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1. Characteristics of States of Matter Solid Liquid Gas - Retains a fixed volume and shape - Not easily compressible - Does not flow easily - Assumes the shape of the part of the container which it occupies - Not easily compressible - Flows easily - Assumes the shape and volume of its container - Compressible - Flows easily

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2. Pressure-Temperature Relationship in Gases Combined Gas Law: According to the law, if volume remains constant, pressure will change in proportion to temperature. KiloPascal (kPa) - metric unit for pressure Kelvin (k) - Standard International unit of temperature 101kPa 0.100m 3 = 303kPa 0.100m 3 273k 819k

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3. Atomic Structure 1803 John Dalton proposed an "atomic theory"John Daltonatomic theory with spherical solid atoms based upon measurableatoms properties of mass. Solid Sphere Model 1898 JJ Thomson used a CRT to experimentallyJJ ThomsonCRT determine the charge to mass ratio of an electron. Plum Pudding Model / Electrons 1911 Rutherford Nucleus is dense, small, andRutherford positively charged. Electrons are located outside the nucleus. Planetary Model / Nucleus 1922 Niels Bohr Developed an explanation ofNiels Bohr atomic structure that underlies regularities of the periodic table of elements. Electron Shells

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4. Element, Compound, Mixture, & Alloy Element - A substance composed of atoms having an identical number of protons in each nucleus. Elements cannot be reduced to simpler substances by normal chemical means. Compound - A chemical bond consisting of atoms or ions of two or more different elements in definite proportions that cannot be separated by physical means. Mixture - A composition of two or more substances that are not chemically combined with each other and are capable of being separated. Alloy - A homogeneous mixture or solid solution of two or more metals, the atoms of one replacing or occupying interstitial positions between the atoms of the other.

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5. Balancing Chemical Equations Valence shells must balance out electrons: Iron - is +3 valent Oxygen - is -2 valent Therefore 4Fe + 3O 2 --> 2Fe 2 O 3 4(+3) 3(-4) 2(+6) 2(-6) +12 -12 +12 -12

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6. Chemical Bonding (Page 1 of 2) Ionic Bond:electrons are transferred forming positive & negative ions that attract Electron transfer of sodium to chlorine yields Ionic bond forming sodium chloride Covalent Bond:atoms share electrons Two types of covalent bonds: Nonpolar BondsPolar Bonds (electrons equally shared) (electrons unequally shared) H2H2 H2OH2O

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6. Chemical Bonding (Page 2 of 2) Fact: When comparing a polar and nonpolar molecule with similar molar mass, the polar one generally has a higher boiling point.

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7. Reaction Types A single-displacement reaction is where one element appears to move out of one compound and into another. A reaction of the type: A + BX --> AX + B A double-displacement reaction is where parts of two reacting structures swap places. A reaction of the type: AB + CD --> AD + CB A combination (synthesis) reaction is where two or more substances are bonded together to produce a single product. A reaction of the type: A + B --> AB Decomposition is the fragmentation of a chemical compound into elements or smaller compounds. A reaction of the type: AB --> A + B

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8. Hookes Law Hooke's Law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the amount by which a material body is deformed (the strain) is related to the force causing the deformation (the stress). For systems that obey Hooke's law, the extension produced is directly proportional to the load: F = -kx - x is the distance the spring is elongated by - F is the restoring force exerted by the spring - k is the spring constant or force constant of the spring

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9. Newtons Laws Third Law - For every action (force applied) there is an equal but opposite reaction (equal force applied in the opposite direction). First Law - An object will stay at rest or move at a constant velocity (constant speed in a straight line) unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. Second Law - The rate of change of the momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and the direction of the change in momentum takes place in the direction of the net force.

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10. Waveforms (Page 1 of 2) I II III IV I - Amplitude II, III - Wavelength or Period IV - Peak to Peak Crest Trough

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10. Waveforms (Page 2 of 2) Types of waves: Frequency is the measurement of the number of times a repeated event occurs per unit of time. To calculate the frequency of an event, the number of occurrences of the event within a fixed time interval are counted, and then divided by the length of the time interval. 1s The frequency of these waves = 3Hz

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11. Wave Effects (Page 1 of 2) This source of waves is moving to the left. The frequency is higher on the left, and lower on the right. The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a wave that is perceived by an observer moving relative to the source of the waves. Constructive Interference: Two waves in phase with troughs & peaks line up / add amplitudes Destructive Interference: Two waves out of phase with troughs & peaks / subtract amplitudes A = I A 1 -A 2 I A = A 1 +A 2

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11. Wave Effects (Page 2 of 2) Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and the spreading out of waves beyond openings.

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12. Static Electricity Like charges repel. Unlike charges attract.

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13. Current Electricity (Page 1 of 2) Series Circuits Current remains constant but voltage drops differently across components of the circuit that have resistance. Parallel Circuits Voltages across components are the same, but each component drops different amounts of current.

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13. Current Electricity (Page 2 of 2) In order for the second bulb to be inserted in series with the first, it must be placed in a position where it will drop voltage that is running throughout the entire circuit, not just across one of the parallel resistors.

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14. Converting Energy Rectifier changes AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current) Motor electrical energy --> mechanical energy Generator chemical energy --> mechanical energy --> electrical energy Transformer steps-up or steps-down electrical energy

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15. Circular Velocity / Acceleration The velocity vector v is always perpendicular to the position vector R. The circular motion of the velocity is shown in the circle on the right, along with its constant acceleration.

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16. Phase Changes Sublimation Solids subliming into gases must gain energy. Condensation Gases condensing into liquids or liquids condensing into solids must lose (release) energy. Melting Solids melting into liquids must gain energy. Evaporation Liquids evaporating into gases must gain energy. gain energy lose energy

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17. Thermal Energy Thermal Energy The average kinetic energy of molecules in a system