
Journal websites
Browse by issue
Searching the literature Current trends
Follow on social networks
Searching the literature Using reviews
Since the discovery of the Fujishima-Honda effect in 1972, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been used as a typical photoelectrode in water photoelectrolysis to convert solar energy for the production of H2.[1-3] Currently, anodized TiO2 nanotubular arrays are one of the most promising architectures, owing to their special features of facile fabrication, tunable structural parameters and high electron collection efficiency.[4-12] A critical drawback of TiO2 nanotubular arrays is their large band gap, which means that only the ultraviolet (UV) region of the solar spectrum can be utilized. Coupling TiO2 nanotubular arrays with a low-band-gap semiconductor of CdS nanoparticles to form heterogeneous nanotubular arrays of TiO2-CdS (TCHNTAs) has been adopted as a method to extend the photoelectrochemical activity from UV to visible light.[13-26]
Modified from: Liu et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 23 November 2015; DOI: 10.5772/61970
Basic background
Current problems
Related review articles REFERENCES [1] Fujishima A, Honda K (1972) Photolysis-decomposition of water at the surface of an irradiated semiconductor. Nature 238: 37-38. [2] Nakata K, Fujishima A (2012) TiO2 photocatalysis: design and applications. J Photochem Photobiol C 13:169-189. [3] Fujishima A, Zhang X, Tryk D A (2008) TiO2 Photocatalysis. Fundamentals and Applications. Surf Sci Rep 63: 515-582.
Searching the literature
Reference management software
EndNote Most established Styles easy to find on journal websites
Which one to use?
RefWorks Web-based Widely used
Mendeley Newer (and free!) Allows collaborations
Papers Easy-to-use interface (iTunes) Great for paper management
Searching the literature “Papers”
Search by keywords,
authors, journals, etc. Sort articles by authors, titles, journals, or year
Read full screen, Email, or print your articles
Organize your articles in folders and “smart folders”
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Section 2
Reading strategies
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
Read around the topic?
For your research?
Purposes for reading
Improve current knowledge?
Learn new words/concepts?
Interpret/formulate arguments?
Search specific info to write?
Tip: General/specific, slow/fast reading; look up words, find included definitions; Highlight, make notes, paraphrase/summarize with citations
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Consider literature type
1o literature Original research
2o Reviews &
review journals, databases
3o Accepted facts,
e.g., reference books, general textbooks
Originality/
proximity/
maturity
Academic Journals, preprint servers*, conf’ce proceedings and journal supplements*, conf’ce abstracts#, monographs, specialist books * +/- peer review; # not accepted as citations
Gray* Theses, conf’ce proceedings/abstracts#, working
papers, technical/government/NGO reports, society/company publications, patents, speeches, leaflets, posters, seminars/ webcasts/multimedia, emails/blogs/memos, data repositories
General or Lay Popular books, leaflets, general/ science magazines, newspapers, newsletters, wiki
Audience
Availability
Tip: Judge source, quality, and accuracy (inc. predatory journals)!
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
Identifying research trends
1. Read the primary literature
2. Identify trends: (systematic) reviews, meta-analyses, editorials, theme issues, Calls for papers, “most read”…organize journal clubs
3. Identify an important question, gap in knowledge/evidence, incomplete answer • Does your research group have the expertise/resources? • Is the question focused? • What is new? How is the study useful? • What is the best/most practical study design?
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies How to read an article
From start to finish?
Section by
section?
Not efficient!
What do you want to know?
Where can you find it?
Tip: Be familiar with types of text structure and styles/conventions for different article types
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Manuscript flow
Introduction
Discussion
Results
Methods
Why was the study needed?
How does the study advance the field?
What was done and found?
Tip: Check journal for section names; extra sections after Introduction; combined sections; Methods at end, in legends, or brief + online…
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
What are you looking for?
Where is it found?
What are signal words?
Finding specific material
Gaps, aims, methods, key findings, implications, opinions
Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion
Key findings: showed, found,
identified, stronger, higher
Conclusions: In conclusion, In
summary, Taken together, Overall, Therefore, suggest, have implications
Problem: however, but, nevertheless, despite, still unclear, lacking, unknown
Objectives: examined, aimed, investigated, studied, evaluated
Check journal links to Supplementary Information / Protocols / Repositories
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
The study design is not perfect, but you deserve the
funding. The grant will be awarded in two stages.
Stress position
Topic position
The stress position can introduce the topic of the next sentence
Information flow
Tip: Sentences often have old/given/familiar information before new information
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
One method of producing carbon fibre precursors, with the potential of commercial applicability, is electrospinning. It has previously been demonstrated that electrospinning can successfully produce precursor fibres that can be converted into high quality carbon fibres with controlled fibre diameters and morphologies. The majority of electrospun carbon fibre precursors reported in the literature are PAN-based. The high cost of PAN, depleting petroleum resources and the toxicity of its solvent, dimethylformamide, has motivated research to look into alternative electrospinnable materials to produce cheaper and more environmentally friendly carbon fibres. Because petroleum-based carbon resources exhibit negative environmental impacts and are of limited availability further motivates research towards green carbon fibres.
Recently, a wide range of renewable resource-based materials have been investigated for the fabrication of carbon materials. Among them, lignin has been looked at as a very promising candidate…
Schreiber et al. J Mater Sci. 2014; 49: 7949–7958.
Topic sentence
Stress sentence Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Paragraph structure
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Types of reading
Skimming
Scanning
Learning
General reading
Memorizing
Sample/understand segments
Search for specific info/words
Recognize logic/genre, link content to your knowledge,
reread, make inferences
General comprehension
Reread, understand, integrate information, reformulate, critique,
summarize, rehearse Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Scanning
To look for specific information or to see if a passage is relevant
• Know the structure o Find signal words for Problem, Aim, Results, Conclusion,
Limitations, Implications, Future
• Use finger to scan and look for a statistic, name, fact... o Find specific words in contents, index, references
• Scan large areas, several sentences at a time, no reading except if text is relevant; keep a specific term in mind to match importance/relevance o Anticipate surrounding words/graphics o Use after general skimming if needed
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies Skimming
To preread for gist, to review, and to speed read • Important words
o Table of contents; headings and subheadings of paper (find relationships)
o Figure/table titles and captions; sentences with callouts o Sentences with bold/italic words, proper nouns, lists,
bullets • (Graphical) abstracts, highlights, summaries, keywords; find
out who/when/what/why/where/how • Display items (“non-linear text”) • Read Aims, Conclusion • Read the whole first and last paragraph; read first and last
sentences of first and last paragraphs in each section
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
Questioning and understanding texts
Be an active, critical reader • Question before and during reading: what are you looking
for and why; what do you already know about the topic?
• What is the author trying to do? Is the argument effective/general/weak; any flaws/contradictions?
• What do you agree/disagree with? Why? Is it relevant to your work? Do you need to change your thinking of the topic?
• What are the implications, limitations, alternative explanations?
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
Understanding difficult texts
Simplify the text (esp. “inconsiderate” texts) • Split sentences that were joined with conjunctions
• Ask WH questions
• Underline unfamiliar words to look up
• Underline pronouns and find referents
• Underline head nouns; ignore pre- and post-modifiers
• Match subjects with verbs
• Find logical connectors (Therefore, However)
• Reread; discuss with colleagues
Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading strategies
Understanding difficult texts
Find logical connectors
Sequential
Causal
Adversative Although/Even though/Whereas (+clause),
Despite (+noun), However, In contrast,...
Because (of), To (+verb), Owing to, So that, Therefore, Thus, Hence, Consequently,…
Until, After, Before, While, Since, When, Then, Next, First/Second/Third,…
Conditional If, Even if, Unless, Whether or not, Provided
that, Otherwise,…
Activity 1
Please see Activity 1 in your Workbook
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Section 3
Reading efficiently
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Manuscript structure
How does their study contribute to your field?
What did they find?
What did they do?
Why did they do the study?
Title/Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Manuscript structure
Title/Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
& Discussion
Title/Abstract
Introduction
Methods
& Results
Discussion
Title/Abstract
Introduction
Methods
& Results
& Discussion
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently
Read the title and abstract first
First impression of a paper
Importance of the results
Validity of the conclusions
Relevance of the aims
Judge writing style & credibility of author
Title styles: Question, Findings, Objective Abstract styles: Structured, Unstructured
Tip: Check what the title promises and what the variables/system are; check
abstract to check if promises are kept
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently
Background
Aims
Methods
Results
Conclusions
What are the 5 parts of an abstract?
Reading abstracts
Why the study was done
Objectives/hypothesis
Approach/methodology
Most important findings
Implications for the field
“Structured” abstracts have subheadings such as the ones on the left; “Unstructured” abstracts are usually one paragraph, without subheadings
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Unstructured abstract
In the Tahe oilfield in China, heavy oil is commonly lifted using the light oil blending technology. However, due to the lack of light oil, the production of heavy oil has been seriously limited. Thus, a new compound technology of light oil blending and electric heating is discussed in this paper, which aims to reduce the usage of light oil and maintain heavy oil production. Based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation, a pressure and temperature coupling model is developed. The heat-transfer parameters are calculated by using Hasan–Kabir method and the pressure drop is calculated by using Hagedorn–Brown method. The model also considers the blend effect of light oil and heavy oil, and the heating effect of electric rod. Example calculation shows that only electric heating or light oil blending technology cannot meet the requirement. The amount of light oil used can be reduced by combining the electric heating technology.
Zhu et al. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol. 2014; DOI: 10.1007/s13202-014-0126-x.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Unstructured abstract
Conclusion The amount of light oil used can be reduced by combining the electric heating technology.
Methods/ results
Based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation, a pressure and temperature coupling model is developed. The heat-transfer parameters are calculated by using Hasan–Kabir method and the pressure drop is calculated by using Hagedorn–Brown method. The model also considers the blend effect of light oil and heavy oil, and the heating effect of electric rod. Example calculation shows that only electric heating or light oil blending technology cannot meet the requirement.
Aims Thus, a new compound technology of light oil blending and electric heating is discussed in this paper, which aims to reduce the usage of light oil and maintain heavy oil production.
Background In the Tahe oilfield in China, heavy oil is commonly lifted using the light oil blending technology. However, owing to the lack of light oil, the production of heavy oil has been seriously limited.
Modified from: Zhu et al. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol. 2014; DOI: 10.1007/s13202-014-0126-x.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Specialist abstract
Aims
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Why the study was done
Your objective/hypothesis
Techniques, models
Most important findings
Conclusion/implications
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Specialist abstract
A model has been developed to predict growth kinetics of the intermetallic phases (IMCs) formed in a reactive diffusion couple between two metals for the case where multiple IMC phases are observed. The model explicitly accounts for the effect of grain boundary diffusion through the IMC layer, and can thus be used to explore the effect of IMC grain size on the thickening of the reaction layer. The model has been applied to the industrially important case of aluminum to magnesium alloy diffusion couples in which several different IMC phases are possible. It is demonstrated that there is a transition from grain boundary-dominated diffusion to lattice-dominated diffusion at a critical grain size, which is different for each IMC phase.
Modified from: Wang et al. Metall Mater Trans A. 2015; 46: 4106–4114.
What they did
What they found
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Highlights & Key Points
Some journals provide brief summary points of the study along with the abstract
• The progress of graphene oxide application in hydrogen storage and photocatalytic water splitting is summarized.
• The progress of graphene oxide application in lithium batteries and supercapacitors is systematically discussed.
• We summarize the versatile application of graphene oxide in air and water purification.
Modified from: Li et al. Nano Energy. 2015;16:488–515.
Graphene oxide: A promising nanomaterial for energy and environmental applications
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently Highlights & Key Points
Some journals provide a graphical abstract along with the abstract
Carbon-layer protected cuprous oxide nanowire arrays for efficient water reduction
Zhang et al. ACS Nano. 2013;7:1709–1717.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Quickly assessing a paper 1
• Have you read similar papers? Is this a relevant paper? • Are you reading for a general or specific purpose? • Can you predict contents of sections (then check your
predictions)? • Are you familiar with the terminology and concepts? • Do you understand the relevance of the hypothesis and
findings?
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently
Title/Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Title/Abstract
Methods
Results
Discussion
Introduction
Abstract /Title
write
Title/Abstract
Intro: Aim
Figures/ Results {Methods}
Discussion: Conclusion
[Intro /
Methods IMRaD]
read
Reading versus writing
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Reading efficiently
Read Display Items and then Results
Read Discussion for interpretation
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Refer to Introduction and Methods if necessary
Quickly assessing a paper 2
Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives
Activity 2
Please see Activity 2 in your Workbook
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Section 4
Making notes and discussing work
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Commenting and highlighting
Use Acrobat Reader • Use comment balloons or sticky notes to annotate pdf
• Read and reread slowly; be aware of text structure/logic
• Comment on key points and examples, whether material is relevant to you, strengths/weaknesses, how the argument is developing, if you agree/disagree, your own questions
• Highlight key points in pdf; use a different color for facts, opinions, methods, results
• Highlight references that you want to look up later (review or primary research), or new words you want to look up
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Commenting and highlighting
Use Acrobat Reader
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Summarizing and paraphrasing
Make notes to help with learning/memorizing • Start with a citation, with page numbers for any quotes (use
“ ”); color-code own ideas
• Use headings, bullets, numbered lists; think of WH questions
• Use abbreviations and symbols (<, >, &, e.g., i.e., NB, para)
• Keep notes brief but accurate
• Summarize key points in your own words without looking
• Paraphrase key sentences; change sentence structure, use back-translation, or tell a colleague; elevator speech
• Add highlights and comments on your notes too
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Reading critically
Be critical of everything you read • Is there enough high-quality, accurate, and up-to-date
evidence?
• Are any methods, analyses, theories, assumptions, or implications flawed or inappropriate?
• Does it make sense in a real-world context?
• Are there exceptions, or alternative explanations or interpretations?
• Is the reasoning unambiguous, valid, logical, and believable?
• Is there any explicit/implicit bias or too much emotion, in reporting or opinions?
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Logical flow • Chronology • Least to most important / Most to least important • General to specific / Specific to general • Whole system + parts / Parts to whole • Whole group + subgroups
• Synthesis + characterization + application/optimization • Population + drug efficacy + safety • Single variables + pairs of associations + model of multiple
variables • Knowledge + Attitudes + Behaviors
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Rhetorical organization • Cause and effect • Comparison and contrast • Classification • Definition • Description (giving characteristics) • Narrative sequence of events (reporting a linear sequence) • Problem and solution • Procedures • Past, present, future • Arguing for and against (evaluation)
Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Linear relationships, sequence of events, procedures
A B C
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Cycle of events
A
B
C D
D
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Categories, hierarchies
A
C D E
B
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Characteristics, attributes, alternative pathways
A B
D
E
C F
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Interaction effects, cause-effect
A
B
• D
• E
C
• F
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Sets and subsets
D
C
B
A
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Central theme and ideas
A
B
C
D
E
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Drawing relationships
Informational structures
• Situation/Problem – Solution – Evaluation/Comment; logical sequence; flow chart
A
B
C
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Discussing work
Journal clubs • Regular informal meetings, in English • Rotate “leader” (know background/concepts/definitions) • Find one relevant article per meeting • Everyone reads it critically; leader leads discussion/critique
after concisely summarizing problem, aim, approach, main results, conclusion, implications
• Find positive and negative points • Future directions/reading; relevance for your research group • Analyze argument and text structure • Appraise language • Practice peer review
Coverage and Staffing Plan
Making notes Discussing work
Journal club questions • What are the goal of and motivation for the study? • Are the goal original, important, relevant, and timely? • Are the hypothesis and method appropriate and backed up
by timely literature? Are all variables clear and defined? • What are the assumptions and limitations (e.g., study period
and design, sample size and selection, treatments, measurements, analyses, biases)?
• Are the findings valid and reliable, and match the goal? Are all results discussed, including negative/unexpected ones?
• Are the conclusions logical? How generalizable are they? • How useful are the findings for practice or future research?
Activity 3
Please see Activity 3 in your Workbook
Understanding the Introduction
Section 5
Understanding the Introduction
Understanding the Introduction
Read Display Items and then Results
Read Discussion for interpretation
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary
Strategies for reading
Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives
Understanding the Introduction
Introduction
Current state of the field
Background information
Specific aim/approach Aim
Problem in the field
Previous studies
Current study
General
Specific Importance of area/theoretical framework for hypothesis
Worldwide relevance? Broad/specialized?
Up-to-date? International? Authors’ past work?
Preview of contents / findings? Extra sections: Concepts, Previous studies,
Literature review?
Understanding the Introduction
Background statements
Scaffold-based tissue engineering involves the combination of cells, bioactive factors and structural scaffolding materials to promote repair and regeneration of tissues.1-3
Field of research
Reviews can be cited early
Materials for scaffolds must have appropriate mechanical properties for a specific injury sites. The scaffold should support cell attachment and growth.
Aspects that will be focused on
General background
Specific background
Understanding the Introduction
However, the fabrication of these scaffolds was complex and very sensitive to the reaction conditions giving irreproducible results.
Pack et al. have achieved promising cell penetration results in poly(glycolic acid) scaffolds after surface modifications.6
Problem statements
Recent and relevant primary literature
Potential solution
There is still a problem
Previous work
Problems in previous work
Understanding the Introduction
Problem statements
Signal words However, …an alternative approach… …presents a new challenge …a need for clarification… …a problem/weakness with… …has not been dealt with… …remains unstudied …requires clarification …is not sufficiently (+ adjective) …is ineffective/inaccurate/inadequate/inconclusive/incorrect/unclear Few studies have… There is an urgent need to… There is growing concern that… Little evidence is available on… It is necessary to… Little work has been done on…
Understanding the Introduction
The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.
Evaluating objectives
Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon
Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.
Understanding the Introduction
The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.
Evaluating objectives
Background
Recent studies, knowledge gap,
importance
Aims & approach / Preview of results or contents
Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon
Objectives – show, aim, evaluated, studied, investigated, assessed Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.
Understanding the Introduction
The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.
Evaluating objectives
Background
Recent studies, knowledge gap,
importance
Aims & approach / Preview of results or contents
Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon
Do the Aims directly address the identified research problem?
Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.
Activity 4
Please see Activity 4 in your Workbook
Understanding the Methods
Section 6
Understanding the Methods
Understanding the Methods
Read Display Items and then Results
Read Discussion for interpretation
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary
Strategies for reading
Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives
Understanding the Methods
Study design
How the study was done
• Processes, treatments, measurements, follow-up
• Variables (direct/proxy) • Outcome/endpoints (1o, 2o)
• Quantification • (Bi-/Multi-variable) models • Statistical tests (& P level)
Who/what was studied
• Participants, controls • Enrollment, N & “power” • Materials, databases
Data analysis
Understanding the Methods
Study design
Established techniques
• Cites previously published studies • Look for modifications • See any flow charts/tables
• Look for purposes & justified choices • Enough detail for reproducibility • See Supplementary Information
Organization • Arranged in (titled) subsections • Parallel to the display items • Read topic sentences first
New techniques
Understanding the Methods
Study type
Systematic
reviews of RCTs
Randomized controlled
trials (RCTs)
Other controlled trials
Observational studies (cohort, case-control,
cross-sectional surveys/audits, diagnostics)
Computer models (in silico), animal models (in vivo),
in vitro, case studies
Case studies, anecdote, opinion, technical,
simulation
Hypothesis
testing
{ Descriptive
Methodological {
{
Secondary
research
Primary
research
{ } Experimental (exposure assigned)*
}
} Non-
experimental
*
Understanding the Methods
2.1 Continuous cobalt nanowires synthesis Cobalt concentration in the catalyst was equal to 8 wt%. The experimental setup and the catalyst preparation procedures had been reported in detail previously [11–13]... 2.2 Characterization The morphology of as-prepared cobalt nanorods was characterized by a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) equipped with a secondary electron (SE) and backscattered electron (BSE) detectors—Hitachi SU 8200 and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)—TEM-FEI Tecnai F20.
Primary objective: synthesis; Secondary objective: testing
Objectives/techniques
Cited methods
Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.
Understanding the Methods
Validity and reliability
• Validity = internal (sound design, accurate), external (representative, generalizable, real-world setting)
• Reliability = results are repeatable, precise • Are the methods appropriate and fully described,
including sample size/selection? • Are all variables defined and related to the study
problem? • Are measurement procedures clear? Are tests repeated? • Are the analysis method and any statistical
treatments/tests appropriate? • Are all assumptions logical? Is the work bias-free? • Are adjustments/corrections needed?
Understanding the Results
Section 7
Understanding the Results
Understanding the Results
Read Display Items and then Results
Read Discussion for interpretation
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary
Strategies for reading
Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives
Understanding the Results
Display items
• Flowcharts, figures, graphs, and tables display information efficiently
• Authors often use their display items to structure their papers
• Good way to quickly evaluate the whole study • Title usually shows independent and dependent
variables • Detailed methods and results summary may be found
in legends
Important to readers
Understanding the Results
Use of display items
Study design Flow chart
Information on samples/participants
Table
Characteristics Figures, graphs, or tables
Models Flow chart or tables
Understanding the Results
Figure legends
Field emission scanning electron microscope images of CoF carbon nanotubes produced at 400°C (a) and at 800°C (b), magnitude 100 000, secondary electron and backscattered electron detectors; arrows show cobalt nanowires, circles show metal particles
Display item
Methodology
Settings
Indicators
1
2
3
4 • Statistics • Abbreviations
Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.
Additional information
Understanding the Results
Reading tables for specific values
Identify the independent and
dependent variables
Independent: synthesis conditions
Dependent: what was measured
Dependent
Independent
Additional information
• Methodology • Statistics for associations/differences • Abbreviations
Lorusso et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 11 September 2015; DOI: 10.5772/61275
Understanding the Results
Bar graphs for comparing means, SD
Slight et al. J Clin Invest. 2013;doi:10.1172/JCI65728.
Figure 7 Adoptive transfer of B6 but not Cxcr5-/- CD4+ T cells rescues T cell localization and protection in Cxcr5-/-Mtb-infected mice... (B) The average size of B cell lymphoid follicles in FFPE lung sections on day 50 using the morphometric tool of the Zeiss Axioplan microscope… *** P = 0.0005.
Measured variable
Groups
Statistical significance
Only for normally distributed data
Understanding the Results
Line graphs for time trends, correlations
Measured variable
Time
Cui et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 2 July 2015; DOI: 10.5772/60910
Compare gradient
slope and direction
Understanding the Results
Box plots for comparing distributions
Box-whisker plots depict pretherapy and C1D15 plasma CCL17 or CCL22 concentrations. P values were determined using the Wilcoxon signed rank test.
Minimum
25%
Median
75%
Maximum
Fehniger et al. Blood. 2011; 118: 5119−5125.
Best for data that are not normally
distributed
Statistical significance
Understanding the Results
Results
Order of results (display items and text) is logical, tells a story of what was found
Each subsection often corresponds to one display item/method
1. Population 2. Drug efficacy 3. Drug safety
1. Synthesize 2. Characterize 3. Optimize
1. Single factors 2. Associations 3. Final model
Results – accomplishments: we found that, identified, showed, revealed, demonstrated, produced, established; data relationships: compared with, elevated/declined, higher/lower
than, increased/decreased, was associated with, statistically significant
Understanding the Results
Evaluating results
• Are the results transparent and complete? • Does the study look like salami publishing? • Are important characteristics given? • Are all units/scales correct? • Are changes absolute or relative? • Are the data precise; are data distributions
shown? Are the statistical analyses sound? • Do the data seem reasonable and applicable
to the real world?
Activity 5
Please see Activity 5 in your Workbook
Understanding the Discussion
Section 8
Understanding the Discussion
Understanding the Discussion
Read Display Items and then Results
Read Discussion for interpretation
Self-assess knowledge of topic
Read Title and Abstract first
Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary
Strategies for reading
Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives
Understanding the Discussion
Discussion structure
Summary of findings
Relevance
Conclusion
Similarities/differences Unexpected/negative results Limitations (validity, reliability)
Implications
Previous studies
Current study
Future studies
Specific
General
Discussion – conclusions: In summary; In conclusion; We conclude; Overall; Taken together, these results/findings show; implications: suggest, indicate, recommend, advise, is likely to,
may, might, could, further/more research is needed/warranted, merits further study
Understanding the Discussion
Combined Results–Discussion
Results Interpretation
Figure 1
Results Interpretation
Figure 2
Results Interpretation
Figure 3
Results Interpretation
Figure 4
Initial observation
Logical presentation
Characterization
Application
Understanding the Discussion
Combined Methods– Results–Discussion
Methods & Results Interpretation
Figure 1
Methods & Results Interpretation
Figure 2
Methods & Results Interpretation
Figure 3
Methods & Results Interpretation
Figure 4
Initial observation
Logical presentation
Characterization
Application
Understanding the Discussion
Reading the Discussion
Nitrogen pollution in household wastewater tends to lead to eutrophication in natural waters, which can diminish water quality and ecosystem services. However, the comparative cost and effectiveness of conventional and alternative wastewater treatment strategies to reduce nitrogen have not been clearly evaluated. In this study, we found that the most cost-effective alternatives for mitigating nitrogen are decentralized systems, paired with conventional septic systems as necessary. Sensitivity analysis shows that...
Re-introduction
Conclusion
Modified from: Wood et al. J Environ Manage. 2015; 150: 344–354.
Problem
Beginning usually states the major conclusion of the study
…Supporting findings
Understanding the Discussion
Modified from: Ketola & Hiltunen. Ecol Evol. 2014; 4: 3901–3908.
Compares findings with others; assesses strength of evidence; puts findings in context
The middle of the Discussion
Comparison with previous studies
Current finding
Potential reasons
Our observations suggest that fluctuating growth conditions did not select for generalism at the tested salinity levels. This finding is in contrast to several studies where evidence for an evolved generalism was found to be the consequence of fluctuating environments (Buckling et al. 2006, Ketola et al. 2013, 2014; Condon et al. 2014). One explanation for the lack of expected adaptation in fluctuating environments in the current study could be that our salinity fluctuations were too coarse-grained…
“Rebuttal” for disagreements or
exceptions
Possible objections, limitations
Understanding the Discussion
Reading the Conclusion
These results show that increasing temperature decreased the density, surface tension, and viscosity of all the tested alloys. By contrast, increasing the zinc content in these alloys decreased the density but increased the surface tension and viscosity. The surface tension results show good agreement with the Butler model, while the viscosity results are in agreement with the Kaptay and Kozlov–Romanov–Petrov models. These findings may be useful for designing new lead-free solder materials. Further understanding of the physiochemical properties of these alloys could also extend the possible applications of this system to additional electronic materials.
Claim
Validation
Modified from: Gancarz T. J Electonic Mater. 2014; 43: 4374–4385.
Implications
Future directions
Conclusion May be a separate section
May be a “Future work” section
Generalization, analogy, association,
extrapolation, causation, principle:
What is new?
Understanding the Discussion
Understand the overall article structure
General background
Aims
Methodology
Results and figures
Summary of findings
Conclusion/Implications
Relevance of findings
Problem in the field
Current state of the field Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Solution
Situation/Problem
Evaluation/Comment
Understanding the Discussion
Appraising conclusions
Problem-based learning is an instructional method in which problems are the focal part of learning.
However, it is unclear which particular aspect of the problem is essential for student learning.
In conclusion, this study is among the first to shed more light on the causal interactions of specific problem characteristics at the micro level.
Background
Question
Conclusion Discussion
Modified from: Sockalingam et al. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2011;16:481–490.
We tested a model in which we hypothesized that problem input variables would be related to problem process and outcome variables.
Objective
Is this logical? Is the Q answered? Is this supported? Is this useful and
important?
Understanding the Discussion
Appraising conclusions
Problem-based learning is an instructional method in which problems are the focal part of learning.
However, it is unclear which particular aspect of the problem is essential for student learning.
In conclusion, this study is among the first to shed more light on the causal interactions of specific problem characteristics at the micro level.
Background
Question
Conclusion Discussion
Modified from: Sockalingam et al. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2011;16:481–490.
We tested a model in which we hypothesized that problem input variables would be related to problem process and outcome variables.
Objective
…Future directions? Unaddressed
points? Improve on flaws/limitations?
Activity 6
Please see Activity 6 in your Workbook
S
Be an effective and critical reader
Your goal is not only to research and publish, but also to read and learn from your peers
Search the literature; develop reading strategies
Read efficiently; make notes and discuss
Understand whole research articles
Thank you!
Any questions?
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Trevor Lane: [email protected] Julian Tang: [email protected]