Writing Techniques Editing and Proofreading Guide

J. Ritterson Washburn High School

English Department

How to use this guide

This 21 page guide is not meant for reading, light or deep. It is meant as a tool. Look through it, see what’s in it, and think how you could make use of it while editing your papers. As you use the various conventions shown here, you’ll get used to them little by little, and they will become part of your repertory of writing skills. You will find you need it less and less. But don’t get rid of it until a better thing comes to hand.

EDITING SENTENCES

2 . 2 3 VARYING SENTENCE OPENINGS, LENGTH, AND STRUCTURE Many of the examples in this handbook begin with a subject for the sake of simplicity. When you are writing,

however, you will find that always beginning with a subject makes for a dull style. You can make your writing more varied and interesting by beginning sentences with adjectives, adverbs, participles—just about any part of speech—as well as with phrases and clauses. You may have to reword your sentences slightly as you vary the sentence openings.

GIVEN SENTENCE The werewolves emerge at exactly midnight. EDITED SENTENCE At exactly midnight, the werewolves emerge. GIVEN SENTENCE The blind woman reached the summit, defying all odds. EDITED SENTENCE Defying all odds, the blind woman reached the summit. GIVEN SENTENCE She sat looking in the mirror for long hours and tried to discover the secret of her

ugliness. EDITED SENTENCE Long hours she sat looking in the mirror, trying to discover the secret of her ugliness.

Repeated sentences of the same length and structure soon become monotonous. Use a variety of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences in your writing. Notice that the first passage below, composed of simple sentences of similar length, soon becomes tedious. The second, an actual passage from Cervantes's Don Quixote, employs a variety of sentence structures and is far more interesting. PASSAGE WITH SIMPLE SENTENCES

He uttered those words. He clapped spurs to Rozinante. He did not heed the cries of his squire, Sancho. Sancho warned him. He was not going to attack giants but windmills. He was convinced that they were giants. He did not hear his squire's shouts. He did not notice what they were. He was very near them. Instead, he rushed on. . . . He commended himself most devoutly to his Lady Dulcinea. He begged her to help him in this peril. He covered himself with his buckler. He couched his lance. He charged at Rozinante's full gallop. He rammed the first mill in his way. He ran his lance into the sail. The wind twisted it violently. It shivered the spear to pieces. It dragged him and his horse after it. It rolled him over and over on the ground. He was sorely damaged.

PASSAGE WITH VARIED SENTENCE LENGTH AND STRUCTURE Uttering those words, he clapped spurs to Rozinante, without heeding the cries of his squire Sancho,

who warned him that he was not going to attack giants but windmills. But so convinced was he that they were giants that he neither heard his squire's shouts nor did he notice what they were though he was very near them. Instead, he rushed on. . . . Commending himself most devoutly to his Lady Dulcinea, whom he begged to help him in this peril, he covered himself with his buckler, couched his lance, charged at Rozinante's full gallop and rammed the first mill in his way. He ran his lance into the sail, but the wind twisted it with such violence that it shivered the spear to pieces, dragging him and his horse after it and rolling him over and over on the ground, sorely damaged.

—Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote de la Mancha

2 . 2 4 USING THE ACTIVE VOICE A verb is in the active voice when the subject of the verb performs the action. It is in the passive voice when the

subject of the verb receives the action.

ACTIVE Anna Akhmatova memorized her poem Requiem as she wrote it. PASSIVE The poem Requiem was memorized by Anna Akhmatova.

A common characteristic of poor writing is overuse of the passive voice. Keep your verbs in the active voice unless you have a good reason for using the passive voice. In the examples that follow, note how the active verbs make the writing more natural, interesting, and concise. WITH PASSIVE VERBS

The European discovery of America may have been made by the Vikings more than five hundred years before Columbus arrived. According to ancient Norse writings, America was reached by Leif the Lucky in AD 985. The Atlantic was crossed by the Vikings in wooden longboats. The sailors were guided on their journey by the sun, stars, and movements of sea birds.

WITH ACTIVE VERBS The Vikings may have made the European discovery of America more than five hundred years

before Columbus arrived. According to ancient Norse writings, Leif the Lucky reached America in AD 985. The Vikings crossed the Atlantic in wooden longboats. The sun, stars, and movements of sea birds guided the sailors on their journey.

2 . 2 5 ACHIEVING PARALLELISM A sentence has parallelism when it uses the same grammatical forms to express ideas of equal, or parallel,

importance. When you edit your sentences during revision, check to be sure that your parallelism is not faulty. FAULTY Lloyd is afraid of taking risks and to be in unfamiliar situations. PARALLEL Lloyd is afraid of taking risks and being in unfamiliar situations. FAULTY Having something worth saying and to communicate it well are both essential elements of

speech-making. PARALLEL To have something worth saying and to communicate it well are both essential elements of

speech-making. FAULTY The dishonest woodcutter claimed the golden ax is mine and that he had dropped it in the

water. PARALLEL The dishonest woodcutter claimed that the golden ax was his and that he had dropped it in

the water.

2 . 2 6 REDUCING WORDINESS When you edit your writing, check carefully for repeated or unnecessary ideas. Remove any words that do not

contribute to your meaning. REPETITION Marilda glided out on the stage and danced with utter abandon on the stage. CORRECTED SENTENCE Marilda glided out on the stage and danced with utter abandon. UNNECESSARY IDEA The setting sun, which was setting in the west, cast long shadows over the

somber assembly. CORRECTED SENTENCE The setting sun cast long shadows over the somber assembly.

When you write, use only as many words as you need to express your meaning. While editing, replace complicated or unclear words and phrases with ones that are simple and clear.

WORDY His idea that he thought up seems to me as I think about it to be absurd and preposterous. DIRECT His idea seems absurd to me. WORDY The jinnee implored and begged the fisherman to let him come back out of the bottle again

and promised and swore that he would give him fabulous riches if he would let him come back out again.

DIRECT The jinnee begged the fisherman to let him back out of the bottle and promised to give him fabulous riches.

Look for ways to reduce the length of your sentences by replacing a clause with a phrase that conveys the same meaning. In some cases, you can even replace a lengthy phrase with a single word.

WORDY Elie Wiesel, who was a concentration camp survivor, wrote Night, which is a book about the Holocaust.

DIRECT Elie Wiesel, a concentration camp survivor, wrote Night, a book about the Holocaust. WORDY The kind of quality of your character is more important than the amount of wealth you have. DIRECT Your character is more important than your wealth.

2 . 2 7 CORRECTING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS, RUN-ONS, AND SENTENCE STRINGS A sentence should express a complete thought and contain both a subject and a verb. A sentence fragment is a

phrase or clause that does not express a complete thought but has been punctuated as though it did. You can correct a sentence fragment by changing its punctuation or structure so that it expresses a complete thought.

FRAGMENTED Nora was terrified. That Torvald would read the letter from Krogstad. CORRECTED Nora was terrified that Torvald would read the letter from Krogstad.

In sentences in which the subject will be understood by the reader, the subject can be left unexpressed. Such sentences are not sentence fragments.

SENTENCE WITH IMPLIED, UNEXPRESSED SUBJECT [You] Take good care of my sweater. A run-on is formed of two or more sentences that have been run together as if they were one complete thought.

Edit a run-on by making it into two sentences, by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction, or by adding a semicolon.

RUN-ON Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher his most famous student was Plato who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.

TWO SENTENCES Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher. His most famous student was Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.

COORDINATED CLAUSES Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher, and his most famous student was Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.

CLAUSES WITH SEMICOLON Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher; his most famous student was Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.

Sentence strings are formed of several sentences strung together with conjunctions. Edit sentence strings by breaking them up into separate sentences and subordinate clauses. In the example that follows, the first passage is a sentence string; the second is a passage broken up into separate sentences and clauses.

STRINGY He was, however, used to this sort of thing, and he never expected anything to help him apart from his philosophic calm and his Uncle Agostino's will, and he was an excellent walker, and he thought far more about his shoes than about his feet, and if matters went as well as he expected, then everything would be mended in due course.

REVISED He was, however, used to this sort of thing; he never expected anything to help him apart from his philosophic calm and his Uncle Agostino's will. He was an excellent walker, and thought far more about his shoes than about his feet; if matters went as well as he expected, then everything would be mended indue course.

—Grazia Deledda, "The Shoes"

2 . 2 8 CORRECTING DANGLING OR MISPLACED MODIFIERS A dangling modifier is a modifying phrase or clause that seems to modify a word it is not intended to modify.

Sometimes this error occurs because the modifier is too far from the word it is supposed to modify. It is then called a misplaced modifier. You can edit dangling and misplaced modifiers by adding a word for the phrase or clause to modify or by rewording the sentence.

DANGLING Valerie drove to the airport while reading my book. WORDS ADDED Valerie drove to the airport while I was reading my book. MISPLACED Aleksei played a solo on the cello wearing a white tuxedo. REWORDED Wearing a white tuxedo, Aleksei played a solo on the cello.

2 . 2 9 INVERTING SENTENCES FOR EMPHASIS When editing your writing, look for opportunities to add emphasis and clarify your meaning. One way to add

emphasis is to invert a sentence—to change the usual order of its parts. REGULAR ORDER He seems weary and breathless from his ride. INVERTED ORDER Weary he seems, and breathless from his ride. REGULAR ORDER He is not an orator. INVERTED ORDER An orator he is not.

EDITING FOR ERRORS IN VERBS 2 . 3 0 CORRECTING SHIFTS IN VERB TENSE

When the verbs in a sentence or group of sentences shift from past to present or from pre-sent to past without reason, the reader may not be able to follow the intended meaning. Correct the shift by using consistent tenses for all verbs.

WITH TENSE SHIFT Henrik Ibsen was a nineteenth century Norwegian author who writes powerful plays on social and political themes.

CORRECTED Henrik Ibsen was a nineteenth century Norwegian author who wrote powerful plays on social and political themes.

2 . 3 1 CORRECTING ERRORS IN THE USE OF IRREGULAR VERBS Every verb has four principle parts: the base form, the present participle, the past, and the past participle. All the

other verb forms can be made from these parts. As you can see from the table below, the present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form (some-times dropping an e), and the past and past participle are formed by adding -d or -ed (or sometimes -t) to the base form.

B A S E P R E S E N T P A S T P A S T F O R M P A R T I C I P L E P A R T I C I P L E

enter [is] entering entered [has] entered

hope [is] hoping hoped [has] hoped learn [is] learning learned [has] learned Some verbs, however, form the past and past participle in some way other than by adding -d or -ed (or

sometimes -t) to the base form. These verbs are called irregular verbs. English has dozens of them. The table below shows just a few examples. If you are in doubt about whether a verb is irregular, look it up in the dictionary; if it is irregular, you will find its principle parts listed.

B A S E P R E S E N T P A S T P A S T F O R M P A R T I C I P L E P A R T I C I P L E

begin [is] beginning began [has] begun choose [is] choosing chose [has] chosen fling [is] flinging flung [has] flung hide [is] hiding hid [has] hidden speak [is] speaking spoke [has] spoken

When using irregular verbs in the so-called perfect tenses (with has or have), make sure you do not use the past form instead of the past participle.

NONSTANDARD PARTICIPLE Her majesty has spoke. STANDARD PARTICIPLE Her majesty has spoken.

Another error to watch for is using the past participle form without a helping verb or mistaking the past participle for the past.

NONSTANDARD You been caught in the act! STANDARD You have been caught in the act! NONSTANDARD The child drunk a glass of milk to neutralize the poison he had swallowed. STANDARD The child drank a glass of milk to neutralize the poison he had swallowed.

Finally, do not add -d or -ed or -t to the present or past form of an irregular verb. NONSTANDARD The escaped convict rided eighty miles in a boxcar. STANDARD The escaped convict rode eighty miles in a boxcar.

2 . 3 2 CORRECTING SPLIT INFINITIVES In English, the infinitive often takes the form of two words, to and the base. In their discussion of this form, the

first English grammarians—influenced by their knowledge of Latin, in which the infinitive is a single word—decreed that the infinitive should never be "split" in English. Under this rule, adverbs and other sentence components should

not stand between to and the base form. However, the normal sentence rhythms of English, and the demands of sense, often call for an infinitive to be split.

STRAINED WORD ORDER The paramedic told me to straighten out gently my friend's twisted leg. NATURAL WORD ORDER The paramedic told me to gently straighten out my friend's twisted leg. STRAINED WORD ORDER After the accident, Wynne resolved to urge strongly his grand-father to

surrender his driver's license. NATURAL WORD ORDER After the accident, Wynne resolved to strongly urge his grand-father to

surrender his driver's license. In using the infinitive, keep to and the base form together where possible, but do not hesitate to separate them

where the rhythm or sense of the sentence requires it. (Note that a phrase such as to be fully informed is not a split infinitive; it is an infinitive of the verb to be followed by a predicate nominative modified by an adverb.)

EXAMPLES: To safely detonate the explosives requires great expertise. You ought to at least try to talk some sense into her. I need to be fully informed about every development in this case.

Although the rule that infinitives should not be split was based on Latin rather than English, it has been widely accepted. You should be aware that some people may find fault with the use of a split infinitive, even in cases where such a use is required by sound and sense.

2 . 3 3 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VOICE AND MOOD Shifts in voice from active to passive can be as confusing as shifts in tense. Check your sentences to be sure

voice is consistent. Rewrite and change subjects as necessary. WITH VOICE SHIFT Samantha went out one night to watch the moonrise, and finally the ghost was

caught sight of by her. CORRECTED Samantha went out one night to watch the moonrise and finally caught sight of the

ghost. In addition to watching for voice shifts, check to be sure your verbs are in the appropriate mood. Mood is a

characteristic that shows the way in which a verb is used. Each verb has three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

Use a verb in the indicative mood to express a fact, an opinion, or a question. INDICATIVE MOOD The Greek historian Herodotus wrote the first narrative of Western history. It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all. Have you heard of the Peruvian band Inca Son?

Use the imperative mood to express a direct command or request. IMPERATIVE MOOD Give the devil his due. "Speak of love in your own words—Improvise! Rhapsodize! Be eloquent."

Use the subjunctive mood in the present to express a suggestion or a necessity. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD It is crucial that the figures be accurate. I recommend that he have the tests done as soon as possible.

Use the past subjunctive to express a wish or a condition that is not true (contrary to fact). PAST SUBJUNCTIVE If I were in your shoes, I'd feel the same way. We all wish he were here with us.

Notice that the singular of most verbs in the subjunctive looks like a plural of a verb in the indicative. INDICATIVE PLURAL The children were not aware that Ravi had been hiding so long. SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR If Harlan were honest with himself, he would see the futility of it.

2 . 3 4 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VERB AGREEMENT I A word that refers to one person or thing is said to be singular in number. A word that refers to more than one

person or thing is said to be plural in number. Most nouns that end in –s are plural, but most verbs that refer to the present and end in –s are singular.

SINGULAR NOUNS shadow, dolphin, product PLURAL NOUNS shadows, dolphins, products SINGULAR VERBS wobbles, happens, believes PLURAL VERBS wobble, happen, believe

Each verb in a sentence should be singular if its subject is singular and plural if its subject is plural. In other words, a verb must agree in number with its subject.

EXAMPLES The orchestra plays both classical and contemporary pieces. The lungs transfer oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide.

The pronouns 1 and y o u , though singular, almost always take forms that look plural. The only exceptions are the forms I am and l was.

EXAMPLES I tremble when I think of facing her. You expect too much of yourself.

A compound subject is formed of two or more nouns or pronouns that are joined by a conjunction and have the same verb. A compound subject joined by the conjunction and usually takes a plural verb.

EXAMPLE Mishmash, Mushrush, and Clapsaddle work in the electronics division. A compound subject takes a singular verb if the compound subject really names only one person or thing.

EXAMPLE My dear friend and mentor is Mrs. Walters. A compound subject formed of two singular subjects joined by the conjunctions or or nor takes a singular verb.

EXAMPLES Either Schroeder or Harrington is responsible for leaking the information. Neither Chinese food nor pizza sounds too appealing to me right now.

A compound subject formed of a singular subject and a plural subject, joined by the con-junctions or or nor, takes a verb that agrees in number with the subject nearer the verb.

EXAMPLES Neither Elise nor the twins have had chicken pox. Neither the twins nor Elise has had chicken pox.

These indefinite pronouns are singular and take a singular verb: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something.

EXAMPLES Neither of the players has a strong serve. Something is dreadfully wrong with Kyle.

These indefinite pronouns are plural and take a plural verb: both, few, many, and several. EXAMPLES When Premila and Santha went to the Anglo-Indian school, both were given English names. Few of the students understand Dr. Duchardt's discourses.

The following indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural: all, any, most, none, and some. EXAMPLES All of the furniture is old and dilapidated. All of the chairs are old and dilapidated. Most of the snow has melted. Most of the icicles have melted.

When you invert sentences for emphasis, make sure you maintain agreement in number between subject and verb.

EXAMPLES Seventy miles he commutes to work every day. One load of bread they were able to buy.

The contraction doesn't (from does not) is third-person singular and should be used only with a third-person singular subject. The contraction don't (from do not) should be used with all other subjects.

EXAMPLES Gunther doesn't speak any English. Obstacles don't deter Denise from her goal.

2 . 3 5 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VERB AGREEMENT II When a sentence begins with here, there, when, or where, often the subject follows the verb. In editing your

writing, use extra care to check that the subject and verb of such sentences agree in number. Remember that the contractions here's, there's, when's, and where's contain a singular verb (is) and should only be used with a singular subject.

EXAMPLES Here's the information you requested. There are nine Muses in classical mythology. When's the next train? Where are the screwdriver and the wrench?

Also check to be sure a verb in a sentence with a predicate nominative agrees in number with the subject and not with the predicate nominative. (See 2.17 for the definition of a predicate nominative.)

EXAMPLES Brussels sprouts are my favorite vegetable. My favorite vegetable is Brussels sprouts.

A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the group as a unit, and it takes a plural verb when it refers to the members of the group as individuals.

AS SINGULAR The entire faculty is dedicated and caring. AS PLURAL All faculty have earned at least a master's degree.

While editing your work, check for nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning. They should take singular verbs.

EXAMPLES measles, gymnastics, cryogenics, gallows The title of a creative work such as a book or song takes a singular verb, as does a group of words used as a

unit. EXAMPLES Ovid's Metamorphoses is a long poem with many accounts of miraculous transformations. Chicken and dumplings is our family's favorite chicken dish.

An expression stating an amount is singular and takes a singular verb when the amount is considered as one unit. It is plural and takes a piural verb when the amount is considered as something with many parts.

AS SINGULAR Ten days seems like forever to wait for the test results. AS PLURAL Ten days have elapsed since our dog disappeared.

A fraction or a percentage is singular when it refers to a singular word and plural when it refers to a plural word. AS SINGULAR Over half the population in that country suffers from malnutrition. AS PLURAL Over half the people in that country suffer from malnutrition. AS SINGULAR Twenty percent of their budget Is spent on overhead. AS PLURAL Twenty percent of their funds are spent on overhead.

Expressions of measurement, such as area, length, volume, and weight, are usually singular. EXAMPLES Four units is a dangerous amount of blood to lose. Ninety pounds is too much for a child of his height to weigh.

EDITING FOR ERRORS IN PRONOUN USAGE 2 . 3 6 PRONOUN CASE

Case is the form that a noun or a pronoun takes to indicate its use in a sentence. English nouns and pronouns have three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. The nominative case is used for the subject of a verb or for a predicate nominative. The objective case is used for a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition. The possessive case is used to show possession. The form of the nominative and objective cases of nouns is the same, and most nouns form possessives by adding an apostrophe and an s to the singular and an apostrophe only to the plural. But many pronouns have different forms to show nominative, objective, and possessive cases.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

SINGULAR Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case (for subjects or predicate

nominatives) (for direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions)

(to show possession)

I You He, she, it

Me You Him, her. it

My, mine Your, yours His, her, hers its

PLURAL We

You they

Us You them

Our, ours Your, yours Their, theirs

To determine which form of the pronoun to use when writing a sentence, first decide whether the pronoun is used as a subject, predicate nominative, as some kind of object, or as a possessive. Doing so will tell you in what case the pronoun should be.

SUBJECT She felt an overpowering chill upon hearing the news. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE It was he who drove his spear into Hector's neck. DIRECT OBJECT William the Conqueror defeated them in the Battle of Hastings. INDIRECT OBJECT The salesperson offered us a free cutting board with the knife set. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Great-uncle Wilfred bequeathed his coin collection to you and me.

Remember that in standard English, prepositions always take an object in the objective case. The phrase between you and I, for example, is nonstandard English.

Use the possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs just as you use the pronouns in the nominative and objective cases.

AS SUBJECT My paintings and his are hanging in the gallery. AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The Mitsubishi is hers. DIRECT OBJECT After Dale received his award, I went up to get mine. INDIRECT OBJECT Mr. Garrison gave our project an A and theirs a B. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION This package is for our family and the other one is for yours.

Use the possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and their as adjectives before nouns. EXAMPLES When Alfonso was confronted, his first response was to deny everything. "It is not only the inscriptions on their graves that mark them out; ... in people's hearts, their memory

abides and grows." As you edit your writing, check the case of nouns and pronouns before a gerund. They should always be in the

possessive case. WITH GERUND Their singing sounds more like screeching to me.

Do not confuse the gerund and the present participle (see 2.9). Compare the example above with the following example, in which no possessive is required before the participle:

WITH PARTICIPLE We heard them singing as they scrubbed the floor.

2.37 WHO AND WHOM The pronoun who is referred to as an interrogative pronoun when it is used to form a question. When it is used

to introduce a subordinate clause, it is referred to as a relative pronoun. In both cases, the nominative is who , the objective is whom, and the possessive is whose. As you edit your writing, check these pronouns to see if the form of the pronoun you have used is appropriate for its use in the sentence or subordinate clause in which it appears.

SUBJECT Who cut Samson's hair? SUBJECT The intrepid inventor who built the poetry machine was Trurl. DIRECT OBJECT Whom did Brutus assassinate? DIRECT OBJECT The woman whom you saw was Mrs. King. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION From whom did he steal the shoes?

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION I don't remember to whom I lent the lawnmower. In spoken English, whom is gradually being replaced by who. In some formal speech, how-ever, and in all

writing of standard English except dialogue, the form whom should still be used where grammatically correct.

2 . 3 8 PRONOUNS IN APPOSITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS When a pronoun is used with an appositive, its form matches its use in the sentence. (See 2.20 for the definition

of an appositive.) SUBJECT We, the undersigned, endorse the candidacy of Walter Wright. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The culprit is I, Harriet Dunbar. DIRECT OBJECT The Rams defeated us Lancers in the championship. INDIRECT OBJECT You can tell me, your trusted confidante, the secret. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION The beast was killed by him, the hero Sunjata.

When a pronoun is itself used as an appositive, it should be in the same case as the word to which it refers. PRONOUN IN APPOSITION TO SUBJECT Two of the least athletic girls in history, Emma and I,

actually enjoyed the hike. PRONOUN IN APPOSITION TO THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION Awards were presented to the

leading vocalists, Victoria and him.

2 . 3 9 PRONOUNS IN COMPARISON The ends of sentences that compare people or things are often left unexpressed. Pronouns in such sentences

should be in the same case as they would have been if the sentence had been completed. EXAMPLES Dickens is more widely read than they [are]. The prospect of going down into that cave was more daunting to me than [it was] to him.

2 . 4 0 PRONOUN REFERENCE AND AGREEMENT Check the pronouns in your writing to be sure they agree in number, person, and gender with their antecedents.

(For a discussion of number, see 2.34.) Person is the form a word takes to indicate the person speaking (the first person, corresponding to l or we), the person spoken to (the second person, corresponding to you), or the person spoken of or about (the third person, corresponding to he, she, it, or they). Gender is the form a word takes to indicate whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter(neither masculine nor feminine).

INCORRECT NUMBER Confucius believed that a man should be trustworthy in words and that they should make close friends only with those of benevolence.

CORRECT NUMBER Confucius believed that a man should be trustworthy in words and that he should make close friends only with those of benevolence.

INCORRECT GENDER The bridegroom approached the altar with trepidation but carried herself with poise and confidence.

CORRECT GENDER The bridegroom approached the altar with trepidation but carried himself with poise and confidence.

As you edit, check each pronoun to be sure that it refers clearly to its antecedent. CLEAR REFERENCE Gilgamesh went on a quest for everlasting life because he was afraid of death. CLEAR REFERENCES Zenchi was ashamed of his huge nose; he tried a variety of measures to

shorten A. Weak reference occurs when a pronoun refers to an antecedent that has not been expressed. If you find a weak

reference while editing your writing, either change the pronoun into a noun or give the pronoun a clear antecedent. WEAK REFERENCE Making sausages was a real ritual in which they all had to participate. PRONOUN CHANGED TO NOUN PHRASE Making sausages was a real ritual in which all the women

in the family had to participate. WEAK REFERENCE Richard ironed all the clothing and then proceeded to put on one of them. PRONOUN GIVEN CLEAR ANTECEDENT Richard ironed all the shirts and then proceeded to put on

one of them. Ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun can refer to either of two antecedents. Clarify ambiguous

references by rewording the sentence or by replacing the pronouns with a noun. AMBIGUOUS When the explorer finally found the long-lost missionary, he allegedly said, "Doctor

Livingstone, I presume."

CLEAR When the explorer finally found the long-lost missionary, the explorer allegedly said, "Doctor Livingstone, I presume."

An indefinite reference occurs when the pronouns you, it, or they have no reference to a specific person or thing. Edit out an indefinite reference by rewording the sentence to explain to whom or what the pronoun refers, or by eliminating the pronoun altogether.

INDEFINITE REFERENCE The fallen king was mortified to learn that it had been done by a woman. PRONOUN ELIMINATED The fallen king was mortified to learn that he had been felled by a woman. INDEFINITE REFERENCE In the manual it explained how to change the oil. PRONOUN ELIMINATED The manual explained how to change the oil. INDEFINITE REFERENCE They say that laughter helps heal the human body. PRONOUN REPLACED

Researchers say that laughter helps heal the human body. A general reference occurs when a pronoun refers to a general idea implied in the previous clause, rather than

to a specific antecedent. Edit general references by replacing the pro-noun with a noun or by rewording the sentence. GENERAL REFERENCE Project Mercury was a United States space program designed to put a man in

orbit around the earth, which ran from 1961 to 1963. SENTENCE REWORDED Project Mercury, which ran from 1961 to 1963, was a United States space

program designed to put a man in orbit around the earth. GENERAL REFERENCE For forty days and nights, rain fell on the land and many people drowned.

This caused severe flooding. PRONOUN REPLACED AND SENTENCES REWORDED For forty days and nights, rain fell on the

land, causing severe flooding. Many people drowned.

EDIT ING FOR ERRORS I N MODIFIER USAGE 2.41 ERRORS IN MODIFIER USAGE

When you wish to modify the subject of a linking verb, use an adjective. When you wish to modify an action verb, use an adverb.

LINKING VERB AND ADJECTIVES My great-grandmother's hair was luminous and pink in the light of the setting sun.

ACTION VERB AND ADVERB The stars flickered weakly against the vast, black curtain of the sky. Check whether your use of an adjective or adverb is correct by temporarily replacing the verb you have written

with the verb seem. If the sentence still makes some kind of sense, the original verb is a linking verb and should take an adjective. If the substitution of seem produces nonsense, the original verb is an action verb and should take an adverb. You can see how this works by substituting seem in each of the examples given above.

SUBSTITUTION MAKES SENSE My great-grandmother's hair seemed luminous and pink in the light of the setting sun.

SUBSTITUTION MAKES NO SENSE The stars seemed weakly against the vast, black curtain of the sky.

Comparison refers to the change in the form of a modifier to show an increase or a decrease in the quality expressed by the modifier. Each modifier has three forms of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative. Most one-syllable modifiers and some two-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding -er and -est. Other two-syllable modifiers, and all modifiers of more than two syllables, use more and most to form these degrees.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES clear clearer clearest

hungry hungrier hungriest daring more daring most daring beneficial more beneficial most beneficial

ADVERBS late later latest

seldom more seldom most seldom fully more fully most fully pretentiously more pretentiously most pretentiously

To show a decrease in the quality of any modifier, form the comparative and superlative degrees by using less and least.

EXAMPLES dense, less dense, least dense skeptically, less skeptically, least skeptically

Some modifiers form their comparative and superlative degrees irregularly. Check the dictionary if you are unsure about the comparison of a modifier.

EXAMPLES good, better, best well, better, best bad, worse, worst

Use the comparative degree when comparing two things. Use the superlative degree when comparing more than two things.

COMPARATIVE Santha was the more easily intimidated of the two sisters. SUPERLATIVE The skin is the largest organ of the human body.

As you edit your writing, check sentences for illogical comparison. Such comparison occurs when one member of a group is compared with the group of which it is a part. Clarify illogical comparison by including the word other or else in the sentence.

ILLOGICAL Hydrogen is more abundant than any element in the universe. LOGICAL Hydrogen is more abundant than any other element in the universe.

Another problem to check for is double comparison. This occurs when two comparative forms or two superlative forms are used to modify the same word. Correct double comparison by editing out one of the comparative or superlative forms.

DOUBLE COMPARISON The chandeliers were more fancier than any I had ever seen. SINGLE COMPARISON The chandeliers were fancier than any I had ever seen.

In English a double negative is a nonstandard construction in which two negative words are used instead of one. Check your writing to be sure you have not used a negative word such as no, none, not (and its contraction, –n't), nothing, barely, hardly, or scarcely with any other negative word. If you find a double negative, change it by deleting one of the negative words.

DOUBLE NEGATIVE She was so shocked she couldn't scarcely speak. SINGLE NEGATIVE She was so shocked she couldn't speak. SINGLE NEGATIVE She was so shocked

she could scarcely speak. DOUBLE NEGATIVE The Book of Sand didn't have no beginning or end. SINGLE NEGATIVE The Book of Sand had no beginning or end.

2 . 4 2 ERRORS IN MODIFIER USAGE I I The demonstrative pronouns this and these are used to refer to things near the speaker. The pronouns that and

those refer to objects at some distance. Thus you might say, "This apple in my hand is poisonous" if you were referring to an apple you were actually holding, but if you were pointing at an apple in a picture of yourself, you might say, "That apple in my hand is poisonous." The two pairs of pronouns are often used to distinguish between objects or sets of objects.

EXAMPLE These papers are to be filed and those are to be shredded. Check your writing to see that your use of this and these, and that and those makes sense.

NONSENSICAL That sofa here in the living room should go next to this old piano downstairs in the family room.

SENSIBLE This sofa here in the living room should go next to that old piano downstairs in the family room.

The pronoun them is a personal pronoun in standard English and should not be substituted for the demonstrative pronoun those.

NONSTANDARD One would swear them gems were genuine. STANDARD One would swear those gems were genuine.

Modifiers that often give writers trouble are bad and badly. Check instances of these words in your writing to make sure you have used bad as an adjective and badly as an adverb. Only the adjective should follow a linking verb such as feel, sound, look, smell, or taste.

NONSTANDARD Samantha felt badly about her inadvertent breach of confidence.

STANDARD Samantha felt bad about her inadvertent breach of confidence. Similarly distinguish between good and well. Good is an adjective and should not be used to modify an action

verb. Well, however, can be used either as an adverb meaning "capably" or "in a satisfactory way," or as an adjective meaning "healthy" or "of a satisfactory condition."

NONSTANDARD Cheri paints landscapes good. STANDARD Cheri paints good landscapes. STANDARD Cheri paints landscapes well. STANDARD However, she does not sculpt well. STANDARD Yesterday she did not feel good, but today she is looking well.

USAGE HANDBOOK 2 . 4 3 USAGE PROBLEMS I

The following sections (2.43–2.45) explain some common problems to watch for as you edit your writing. adapt, adopt. Adapt means "to make [something] fit a specific use or situation by modifying"; adopt means to

"take something and make it in some sense one's own." EXAMPLES Mrs. Sandburg was devastated to have to leave the home she had grown up in, but she gradually

adapted to living in the nursing home. The compassionate couple adopted eleven handicapped children.

affect, effect. If you wish to use a verb meaning "have an effect on," use affect. If you wish to use a noun meaning "the result of an action," use effect.

VERB The book about the Red Cross affected her so deeply that she resolved to become a nurse herself.

NOUN One of the effects of the earthquake was the creation of huge tsunamis that pounded coastlines hundreds of miles from the epicenter.

As a verb, effect means to bring something about despite obstacles. EXAMPLES The Westport basketball team effected a major upset against Jamesville in the semi-finals. The defeat affected the Jamesville fans so much that all sat in stunned silence after the final buzzer.

2 . 4 4 USAGE PROBLEMS II imply, infer. Most writers accept the following meanings for these words: imply means "to express indirectly

rather than openly"; infer means "to arrive at a conclusion by reasoning from evidence." Although this distinction between imply and infer has not always been observed, it is a useful one.

EXAMPLES Daniel's guilty grin implied that he had taken the brownie. Daniel's mother inferred from his guilty grin that he had taken the brownie.

like, as, as if. Although like is frequently used to introduce subordinate clauses in informal English, it is considered a preposition, not a conjunction. Do not use it in place of as or as if in your writing.

INFORMAL I feel like I'm being taken for granted. FORMAL I feel as if I were being taken for granted. FORMAL I feel like an idiot.

literally. Most writers limit their use of literally to the sense "actually," and avoid using it in the sense "not actually, but in effect, or for all practical purposes." This distinction, though sometimes ignored, is worth observing.

CLEAR The sewing machine repair man literally had no fingers on his right hand. CONFUSING Dad literally raised the roof when he heard that I had smashed the car.

2.45 USAGE PROBLEMS III of. The preposition of should not be used in place of have after verbs such as could, should, would, might, must,

and ought. NONSTANDARD You must of taken my keys by mistake. STANDARD You must have taken my keys by mistake.

STANDARD You must've taken my keys by mistake. Avoid off of.

NONSTANDARD The parachutists jumped off of the Seattle Space Needle. STANDARD The parachutists jumped off the Seattle Space Needle.

then, than. Use than as a conjunction in comparisons. Use then as an adverb that tells when something occurred.

EXAMPLES Ivan Ilyich was more concerned about his illness than anyone else seemed to be. First get your chores done, then we'll discuss going to the movies.

MECHANICS HANDBOOK

PROOFREADING FOR PUNCTUATION ERRORS 2 . 4 6 USING END MARKS

An end mark signals the end of a sentence. It also shows the purpose of the sentence. A declarative sentence ends with a period. If a declarative sentence already has a period at the end because an

abbreviation occurs there, no other end mark is needed. If a declarative sentence ends with a quotation, place the period inside the quotation marks.

DECLARATIVE Chinua Achebe is considered by many to be the greatest living African novelist. WITH ABBREVIATION AT END Minerva finds inspiration in the words of Martin Luther King, Jr. WITH QUOTATION AT END God said, "Let there be light."

A question ends with a question mark. Indirect questions, however, do not require a question mark. If a question ends with an abbreviation, add a question mark after the final period. If a question is quoted, the question mark appears inside the closing quotation marks; if a question contains a quotation, the question mark appears outside the closing quotation marks. Polite questions often end with a period instead of a question mark.

DIRECT QUESTION Who was Omar Khayyam? ENDING IN ABBREVIATION What were you doing outside at 3 A.M.? INDIRECT QUESTION Sylvia asked me what I was making. QUOTED QUESTION Vasilios asked, "What is the meaning of life?" QUESTION INCLUDING QUOTATION Did Nick actually say, "I liked the opera"? POLITE QUESTION Will you please tell me where to find Haddonfield Drive.

An exclamation ends with an exclamation point. If an exclamation is quoted, the exclamation point appears inside the closing quotation marks; if an exclamation contains a quotation, the exclamation point appears outside the closing quotation marks. An imperative sentence may end with a period instead of an exclamation point.

EXCLAMATION Flash! Apollo 13 has landed safely! QUOTED EXCLAMATION "Stop!" Ian yelled, "You're getting too close to the edge!" EXCLAMATION CONTAINING QUOTE I can't believe Aaron said, "You're not bad—for a girl"! IMPERATIVE SENTENCE Let's take the scenic route.

2.47 USING COMMAS As you proofread your writing, check to see that you have used commas after certain introductory elements.

Such elements include mild exclamations such as yes, no, oh, and well; participial phrases; prepositional phrases; and adverb clauses.

MILD EXCLAMATION Well, we have nothing to lose. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE Having been expelled from the castle, Candide wandered for a long time, not

knowing where he was going. TWO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES For the rest of his life, William carried a burden of guilt for what he

had done. ADVERB CLAUSE When Tartuffe expressed his true intentions, Orgon saw him for the monster he

was. A comma is also used to set off an element that interrupts a sentence, such as a parenthetical expression or a

word used in direct address.

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSION She tormented herself, however, wondering if she had done the right thing.

DIRECT ADDRESS Papa, I am going to marry with a great love for Tita that will never die.

A serial comma is a comma used to separate items in a series, whether the items are words, phrases, or clauses. Some writers omit the last comma when and, or, or nor joins the last two items in a series, but this construction sometimes makes a sentence unclear.

WORDS At the ceremony of induction into the knighthood, a knight was given armor, a horse, a helmet, and a lance.

PHRASES Camus said that Sisyphus's scorn of the gods, his hatred of death, and his passion for life won him the unspeakable penalty of exerting the whole being toward accomplishing nothing.

CLAUSES "Time flies, death urges, knells call, heaven invites,/Hell threatens." —Edward Young

Some paired words may be considered a single item. PAIRED WORDS Items on the menu include chicken a la king, liver and onions, and beef stew.

If all the items in a series are joined by and, or, or nor, do not separate them with commas. EXAMPLE The raven ate and flew around and cawed and did not return to the boat.

Two or more adjectives preceding a noun are separated by commas. EXAMPLE Montaigne wrote of a country in which it was rare to see a sick, palsied, bleary-eyed, or

toothless man. Use a comma before and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet when they join two independent clauses. The comma may

be omitted before and, but, nor, and or if the clauses are very short and the resulting sentence is still clear in meaning. LONG CLAUSE The magpies of New South Wales have a song-like call, while the call of the

kookaburra resembles demonic laughter. SHORT CLAUSE The pit bull growled and Clarice backed out of his range.

Do not use a comma between two parts of a compound verb or compound predicate. A nonrestrictive participial phrase or clause is one that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the substantive to

which it refers. You can test a phrase or clause when proofreading your writing by seeing if the main meaning of the sentence is lost if you omit the phrase or clause. If the phrase or clause is indeed nonrestrictive, make sure it is set off by commas.

RESTRICTIVE The wedding dress that Mary Ellen found in the chest belonged to her great-grandmother.

NONRESTRICTIVE Mary Ellen's great-grandmother, who came over from Greece when she was fifteen, married a butcher when she was seventeen.

Appositives and appositive phrases can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. RESTRICTIVE The Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus refuted the notion that the earth is the

center of the universe. NONRESTRICTIVE Nicholas Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, refuted the notion that the earth is the

center of the universe.

2 . 4 8 SEMICOLONS AND COLONS A semicolon is used as punctuation between clauses in several situations. Use a semicolon between closely

related independent clauses that are not joined by and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet. EXAMPLE The children wanted to know why their mother did not return; they did not understand that she

was dead. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression that is

followed by a comma. EXAMPLE Nelson was hopelessly behind after falling; however, he picked up his bike and finished the

race. Use a semicolon between linked independent clauses or items in a list if the clauses or items already contain

commas. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES "Be upright in their presence, and they will hold you in respect; be filial and

benevolent, and they will be loyal to you; use the righteous and instruct the unqualified, and they will try their best in service." —Confucius

LIST OF ITEMS WITH COMMAS Important philosophers of the Enlightenment included Immanuel Kant, who wrote critiques investigating the limits of human reasoning; John Locke, who disputed the divine right of kings; and Adam Smith, whose ideas about economics led to the growth of capitalism.

A colon introduces a long statement or quotation or a list of items. QUOTATION Tartuffe gave Elmire the oldest line in the book: "Well, if you look with favor upon my

love,/Why, then, begrudge me some clear proof thereof?" LIST According to the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, these are the names of the first people: Jaguar

Quitze, Jaguar Night, Mahucutah, and True Jaguar.

2 . 4 9 DASHES, HYPHENS, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS A dash is used to show an abrupt break in thought.

EXAMPLE living and speaking like barbarians, excluded—what a catastrophe!—from the Hellenic way of life. — Cavafy

Sometimes the dash serves in place of such expressions as in other words, that is, or namely. EXAMPLE The main character in Chinua Achebe's "Marriage is a Private Affair" acts on a shocking

notion—that marriages should be based on love. A hyphen is used to link words in a compound adjective, adverb, or noun.

EXAMPLES forest-dwelling creatures, ninth-inning grand slam, well-rounded student, first-rate product, strong-willed woman, three-year-old brat, half-heartedly, even-handedly, self-confidently, good-naturedly, go-ahead, set-up, rock-bottom, lady-in-waiting

If you have questions about whether you should hyphenate a particular compound word, look it up in the dictionary. If the dictionary offers no information, consider whether the hyphen is needed to make the meaning of the sentence clear.

UNCLEAR The thick skinned girl was not perturbed by their criticisms. CLEAR The thick-skinned girl was not perturbed by their criticisms.

Parentheses are used to enclose an aside or information that is less important than the main information offered in a sentence.

ASIDE Dominic Mazzini (I think you know his brother) played a brilliant violin solo. LESS IMPORTANT Turn left at the blue house (the one with the picket fence) and go to the top of the

hill. Brackets are used to enclose a writer's corrections or comments in someone else's quoted material, and as

parentheses within parentheses. QUOTED MATERIAL "The best-laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft a-gley [often go astray]." —Robert Burns PARENTHESES WITHIN The article about Gibraltar ("Britain's Precarious Stronghold" PARENTHESES [National Geographic, November 1996, page 62]) tells of an exciting cave sixty feet

high and more than a hundred feet deep.

2 . 5 0 APOSTROPHES An apostrophe is used to form the possessive of nouns and some—but not all—pronouns. To form the

possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s. If the noun already ends in an s sound, has two or more syllables, and would be hard to pronounce with an additional s, add only an apostrophe. These rules apply also to hyphenated words, names of organizations, and indefinite pronouns.

WITH ADDED s boss's office, Pandora's box, everyone else's opinion, Pilgrim's Progress, Dickens's Oliver Twist, mother-in-law's wig

WITHOUT ADDED S Moses' staff, righteousness' sake, Jesus' teachings To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only an apostrophe if the plural form ends in s. If the plural form

ends in some other letter, add an apostrophe and an s. ENDING WITH S four days' journey, ten years' imprisonment, two weeks' pay ENDING WITHOUT S people's choice, oxen's lowing, dice's spots, geese's formation

While proofreading, check to see that you have not used an apostrophe to form the plural of a noun. Note also that the possessive pronouns, including yours, ours, hers, and its, do not have an apostrophe.

INCORRECT PLURAL It took six rescuer's to dig out the man buried by the avalanche. CORRECT PLURAL It took six rescuers to dig out the man buried by the avalanche.

INCORRECT POSSESSIVE By 3 A.M. the game was losing it's appeal. CORRECT POSSESSIVE By 3 A.M. the game was losing its appeal.

To show joint possession by all people in a group, add 's (or an apostrophe only) to the last word. To show individual possession of similar items by each member of a group, add 's (or an apostrophe only) to each noun in the group.

JOINT POSSESSION Fred and Lynn's car is covered with snow and ice. INDIVIDUAL POSSESSION Fred's and Lynn's cars are covered with snow and ice.

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of words that refer to time or that indicate amounts in dollars or cents. EXAMPLES a day's wages, a moment's notice, ten dollars' worth of rice

2.51 UNDERLINING, ITALICS, AND QUOTATION MARKS IN TITLES Italics are a type of slanted printing used to show emphasis. (Underlining is used instead of italics in handwritten

documents or in forms of printing in which italics are not available.) The following examples show the categories of words that should receive italics (underlining) for emphasis.

WORKS OF ART Wyeth's Christina's World, Raphael's The School of Athens, Michelangelo's Pieta BOOKS, PLAYS Pasternak's Doctor Zhivago, Ibsen's Hedda Gabler FILMS, TELEVISION PROGRAMS Casablanca, I Love Lucy PERIODICALS Herald-American, The Saturday Evening Post AIRCRAFT, SHIPS, SPACECRAFT, TRAINS Gossamer Albatross, Andrea Doria, Columbia, Tom

Thumb Italicize the titles of long musical compositions unless they are merely the names of musical forms such as fantasy,

symphony, concerto, sonata, and nocturne. The titles of short pieces such as songs should be placed in quotation marks.

SHORT MUSICAL COMPOSITION Irving Berlin's "White Christmas" LONG MUSICAL COMPOSITION Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 2

As you proof your writing, check for words used as words, letters used as letters, and words from foreign languages. These should all be in italics (or underlined).

EXAMPLES The word zing is an example of onomatopoeia. Pelicans fly in single file, while ducks and geese fly in a V The selling of our house is a fait accompli—something that has already been done.

Quotation marks are used to enclose titles of short works. PARTS OF BOOKS Part One: "The Solar System" SONGS "Auld Lang Syne" SHORT POEMS "Penelope's Despair" STORIES "The Bet" ESSAYS, ARTICLES "The Myth of Sisyphus"

2 . 5 2 OTHER USES OF QUOTATION MARKS Quotation marks are used to enclose a direct quotation, or a person's exact words. They are not used to

enclose an indirect quotation, which is a reworded version of a person's words. Commas and periods that follow a quotation should be placed inside closing quotation marks; colons and semicolons should be placed outside. Do not, however, use a period to separate a direct quotation from the rest of a sentence.

DIRECT "I must stand on my own feet if I am to find out the truth about myself and about life." DIRECT WITH PERIOD The book of Proverbs says that a good name is "more desirable than great

riches." DIRECT WITH COMMA "Tis held that sorrow makes us wise," affirmed Alfred, Lord Tennyson. DIRECT WITH SEMICOLON Achilles burst out in despair, "Let me die at once"; his own death seemed

preferable to living with his grief. INDIRECT Yevgeny Yevtushenko said that his descendants would remember with bitter shame those

times when people referred to simple honesty as fearlessness.

When writing dialogue, a conversation between speakers, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes, and enclose each speaker's words in quotation marks. When an indication of the speaker, such as she said, divides a sentence into two parts, the second part begins with a small letter.

EXAMPLES Said the jinnee sarcastically, "Fisherman, I bring you good news." "What news?" asked the old man. "News of your death, horrible and prompt!" replied the jinnee... . "Be brief, then, I pray you," said the fisherman, "for you have wrung my soul with terror."

—from The Thousand and One Nights Single quotation marks are used to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

EXAMPLE Francesca admitted, "I was thinking only of myself, but then I remembered Confucius' admonition that we should not worry 'about being misunderstood but about understanding others."'

2 . 5 3 ELLIPSIS IN QUOTATIONS Ellipsis points are used to indicate an ellipsis, or omission, in quoted material. Use three ellipsis points (with a

space before the first point) if the quoted material that precedes the omission is not a complete sentence; if it is a complete sentence, keep the end mark and add the ellipsis points.

COMPLETE SENTENCE BEFORE OMISSION "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation.... Now we are engaged in a great civil war."

INCOMPLETE SENTENCE BEFORE OMISSION "[Me here highly resolve ... that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom."

Ellipsis points are also used in much the same way to show a pause in a written passage. EXAMPLE "Help me carry ... oh, never mind, I can do it."

PROOFREADING FOR ERRORS IN CAPITALIZATION 2.54 ASTRONOMICAL TERMS, TIME, DAYS, MONTHS, YEARS, HOLIDAYS, EVENTS, AND PERIODS

Capitalize the names of astronomical bodies such as planets, stars, and constellations. EXAMPLES Mercury, Saturn, Sirius, Vega, Cassiopeia, Orion, Andromeda, Large Magellanic Cloud

Do not capitalize units of time such as the words second, minute, hour, day, year, decade, century, or the names of the seasons.

EXAMPLES In the second year of King Darius, on the first day of the sixth month, the prophet Haggai spoke to the

people of Israel. Miranda looks best in autumn colors, while Shari comes alive in winter colors.

Capitalize the names of days, months, and holidays. EXAMPLES Wednesday, Friday, January, August, Independence Day, Thanksgiving

Do not capitalize references to decades or centuries. EXAMPLES the twenties, the fifth century

Capitalize historical events, special events, and recognized periods of time. HISTORICAL EVENTS Peloponnesian Wars, Spanish Inquisition, American Revolution SPECIAL EVENTS Stanley Cup, Earth Day, World Series HISTORICAL PERIODS Mesozoic Era, Renaissance, Industrial Age

2.55 NAMES, TITLES OF PERSONS, OCCUPATIONS, AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS Capitalize the names of persons and titles of address such as Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, Madame, or Monsieur-when

used in addressing a person or before a name. EXAMPLES Laura Unsworth, Ms. Hughes, Franz Kafka, Dr. Jenner

Check a reference book if you are unsure about the capitalization of de la, du, van, von, and other parts of names. Sometimes the part of a name that follows Mc– or Mac– is capitalized and sometimes it is not.

EXAMPLES Vasco da Gama, Cecil B. De Mille, Robert De Niro, Fiorello La Guardia, Louis L'Amour, John le Carre, Douglas MacArthur, Harold Macmillan, Paul McCartney, James Van Allen, Vincent van Gogh, Wernher von Braun

Capitalize official titles of persons when they immediately precede a person's name, used as part of the name, or when they are used instead of a name or as a name in direct address.

EXAMPLES King George, President Hoover, General Grant, Pope Pius 0 King, grant us mercy! Do not capitalize references to occupations.

EXAMPLES the dentist, the editor, the engineer, the professor, the banker, the painter Capitalize the names of family relationships used as titles unless they are preceded by a modifier.

MODIFIED your sister, my dad, Yvonne's aunt NOT MODIFIED We painted Grandma's house last weekend.

If the name of a family relationship precedes a proper name, capitalize it even if it is modified.

EXAMPLES Aunt Madeline, old Uncle Alf

2.56 DIRECTIONS, REGIONS, PLACE NAMES, ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS, BRAND AND TRADE NAMES, BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES, AND VEHICLES

Capitalize the names of commonly recognized geographical regions. EXAMPLES North Pole, Pacific Basin, Southeast Asia, Arctic

Do not capitalize words such as east, west, north, and south when they are used only to indicate direction. EXAMPLES Poughkeepsie is north of New York City on the Hudson River. The South suffered great devastation in the American Civil War.

The adjectives eastern, western, northern, and southern are not capitalized when they are used as temporary designations.

TEMPORARY eastern Australia, southern India, western Pennsylvania STANDARD Northern Ireland, Western Europe, Southern California

Capitalize the names of places. Capitalize any term such as lake, mountain, river, or valley if it is used as part of a name.

BODIES OF WATER Rio Grande, Lake Louise, Arctic Ocean CITIES AND TOWNS Athens, Mexico City, Kigali COUNTIES Marin County, Cayuga County, Middlesex County COUNTRIES Malaysia, Ecuador, Republic of the Sudan ISLANDS Java, Honshu, Isle of Wight MOUNTAINS Mount Huascaran, Pike's Peak, Pindus Mountains STATES Montana, Delaware, Oklahoma STREETS AND HIGHWAYS New Jersey Turnpike, Erie Boulevard, Pennsylvania Avenue

Do not capitalize generic terms for places without specific modifiers. EXAMPLES There was a multi-vehicle collision on the turnpike. The still lake perfectly mirrored the snow-capped mountains.

Capitalize the names of organizations and institutions, whether they are public, private, athletic, business, or government bodies.

PUBLIC Smithsonian Institution, Ohio State University, Niagara Mohawk Power PRIVATE Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, National Wildlife Federation ATHLETIC Miami Heat, New York Rangers, Los Angeles Dodgers BUSINESS General Electric, Eastman Kodak, Metropolitan Life GOVERNMENT Parliament, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Department of Education

Capitalize the brand names and trademarks of products made by businesses. The dictionary may indicate if a name is trademarked. Do not capitalize the noun following a trade name that indicates what type of product it is.

EXAMPLES Gap jeans, Cheerios, Coleman stove Capitalize the names of important or widely recognized buildings and other structures or monuments.

Capitalize the noun following a building, structure, or monument name that indicates its type.

EXAMPLES Chesapeake Bay Bridge, Fort Sumter, Parthenon, Alhambra, St. Paul's Cathedral, Bunker Hill Monument, Eiffel Tower, Chrysler Building, Taj Mahal

Contrast the absence of capitalization in the following example of a building that is not widely known: EXAMPLE The cathedral has massive stained-glass windows, flying buttresses, and grotesque

gargoyles. Capitalize the names of vehicles only if they are trade names.

EXAMPLES Oldsmobile, Saturn, Miata, Astrovan, minivan, station wagon, cablecar

2.57 FIRST WORDS, INTERJECTIONS, AND THE PRONOUN I Capitalize the first word in a sentence.

EXAMPLES "The great masses of the people will more easily fall victims to a big lie than to a small one." —Adolf Hitler

"If winter comes, can spring be far behind?" —Percy Bysshe Shelley Do not capitalize the interjection oh unless it begins a sentence or stands alone. Do, however, capitalize the

word 0, which is technically not an interjection but a vocative—a word used to call someone. EXAMPLES Oh! How I wish it were true. Oh, no! My camera fell in the water! I have . . . oh, about sixteen hours of homework tonight. "There, there I would go, 0 my beloved, with thee!" —Johann von Goethe

Capitalize the pronoun I wherever it appears, except in quoted material where the pronoun is lowercased in the original.

EXAMPLES "I leave this rule for others when I'm dead, Be always sure you're right—then go ahead." —Davy Crockett "i do excuse me, love, to Death and Time" e. e. cummings

2 . 5 8 TITLES OF WORKS OF ART, LITERATURE, AND MUSIC Apply title capitalization to titles of works of art. In title capitalization, the following are capitalized: the first word,

the last word, all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions. Articles (a, an, the) are written lowercased unless they are the first or last word. Some writers also capitalize any preposition over five letters long.

EXAMPLES Botticelli's The Birth of Venus, Rembrandt's Supper at Emmaus, Winslow Homer's The Coming of the Gale

Apply title capitalization to titles of literary works. EXAMPLES Thomas's "A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London," Verne's Around the

World in Eighty Days, Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment Apply title capitalization to titles of musical works.

EXAMPLES "Take Me Out to the Ball Game," Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance

2 . 5 9 QUOTATIONS AND SACRED NAMES Capitalize the first word of a sentence in a direct quotation even if it begins within the sentence where it is

quoted. EXAMPLE Margaret Thatcher remarked, "In politics, if you want anything said, ask a man; if you want

anything done, ask a woman." Do not capitalize a quoted fragment that completes the sense of part of the sentence out-side the quotation

marks. EXAMPLE In 1604, King James I of England wrote that smoking was "a custom loathsome to the eye,

harmful to the brain, [and] dangerous to the lungs." Capitalize references to sacred beings or persons, including God, gods, prophets, apostles, and saints. Some

adjectives traditionally linked to such beings and persons are sometimes capitalized as well. EXAMPLES Jehovah, Messiah, King of Kings, Holy Mary, Ahura Mazda, Dalai Lama, Vishnu

Capitalize the names of sacred writings and parts of such writings. EXAMPLES Psalms, Septuagint, New Testament, Book of Mormon, Upanishad, Koran

2 . 6 0 POETRY, OUTLINES, AND LETTERS The first word in each line of a poem was capitalized in English until recent times. EXAMPLE Now waving grain, wide o'er the plain,

Delights the weary farmer; And the moon shines bright, when I rove at night, To muse upon my charmer. —Robert Burns

Most writers since the twentieth century, however, have broken with this tradition. EXAMPLE The time will come when, with elation, you will greet yourself arriving at your own door, in your own mirror and each will smile at the other's welcome. —Derek Walcott

Capitalize the first word of each entry in an outline. Most of the index letters that identify parts of the outline are also capitalized. The following example is an outline for a report on the Amazon River; observe that lowercase letters are used as index letters after the Arabic numeral level.

The Amazing Amazon

I. Description of the Amazon 2. Alexander von Humboldt A. Location B. Twentieth-century exploration

1. Source 1. Theodore Roosevelt a. Principal source 2. National Geographic Society b. Tributaries

2. Course III. People of the Amazon 3. Mouth A. First people of Amazonia

B. Exploitation of people B. Size

1. Length and volume C. Population of Amazonia today

2. Width and depth IV. Riches of the Amazon II. Exploration of the Amazon A. Wildlife

A. Early exploration B. Plants 1. Francisco de Orellana C. Natural resources

Capitalize letters used as grades, as musical tones, or as a designation for a person, thing, or location. EXAMPLES Getting a C on my term paper brought my average down to B+. That piece in B minor has an eerie sound. Going from point A to point B is not as simple as it looks on the map.

2 . 6 1 SCHOOL SUBJECTS, CLASSES, GRADES, AND AWARDS Capitalize a school subject when it is also the name of a language or when it is followed by a number indicating

that it is the name of a specific course. EXAMPLES German, Sociology 101, science, social studies, algebra

Expressions such as tenth grade, twelfth grade, sophomore, junior, or expressions such as freshman year, junior year, are not capitalized unless they are part of the title of an official program.

EXAMPLES sophomore English, Senior Seminar Capitalize the names of awards and prizes. Some words that go with prize names are not capitalized, however.

EXAMPLES Nobel Prize in chemistry, National Book Award, Life Achievement Award, Grammy Award, Templeton Prize, Presidential Medal of Freedom

SPELLING HANDBOOK 2 . 6 2 PROOFREADING FOR SPELLING ERRORS

After you have checked your writing for other problems, read it through with an eye open for spelling errors. Even if you have confidence in your spelling, you may make a mistake in keyboarding your work or writing it out by hand. Of course, the difficulty in detecting errors is that you will tend to see the words as you meant to write them, rather than as they really stand on the page. Professional proofreaders have a helpful technique: they read the text backwards word by word. If you come across a word that causes the slightest doubt, check it in the dictionary.

2 . 6 3 USING SPELLING RULES Many spelling problems arise from a common operation: forming plurals. Form the plurals of most nouns by

simply adding s. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant have plurals ending in es, as do nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh.

EXAMPLES signs, decisions, gardens, trumpets, principles heroes, potatoes, vetoes dresses, taxes, adzes, branches, flashes

The plurals of words ending in o preceded by a vowel are formed by adding s. The plurals of most musical terms ending in o are also formed by adding s.

EXAMPLES radios, studios, rodeos, oratorios, trios, altos, cellos, arpeggios Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel by adding s. (The vowels are the letters a, e, i, o, u.

Sometimes the letter y also represents a vowel sound.) EXAMPLES rays, donkeys, buoys, guys

Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant by changing the y to i and adding es. (The consonants are all the letters that are not vowels.)

EXAMPLES authorities, countries, spies, centuries The plurals of some nouns are irregular. EXAMPLES mouse—mice, goose—geese, woman—women, phenomenon—phenomena

Form the plural of a compound noun consisting of a noun and a modifier by making the main noun component plural.

EXAMPLES ladies-in-waiting, sisters-in-law, maids of honor, Secretaries of State Another operation that causes spelling errors is adding prefixes or suffixes to a word. A prefix is a letter or a

group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. When adding a prefix to a word, do not change the word itself.

EXAMPLES extra + curricular = extracurricular super + natural = supernatural A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to change its meaning. The spelling of most

words is not changed when the suffix –ness or –ly is added. EXAMPLES author + ship = authorship help + ful = helpful

In the case of many words of more than one syllable ending in y, however, change the y to i before adding –ly or ness.

EXAMPLES silly + ness = silliness happy + ly = happily In most cases of words ending in a final silent e, drop the e when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, and

keep the e when adding a suffix beginning with a consonant. EXAMPLES like + able = likable care + ful = careful serve + ant = servant shame + less = shameless