ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Secondary Teacher Education)(unit 1-4)

Course: Educational Leadership and Management (8605)

Level: B.Ed

Semester: Spring 2018

ASSIGNMENT 1

Q NO:1 Highlight the basic principle of educational administration. Give example in support of your given principle.(20)

Ans

ADMINISTRATION IN THE EDUCATIONAL

Educational administration refers to a range of professionals—from supervisors, program administrators, and principals to deans, department heads, and chief academic officers—as well as organizations formed to administer school functions. studies have focused on topics such as private-sector management of public schools and improving educational leadership to accelerate student achievement.

Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational institution.

The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill. In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students. He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.

He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration.

Nature of Educational Administration:The Educational Administration has the following nature:1. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different processes or aspects constitute administration. These are planning, organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation.

2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.

3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with material resources.

4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human relationship prevailed here can’t be maintained by any set of formulae.

5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general administration in many more ways.

6. Educational administration is a complex affair.

PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION TO IMPROVE THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

Educational administration is considered as a decisive factor when it comes to manage a school or any other educative institute. But educational administration is not an isolated process because many factors converge to make it function and flow. Through the years different approaches have been applied and the results have been the result of those approaches. As the history has proved, these results widely influence future generations and government systems too. Students learn many of their social and personal skills through educational experiences and people in charge of schools prepare and guide what type of experiences they handle.

Because of the highly competitive model of globalization that rules in the world today, students need to develop new skills such as communication, informatics and innovation, among others. As the technology is also evolving at high speed, it is also necessary to be continually updated with the new advances. All that, require qualified teachers, administrators and supervisors at the schools who can deal with changes and help the students properly.

Principals Are At The Top Of The Hierarchy Of Management At Schools

They are considered as the most competent administrators. Traditionally, that competence was mainly associated to administrative decisions regarding structure, staff and students. Activities regarding school improvement and student learning were not fully handled by them. However, this situation has changed. Because of the complexity of the situation, principals have been forced to take control of that part of administration too.

How To Manage Human Resources

The main challenge for principals and managing staff is learning how to manage human resources. Distinct to handle physical resources, humans have emotions, feelings and demands according to their nature. When the administrators acknowledge and understand their staff and the rest of people, it is easier to manage and distribute tasks.

Applying democratic principles in the administration of education has become a trend, because it is preparing students to real life situations and it allows community members to get really involved. This exchange of experiences allows students to get exposure to the reality and schools, in general, improve their quality.

In countries like Pakistan, there are some groups supporting the idea of installing democratic principles. One of them The Trust for Democratic Education and Accountability (TDEA), seeks to improve the education sector by applying those principles. This institute also supports other sectors by implementing democracy. These types of initiatives prove that democracy is expanding its influence in all areas of life. Therefore, it is very important that student begin to learn how to handle themselves in a democratic way. Schools prepare them to cope with the situations they will face at some points in their lives.

Q NO:2 Critically discuss the differential levels and basic elements of educational management.(20)

Educational Management?

Educational management is both a field of academic study and a collective group of professionals that includes principals, teachers and other education professionals. Learn about education, job outlook and salary information below. Schools offering College Administration & Leadership degrees can also be found in these popular choices.

Educational Management Defined

Educational management, also sometimes known as educational administration, is commonly associated with elementary and secondary schools as well as institutes of higher learning like colleges and universities. Educational management professionals can also be found working in governmental agencies, private companies, and not-for-profit organizations. Those working in educational management might act as policy-makers, researchers, or consultants to help evaluate and develop ways to enrich and enhance the educational system at all levels. Most educational management professionals have earned at least a master's degree and many are licensed teachers or principals.

Important Facts About These Occupations

School Principals Postsecondary Administrators

Median Salary (2014) $89,540 $88,390

Job Outlook (2014-2024) 6% growth 9% growth

Key Skills

Leadership, problem-solving, communication, and interpersonal skills

Interpersonal, organizational, and problem-solving skills

Similar Occupations

Career/Technical Education Teacher, School/Career Counselor, Special Education Teacher

Administrative Service Manager, Public Relations Specialist, Training/Development Manager

Source: United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

Required Education

Those interested in an educational management career will likely need to complete a master's or doctoral degree program. Some of these programs are intended specifically for public education teachers and administrators; however, completing a teacher education program is not a requirement for enrollment in some educational management programs. You can also find educational management programs that focus on preparation for careers in higher

education. Master's degree programs might require completion of a thesis project and internship. Doctoral programs generally require a dissertation based on original research.

Common Coursework

The core coursework in educational management degree programs varies slightly from program to program. Listed below are some common courses that you can expect to encounter in a graduate-level educational management program:

Education economics

Education legislation

Public policy and education

Management of educational organizations

Evaluation of educational systems

Licensure

Education managers who work in school administration, usually as principals, are required to be licensed in most states, if they work at public schools. Requirements vary, but they often include a master's degree and additional training. Sometimes continuing education is needed to maintain licensure. Private schools do not require licensure.

Job Skills

Leadership skills are a must in this field. Professionals working in education management must also have good decision-making and problem-solving skills. They should also be good communicators and be comfortable working with teachers, parents, and children, as well as other community members.

Management of Education:

It is at the school level, where the interaction between the Headteacher and the teachers with the children will have the biggest impact on the ability of the children to learn. To this end the systems of support, monitoring and evaluation will be highly developed and fully operational. This section outlines the role and responsibilities of each member of the school community in achieving the highest standard of learning and teaching.

The main elements of the system are a clearly identified Senior Leadership Team with defined responsibilities related to the support of staff and the monitoring of their performance, a Middle Management with an extended role to include regular monitoring of teacher performance and finally, the regular self-evaluation of teachers’ performance using a standard instrument and validated by senior staff.

The quality of learning and the use of the appropriate teaching methods and materials to achieve it, is the most important indicator of teacher performance. It is essential, therefore, that this is not taken for granted and the assumptions are not made about the quality based solely on experience and years of service. Regular and rigorous observation of lessons with feedback will be the main component of this monitoring process. Each teacher must therefore be accountable for his / her own performance and take suitable steps to ensure a professional, knowledgeable and skilful approach to their work. In addition, a thorough system of supervision linked to the appraisal process will be in place with appropriate records so that the judgments made may be validated by line managers, headteachers, education officers and the MERD Unit.

Each school will be responsible for evaluating its own performance and will seek to motivate staff and reward hard work as well as operating and carrying out a system of sanctions when staff do not fulfill the requirements of their contract.

Senior Leadership Team1. Every school will have a Senior Leadership Team (SLT) which will be appointed by the

Headteacher and approved by the Heads of Departments of Education.2. The size of the SLT will be according to the size of the school.3. The Headteacher will lead the SLT and the Deputy Headteacher will automatically be a

member.4. In Grade A and B schools, there will be a minimum of three members and a maximum of

5 according to the number of pupils on roll. In Grade D & E schools, there will be a minimum of two members and a maximum of 3.

5. The third member of the Team in Grade A and B schools will be chosen from the Middle Managers (SMs, HODs, Divisional Heads). The second member in Grade C school will selected from among SMs, HODs or Divisional Heads.

6. The second member in a Grade E school will be chosen from the remaining staff.7. The selection will be based on a combination of competence (proven professional

ability) and years of service. However, the former will be the deciding factor.8.Teacher Self Evaluation

1. All teachers will be expected to carry out a regular self evaluation of their work as a teacher and, if appropriate, a manager according to a standard instrument provided by the Ministry of Education.

2. The evaluation will be validated by the line manager and will form part of the Appraisal process and be used to identify areas for continuous professional development.

9.Records and Reporting Mechanisms1. All staff, including teachers and managers, will be expected to complete appropriate

records and reports according to the school, Department and Ministry of Education policies.

Appraisal System1. It is the right of every teacher to expect to be appraised by the Appraisal Team in

accordance with the Ministry of Education procedures.2. Appraisals will be used to identify staff development needs and assess competence.3. Systems of Rewards and Sanctions4. The school will seek to encourage and motivate staff at all levels to ensure the highest

quality of education possible.5. The school will operate systems of sanctions when staff does not fulfil the requirements

of their contract.

Training, Development and Support1. It is the right of every teacher to expect appropriate staff development through

identified training needs according to the availability of resources.2. Schools should operate a system of support for all staff at all levels.3. It is the right of the school to expect support from the Department and Ministry of

Education.

Q NO:3 Discuss various needs and types of supervision. Make a comparison between administration and supervision.(20)

In the modern educational system expansion of education relies on increasing number of educational institutions, teachers and students as well as providing all sort of facilities which are essential for proper progress of education. It will never be sufficient if we will not yield or achieve our returns or results to an adequate extent in qualitative perspective. From this description it is quite evident that quality assurance of education at any level is the prime concern of the modem educational practices. For this there is the need of quantitative expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education at all levels. This will be determined by the very concept, supervision.

“In the modern educational system, the term supervision has got a very significant position from the point of view of the role played by it. Due to the enhancement of its importance in the

present educational system its prime purpose has been changed now. Researchers and Educationists previously agreed upon the fact that supervision is primarily concerned for the purpose of improving instruction.

According to Adams and Dickey, “Supervision is a planned programme for the improvement.” It exists in their opinion for one reason only to improve teaching and learning. So it is mainly concerned with “development of teachers and pupils.”

The dictionary of education defines supervision as “all efforts of designed schools towards providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction ; involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational objectives, materials on instruction and methods of teaching and the evaluation of instruction.” Here the word “supervision” means to guide and stimulate the activities of teachers with a view to improve them, i.e., teaching as well as instruction and promoting professional growth.

Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement of teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors of all types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the professional staff or among the community participants.

Therefore they designate the supervisor as a leader who has possession of the following two qualities:1. A clear perspective of the school’s goals and awareness of its resources and qualities and another is,

2. The ability to help others, contribute to this vision and to perceive and to act in accordance with it.

So it is now clear that the modern concept of supervision centres round the basic concept of instructional improvement through leadership and co-operation of all the agencies concerned.

Keeping this in view Neagly and Evans have strongly viewed that, “Modem supervision in school is positive democratic action aimed at the improvement of classroom instruction through the continued growth of all concerned – the educed, the teacher, the supervisor, the administrator and the parents of others interested lay person.”

Supporting this Barr and Burton have rightly stated that, “No doubt the aim of supervision is the improvement of teaching but this can be facilitated through the development of the teacher, the growth of the pupil and the improvement of the teaching-learning process as a whole.

It has been clearly visualized that the supervision seeks to be democratic in nature out and out which demands constant efforts on the part of inspecting officers. They have to stimulate co-ordinate, guide for continued growth of the teacher in a school, both individually and collectively in better understanding and more effective performances of all teaching activities.

As a result of which teachers may be better able to stimulate and guide the continued growth of every pupil towards the most intelligent participation in modern democratic society. This new concept is based on the belief that inspection and supervision are a co-operative enterprise in which both the teacher and inspecting officers have to participate actively.

From this discussion the term inspection has got priority in supervision which was not stressed on in earlier days because the degree of success of any supervisory activity or programme depends upon the degree of inspection done by the inspecting officials. Because they are the real supervisors of the educational programme. As both supervision and inspection are meant for the same purpose and inspection covers almost all the areas of supervision there is no necessity of bringing difference between supervision and inspection.

Scope of Supervision:The scope of supervision is very wide which can be proved from the following aspects of education as the scope of supervision in education:1. The Instructional Work:The first and foremost task of the supervisor is how to improve the instruction.

For this, he supervises:a. Method of teaching employed for different subjects.

b. Audio-visual aids used.

c. The time table.

d. The distribution of work among teachers.

e. The written work of students and its correction.

f. Teachers lesson diaries and scheme of work.

2. Co-Curricular Activities:The supervisor supervises the organisation of various co- curricular activities keeping in view their need and importance.

These co-curricular activities are:a. Games and sports

b. Dramatics

c. School magazines

d. Library services

e. Educational tours

f. Field trips and

g. Picnics

3. Records and Registers:The supervisor has to supervise all the records and registers of an educational institution or school by examining the following type of records:a. Admission Register

b. Attendance Register

c. The cash book

d. The log book

e. The Stock Register and

f. The Receipt Book

4. The School Environment:The school environment has a profound role bringing over an improvement of educational process

For this the supervisor has to supervise the following aspects of the school environment:a. School Discipline

b. Relationship between the head of the institution and his staff, between staff and students

c. Emotional climate of the school

d. General behaviour of students

e. Cleanliness of the surroundings

f. Goodwill of the self-government formed by students

g. Plantation of trees

h. Morale of the classroom

i. Relationship among teachers

j. Hygienic conditions of the toilet, canteen and water supply

k. Relationship of the head of the institution or school with the community members

l. Beautification of the campus

5. Management:Supervision of management is also another aspect of the scope of supervision in education without which the overall improvement of teaching-learning process will never be successful.

The supervision of the management of the educational institution includes the following aspects with it:a. Co-operation of teachers and community members.

b. The ability of the headmaster to run the school or institution.

c. Co-operation, co-ordination and responsibility between teachers and headmaster in organizing any programme.

d. Duties and responsibilities rendered by the teachers as the members of different sub-committees for different programmes.

e. Problems with the managing committee.

f. Achievements and failures of the school.

6. Guidance to Teachers:The supervisor has not only to supervise but also guide the headmaster and teachers in their efforts for ensuring qualitative improvement of education.

For this supervision includes the following things in its jurisdiction:a. Innovations in teaching

b. Remedial instruction

c. Community mobilization and support

d. Conducting seminars, conferences, meetings and workshops to discuss about problems and their solution.

7. Developmental Activities:The supervisor supervises the developmental activities of the school in the following heads:a. Justification of developmental activities, proposals for extension of the school building.

b. Allotment receipt and the progress made. Difficulties faced and the steps taken by the headmaster to wipe out the difficulties, and

c. Construction of the new building and its progress.

References

1. Pure web-based information is not repeated here; all hyperlinks are valid as of 28 June 2014.

2. Andrews, M. 2013. The Limits of Institutional Reform in Development: Changing Rules for Realistic Solutions. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

3. Ansary, T. 2009. Destiny Disrupted: A History of the Islamic World through Islamic Eyes. New York: Public Affairs.

4. Aras, B. 2012. “Turkey and the Balkans: New Policy in a Changing Regional Envi-

ronment.” German Marshall Fund on Turkey Analysis, 31 October.

5. Barkey, K. 2008. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

6. Bauer, T. 2011. Die Kultur der Ambiguität: Eine andere Geschichte des Islam. Berlin: Verlag der Weltreligionen/Insel.

7. Bell, M. 2014. “Liberal Attitudes and Middle East Realities.” Transatlantic Academy Paper Series, June.

Q NO:4 Critically discuss the educational planning process in Pakistan. How can it be improved according to the current educational scenario In Pakistan.(20)

EDUCATION PLANNING

Educational planning strives to research, develop, implement and advance policies, programs and reforms within educational institutions. Educational planners might work at the local, national or international level to advance or improve education. While educational planning might center on pre-school and K-12 education, you could also work in postsecondary education as well. As an educational planner, you could work within educational institutions, government agencies, and private or not-for-profit organizations.

Educational planners typically hold graduate degrees. You might also consider becoming a licensed teacher or earning additional degrees in education. Administrators within schools or districts are commonly involved in educational planning.

As we all know, our formal education is an organized one. We must have trained teachers to teach. Buildings and many facilities have to be put up in order to have educational institutions function effectively. The people we teach in schools, teacher training colleges and universities have to meet the needs of the society. It is these people that later works as doctors, lawyers, teachers and agricultural officers.All the above ideas come down to one very important thing, i.e. that our educational system must be arranged at every stage in such a way that it meets the needs of both the individual and the nation.

This process of intelligently trying to organize education so as to respond to the needs of its recipients is what can be termed educational planning. In this unit we are going to study educational planning in details.

In order to understand what educational planning means, it is necessary to understand what is meant by planning and what a plan is. It is from this level that we will go into the explanation of educational planning.

A plan is a detailed scheme, programme or method worked out before hand for the purpose of achieving a set objective. There are three basic elements in a plan, viz: it deals with the future involves action and identifies who is to implement the future action. For example, the NTI carried out a research to find out if Nigerians will readily patronise its NCE by Distance Learning. On the basis of the findings which were positive, the Institute came up with a detailed scheme regarding how it is to admit students, how course materials will be written, who should serve as writers of the course materials, when to write the texts, how the study centres will be organized and administered, how the progress will be monitored and evaluated, etc. It is this detailed programme that is called a plan. On the other hand, the process of setting out in advance this plan is what is called planning. Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to be. For example, Kano State did not own a university before, but it got to a point at which the state felt that it needed its own university. It therefore set up a committee to work out all the details about establishing and running its own university.

PLANNING

Stage A leads to stage B. Stage A refers to the period when Kano State did not own a university and felt that it needed one, set up a committee to submit a detailed proposal on establishing one. Stage B, on the other hand, is when Kano State now owns a state university and it is running it to achieve its set objective. Between stage A and B, planning takes place.Since the planning we have discussed above is in relation to education, this type of planning is called educational planning.In line with our definition of planning earlier on, educational planning can be defined as the process of setting out in advance, strategies, policies, procedures, programmes and standards through which an educational objective (or set of objectives) can be achieved. For the explanation of educational planning to be concise, a number of basic elements must be present in that explanation. These are that:

a) Educational planning is a detailed and systematic process: it just does not happen by chance.

b) It sets out in advance. It is a forecast of what duties, assignments and tasks (operations) are to take pace in the future.

c) It must identify strategies, policies, procedures, programmes and standards: all these are necessary in order to chart the course of action that is required.

d) It is goal-oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational objectives.

e) planning must take into consideration knowledge of the system for which the plan is to be make, the part of that system on which the plan is to be made and the available resources in that system.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Educational planning has a number of characteristics. According to Adesina (1981) these characteristics are basically four. They are: primacy of planning, pervasiveness of planning, mission – oriented and future oriented.

a. Primacy of Planning Planning is the first step in management. It takes precedence over all the other managerial functions. Everybody plans even though not everybody plans well. As a teacher, you plan your lessons before you go to teach them. As at present, you plan the way you want your child’s birthday ceremony celebrated, etc. It is after this planning that you can organize it, identify those people who will help you to cook, bake the cake, and do other things. It is also after this that you will look for a photographer to take pictures.

b. Planning is pervasive:

By this, we mean that planning cuts across all levels of management and all the other managerial functions. Whether at the primary, secondary or university level of

education, planning is done. For example the managerial functions of organizing, staffing, etc involve some planning. The way the birthday ceremony mentioned above is to be organized has to be planned. Also, its implementation too needs to be planned or else you find out that some of the activities may either be forgotten or that those which are to come first are treated last and vice versa

c. Planning is Mission – Oriented .

Planning involves the mapping out or charting of activities in such a way that it helps to satisfy human wants. Thus, planning is goal-directed i.e planning is directed at achieving a specified goal or a set of goals.

d. Planning is Future-Oriented. Planning as said earlier on, is a process of deciding in advance what should be done in future, how it is to be done, who will do it, when and where to do it. This process takes into consideration past trends and present experiences in order to project into the future. Future, here, can be near or far. A plan can therefore be short-term, medium-term or long-term depending on its duration. A short-team, plan is that which is for a period not more than 3 years. It is a medium-term if the plan is for between 3 and 5 years. It will called long-term if the plan is for more than 5 years.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

Adesina (1981) identified three major steps in the educational planning process. It is important that we understand those steps. They are: statement of educational objectives, identification of various activities needed to achieve the stated educational objectives and evaluation of results.

a. Statement of educational objectives.

The educational objectives must be identified and clearly stated. This will ensure that there is no confusion about the objectives.

b. Identification of various activities.

The various activities which are needed to achieve the stated objectives must be clearly identified. Usually, those activities relate to the supply of the human and material resources that are required. This ranges from identifying such institutions (schools, examination bodies, etc) that would have to be established for the plan implementation and monitoring, to the number of cleaners required. They also relate to the identification of the number of staff required, their qualifications and experience and the amount of money required to maintain the system.

c. Evaluation of results:

Evaluation should be related to the stated objectives. The extent to which a plan meets the objectives it has established for itself can be determined by looking at the implementation in relation to those objective and outcome results

USES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Considering that educational planning is concerned with the problem of wisely distributing the limited resources r and the types of education (formal, non-formal etc), the process of educational planning comprises three main functions.

1. Identification of Objectives and strategies:

By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and the strategies, programmes, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more effective and efficient. Through educational planning we are able to clearly identify and define educational objectives, identify and also clearly

define various activities which are to be carried out to achieve the educational objectives

2. Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources.

By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our

wants (needs). Educational planning helps in seeing to it that the limited resources are properly or wisely allocated to provide the needed level and type of education to the citizens of the country. In order to help in wisely allocating the limited resources, alternative courses of action are compared and then the one that has great benefits for the citizens are allocated more resources.

3. Educational Planning aids decision making:

Educational Planning helps decision maker war all levels to reach a better and well-informed decision. This is because through educational planning, adequate date are collected on the particular level that we wish to plan for and on the basis of such information available. It is also easier to arrive at better decisions. Educational planning therefore helps to promote speedy and effective administration of the system since the administrators of the system are provided with necessary guidelines to work with. Furthermore, with educational planning, it becomes easy to evaluate the progress made in the educational system.

FUNDAMENTALS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND APPROACHES TO PLANNING

Planning in education, like anything else is the process of making decisions for future action. Educational planning is the application of rational, systematic analysis to the process of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its students and society (Coombs 1974:14).

Beeby (1969) opines that planning is an exercise in foresight in the determination of policy, priorities and costs of an educational system having due regards for economic and political realities for the system potential growth and for the needs of the country and of the students served by the system. Educational Planning emerged out of the need to connect education with national development. Educational planning increasingly caught public attention particularly in the 1950’s with the spectacular impact of soviet technological achievements since soviet Russia was the fast major power in recent times to recognize the place of educational planning. Between 1944 and 1970, Nigeria educational plan were extensively guided by, and largely dependent upon, the work of ad hoc commissions whose recommendations were endorsed at varying degrees for the purpose of educational planning.

Fundamentals of educational planning entails the following; the objectives of educational planning; the importance of educational planning, components of Educational planning, Educational planning process and approaches to Educational Planning.

The objectives of Educational Planning.

There are various dimensions to the general objectives of educational planning. These cut across political, legal, economic, social, cultural, demography, scientific and technological (Gbadamosi, 2005).

Political dimensions.

The political objective of the educational planning should relate to the promotion of justice, peace, law order and good governance. The opinion of the religious groups, teachers, organizations and traditional rulers should also be considered. No planning process is known to be incongruent with political considerations.

Economic Dimensions:

The economic consideration in educational planning should lay emphasis on the need for individual to live happily. Educational plan should include labour and employment aspects. Educational plan should tend towards preparing people for gainful employment, development of gifts of nature and production of goods to satisfy human wants. Scholars had held the view that there is a causal relationship between education and earnings.

Science and Technology Dimension

Education for technological advancement should be well planned, financed and implemented for the development of individuals in the technological society.

Q NO:5 Differentiate among the following concepts:.(20)

(a) Administration (b) Management (c) Supervision (d) Planning

(a)

ADMINISTRATION

1: performance of executive duties : MANAGEMENT

worked in theadministration of a hospital2: the act or process of administering something

the administrationof justice

the administration of medication3: the execution of public affairs as distinguished from policy-making

4a : a body of persons who administer

b often capitalized : a group constituting the political executive in a presidential government

a member of the Bush administrationc : a governmental agency or board

the U.S. Food and DrugAdministration5: the term of office of an administrative officer or body

during the first Clinton administration

Examples of ADMINISTRATION 1. She has a degree in business administration.2. The editorial criticizes the college's administration for not taking a stand on the issue.3. Her lecture compared the policies of this administration to the previous one.4. Administration officials refused to comment.

5. At first, the administration denied the allegations.6. The drug has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.7. oral administration of the drug

(b)

Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely used term. All organizations - business, political, cultural or social are involved in management because it is the management which helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose. According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”. According to F.W. Taylor, “Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way”.

Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group efforts towards the attainment of certain pre - determined goals. It is the process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the goals of the organization, by efficiently using limited resources in the changing world. Of course, these goals may vary from one enterprise to another. E.g.: For one enterprise it may be launching of new products by conducting market surveys and for other it may be profit maximization by minimizing cost.

Management involves creating an internal environment: - It is the management which puts into use the various factors of production. Therefore, it is the responsibility of management to create such conditions which are conducive to maximum efforts so that people are able to perform their task efficiently and effectively. It includes ensuring availability of raw materials, determination of wages and salaries, formulation of rules & regulations etc.

Therefore, we can say that good management includes both being effective and efficient. Being effective means doing the appropriate task i.e, fitting the square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. Being efficient means doing the task correctly, at least possible cost with minimum wastage of resources.

Management can be defined in detail in following categories :

1. Management as a Process2. Management as an Activity3. Management as a Discipline4. Management as a Group

5. Management as a Science6. Management as an Art7. Management as a Profession

(c)

What is supervision?

Supervision is a formal arrangement for counsellors to discuss their work regularly with someone who is experienced in counselling and supervision. The task is to work together to ensure and develop the efficacy of the counsellor/client relationship. The agenda will be the counselling work and feeling about that work, together with the supervisor’s reactions, comments and confrontations. Thus supervision is a process to maintain adequate standards of counselling and a method of consultancy to widen the horizons of an experienced practitioner.

In choosing a supervisor, counsellors need to assess their position on a scale from newly qualified to very experienced, to decide the main focus of the counselling work undertaken and to take into account their own training, philosophy and methods. The setting for counselling may be an important factor.

Agencies and institutions may have their own criteria for supervision and provide supervisors from within the organisation. Where outside supervision is more appropriate, considerable discussion and negotiation may be needed to arrange time away from work, financial support and assurance of confidentiality. Private practitioners must arrange their own supervision.

WHY SUPERVISION IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE PRACTISING COUNSELLOR

By its very nature, counselling makes considerable demands upon counsellors who may become over-involved, ignore some important point, become confused as to what is taking place within a particular client or have undermining doubts about their own usefulness. It is difficult, if not

sometimes impossible, to be objective about one’s counselling and opportunity to discuss it in confidence with a suitable person is invaluable.

Good counselling also requires the counsellor to relate practice to theory and vice versa. Supervision can help the counsellor to evolve practice and in this sense is one aspect of continued training.

The supervisor can ensure that the counsellor is addressing the needs of the client, can monitor the relationship between the counsellor and client to maximise the therapeutic effectiveness of the relationship and ensure that ethical standards are adhered to throughout the counselling process. Though not concerned primarily with training, personal therapy or line management, supervisors will encourage and facilitate the ongoing self-development, continued learning and self-monitoring of the counsellor.

(d)

What Is Planning?

Planning Provides a Vision for the Community Today — and What We Want Our Community to Be in the Future

The goal of planning is to maximize the health, safety, and economic well-being for all residents. This involves thinking about how we can move around our community, the businesses and attractions in our community, where we want to live, and opportunities for recreation. Most of all, planning helps create communities of lasting value.

While architects often focus on a single building, a planner's job is to work with residents and elected officials to guide the layout of an entire community or region. Planners take a broad viewpoint and look at how the pieces of a community — buildings, roads, and parks — fit together like pieces of a puzzle. Planners then make recommendations on how the community should proceed. One of the greatest challenges for planners is to imagine what can and should happen to a community: how it should grow and change, and what it should offer residents 10, 15, or even 20 years into the future.

Learn how planners are helping communities around the country today.

HOW YOU CAN PARTICIPATE

Planning is successful when it is inclusive and reflects the comprehensive values of the entire community. How can you get involved? Becoming a planner is one option.

Another option is to provide your input to help guide your community forward. Often planners will hold open houses or community sessions to gather resident input, ask questions and help prioritize community initiatives. Keep on eye on your planning department's website or even Facebook page for updates and notices.

If you'd like to take an even more active role, you can consider volunteering to serve on your community's planning commission.

PLANNING COMMISSION

The planning commission is often composed of residents, either elected or appointed, that review and make recommendations on land use policies, development proposals, and long-range plans. Professional planning experience is not required to serve as a planning commissioner.