writing in focus

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Universitatea Dunrea De Jos din GalaiFacultatea de Litere

Writing in Focus

A course for students in English

Associate Professor Ioana Mohor-Ivan, PhD

Galai2010


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Cuprins

Writing in Focus2

Cuprins

CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1. Grammar and vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2. Spelling and Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.3. Style and appropriateness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING THE WRITINGPROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.1. The essential elements of an essay . . . . . . 242.2. Additional guidelines for ensuring cohesion 25

CHAPTER 3: LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS . . . . . 29

3.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293.2. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313.3. Exemplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333.4. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.5. Comparison and contrast. . . . . . . . . . . . 383.6. Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.7. Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.8. Cause and effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.9. Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 4: BUILDING UP THE ESSAY . . . . 55

4.1. Writing introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.2. Writing transitional paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . 574.3. Writing conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

CHAPTER 5: WRITING FROM SOURCES . . . 60

5.1. Paraphrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.2. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635.3. Referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69


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Obiective

Writing in Focus 3

Obiective:

Dezvoltarea abilitii de exprimare coerenti corect n scris; Familiarizarea studenilor cu stilurile funcionale si refereniale; ncurajarea exprimrii creative n scris.

Tipuri si modalitati de activitate didactica:

explicaia, dezbaterea, studiul de text, problematizarea, metode delucru n grup, individual i frontal, metode de dezvoltare a gndiriicritice, portofoliul, studiul bibliografiei.


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Chapter 1 Fundamentals

CHAPTER 1 - FUNDAMENTALS

1.1. Grammar and Vocabulary

1.1.1. Joining sentences

Complete the following sentences by choosing one of the two words or phrasesgiven in brackets:

(And, Both) my wife and I went out early yesterday.

(Or, Either) we will have to wait for them, or we will have to leave amessage.

He neither took my advice (nor, or) his fathers.

The man (who, whom) you saw yesterday is my neighbour. He has received the money (which, who) I sent him.

I cannot remember (where did I leave, where I left) my coat. He asked me (when would my brother, when my brother would) arrive.

You did not tell me (how much this cost, how much did this cost.)

He had to leave (why, because) it was so late.

(Now that, So that) it has stopped raining, I shall not have to take anumbrella.

He was (such, so) pleased when he heard the news that he rang me up atonce.

It is (such, a so) nice day, I cannot bear to stay indoors.

I ran quickly (in order to be not, in order not to be) late.

The little boy hid behind the door (in order his aunt not to see him, in order

that his aunt might not see him.) Ill come and fetch you from the station (so that you will not have to, in order

you do not have to) walk as far as my house.

Seeing me coming (the man, the man he) ran towards me.

(Turning the corner, When he turned the corner) the brick fell on his head.

Join the following pairs of sentences using the conjunctions given in brackets.When you have done so write similar sentences of your own.

He was in Italy last year. Now he has returned home. (but)

The talk on the radio was not amusing. It was not interesting. (neither nor)

He told me to leave. He told me never to call again. (not only but)

I have often invited him here. He has never come. (yet)

Hurry up. You will be late. (or)

The manager told him he must work hard. He must leave the firm. (either or)

She sent a present to my brother. She sent a present to me. (both and)

Writing in Focus4


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Writing in Focus 5

She finished her housework. She went out shopping. (so/and)

The shops have shut. We should go home. (now that)

You have not understood the question. I will repeat it. (since)

You had better not stay too long. I have a lot of work to do. (as)

I did not tell him. I was afraid I would hurt his feelings. (because)

I have many friends abroad. I cannot write to all of them. (so that) He is an interesting person. It is a pleasure to hear him talk. (such that)

The student asked the teacher a question. He wanted to understand theexercise better. (in order that)

The thief drove quickly out of town. He did not want the police to catch him.(so that)

He went into the room quietly. He did not want to disturb his brother whowas asleep. (so as to)

I wrote to him several times. I received no answer. (although)

He plays well. He is still not good enough for the football team. (in spite ofthe fact that)

We are determined to get there. It does not matter how far away it is.(however)

The journey takes too long. It does not matter if you go by plane. (even if)

I still think the film is poor. It does not matter if so many people enjoyed it.(even though)

Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns or adverbs wherenecessary:

There were a lot of people at the party. I had not met them before.

My sisters friend came to see me. Her parents died last year.

The vase was very valuable. My younger brother broke it.

A friend of mine will be coming tomorrow. I received a letter from him.

Is he your friend? Did you go to the cinema with him yesterday?

He has sent me a number of letters. I havent had time to answer them.

The man had to pay a fine. His car was parked on the wrong side of theroad.

Why did he refuse to see me? You must find out.

How did you find out my address? Please tell me.

When did you last hear from him? Write and let me know.

What did he tell you? I would like to know.

Where did he put the book I lent you? Please ask him.

Join the following pairs of sentences using the participle construction.

She though I was a friend of hers. She greeted me.

They found the door shut. They had to climb through the window.

The guard was killed. The prisoner escaped.


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He has not been abroad for many years. He is now finding it difficult tosettle down.

He was not able to understand. He asked the teacher to explain.

She did not believe me. She went to see for herself.

1.1.2. Tenses

Supply the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

He rang me up several times but I (be) out every time he (call).

I thought it (rain) today. He asked me if he (can) leave the room.

When he (ask) me I told him I never (be) here before.

As he (leave) the house he remembered he (forget) his coat.

If this (cost) so much why did you buy it?

As she (not understand) what he said she (ask) him to repeat it.

She must remain here until she (finish) her work. We will tell him about it after he (arrive).

We shall stay at home if it (rain).

I would have been able to come if you (let) me know in time.

If I (be) in your position I would tell him exactly what happened.

If the teacher (explain) more carefully they would have understood.

Did you ask him if he (want) to see me? I could have finished yesterday if you (ring) me up.

1.1.3. Word order

Re-write the following sentences correctly.

The captain ordered the men to throw into the sea the goods.

I went out to buy a book which had written a friend of mine.

It is pleasant to spend sometimes an hour in a library.

On my way to the office happened something very funny.

They both again reached home.

Once used to live two detectives opposite our house.

I went into the room where was the thief hiding.

I used very often to visit in the country my uncle.

Suddenly arrived at the house relations whom he did not want to see. From the shelf by someone the book was taken.

The friend from abroad whom I told you about has arrived.

I forgot on the letter I sent to write the address.

Never he has mentioned the subject.

You can trust him always.

You never can be certain that he will succeed.

Writing in Focus6


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Writing in Focus 7

He rarely has taken much trouble with his work.

If you had been careful this never might have happened.

1.1.4. Common mistakes

Underline the errors in the following sentences. Re-write each of them in correctEnglish.

Table 3 is showing that most of this accidents occurs to young children.

Each worker pay a small money which is taken from their salary.

Specialist doctors in hospitals can divide into surgeons which operate thebody and another specialists which act as consultants.

The number of schools growed gradually till 1965 and then number risedsuddenly.

When a country apply for foreign aids is because it has no enoughresources of its own.

If someone become ill, then can to local doctor.

To my opinion, there is many parent which dud not take care theirchildren.

In the other hand, if we look the table of accidents, we will see this facts.

In my country we have other kind of system; it is bigger and more better.

The problem was solve by the introduction of machineries.

1.1.5. Words often confused

Make up sentences to illustrate the difference between:

make, do say, tell

lend, borrow

rise, raise

rise, arise

practice, practise

advise, advice

affect, effect

all ready, already choice, choose

choose, chose

clothes, cloths coarse, course

complement, compliment

conscious, conscience

dessert, desert

economics, economical

fourth, forth

human, humane latter, later

loose, lose

logic, logical

mathematics, mathematical

moral, morale

passed, past

personal, personnel

politics, political quiet, quite

statistics, statistical

than, then very, too

weather, whether


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Writing in Focus8

In the spaces in the following sentences write the correct form of the wordchose from the list that is given.

He ________ a big effort to finish in time. (do/make) Considerable progress has been ___ with the experiment. (do/make) He found that he could not ________ the research. (do/make) He ________ a number of attempts to finish the work. (do/make) She had some difficulty in ______ her homework. (do/make) Many discoveries have been _______ during the 20th century.

(do/make) The painting was ________ by a famous artist. (do/make) His supervisor _____ him to prepare a talk. (say, tell) The lecturer ____ that he would finish early. (say/tell) He _______ to her that it did not matter. (say/tell) It is possible to ______ four books at a time from the library.

(lend/borrow)

Mr. Smith ____ his dictionary to the student. (lend/borrow) Sandra tried to ______ some money from the bank. (lend/borrow) The sun usually _______ at 5 a.m. in the summer.

(rise/arise/raise/increase) A new problem ________ in the college. (rise/arise/raise/increase) Bus fares were ________ three times last week.

(rise/arise/raise/increase) The landlord said he is going to ________ the rent.

(rise/arise/raise/increase) He _______ a loan. (rise/arise/raise/increase).

There was a steady ________ in the population.(rise/arise/raise/increase) The oil crisis _______ the price of petrol. (rise/arise/raise/increase) Last year the price of food ______ by 15%. (rise/arise/raise/increase) Tutors often give good _______ (advise/advice) but students

sometimes _____ (choice/choose) not to follow it. Of _______ (mathematics/mathematical) and _________

(politics/political), the former is, perhaps, more ________(logic/logical) than the ______ (later/latter).

Correct the errors in the following sentences:

Some years ago Dr. Selye set fourth his theory of stress. He couldnt imagine any torture worse than doing nothing accept lying

on a beach day after day. The affect was disastrous. Turning water haphazardly into the Everglades of coarse destroyed

the natural wet-dry rhythm of nature. At the end of the campfire talk, we gave the park naturalist a

complement on his clear explanation of the problem. Im going to except Professor Eickens advise and strive for mastery.

I took soft clothes to polish my car and course ones to clean thewheels.


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Writing in Focus 9

If pidgeons are let lose 700 miles from home, theyll be home in about12 hours, depending on the whether and weather they have a tail wind

The moral of the personal were I work is excellent. Our supervisor is quiet a sympathetic women and help us threw

difficulties She has high principals and strict morale standards. More than 90 nations ratified a law banning international trade in rhino

products, but its quiet difficult to enforce. Recently Yemen past a law forbidding the import of the horns. In this weather Im sure a cold desert will be best.

More confusing words:

His behaviour at the party was (contemptuous/contemptible). This must be the (definite/definitive) reference work on Roman history. The doctor told him to use (liniment/lineament) twice a day.

If you print that, Ill sue you for (libel/slander). This is my last will and (testimony/testament.) We may have won all our matches this season, but we mustnt allow

ourselves to become (complaisant/complacent.) Ive always wanted to drive (luxurious/luxuriant) cars. It is most (regretful/regrettable) that Mr Brown has decided to resign. The police have (conclusive/decisive) proof that he robbed the bank. How do you expect me to get the work finished when Im

(continuously/continually) interrupted? She was a very (intensive/intense) person, who seemed to care

deeply about everyone and everything. My father is a great believer in (alternative/alternate) medicine. She had died her hair a (distinct/distinctive) shade of blue. He spent three years in (goal, gaol). Do you enjoy (urbane/urban) life, or would you prefer to live in the

country? He was a man of (sanguine/sanguinary) temperament. My brother is (credible/credulous) enough to believe anything you tell

him. The Government are very worried about the (elicit/illicit) sales of

champagne. What can be (implied/inferred) from the Prime Ministers remarks? Im afraid the project is far too expensive to be (practical/practicable). There was an (appreciative/appreciable) drop in temperature last

night. Are these mushrooms (edible/eatable) or are they poisonous? The majority of tinned food is (deficient/defective) in vitamins. The company made (judicial/judicious) use of a Government grant. The difference in performance between the two computers is

(negligent/negligible).

Read the following short story. As you can see, there are a few problems withthe text. See if you can sort them out - the title should give you a clue.


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Writing in Focus10

A SHORT STOREY?NO PIECE FOR HARRY HOMOPHONE

Detective Harry Homophone new that this job was almostover. He had bean hot on the tale of Pinky Malone, ex-heavywait

boxer and now notorious gangster, four over a weak. But now hewas only ours away from getting his man.

Harry lent against the wall, pulling his hat low over his eyes. Hewas at the harbour down buy the sure, and knight had alreadyfallen. The plaice was deserted, and silent except for a ships bellthat had wrung out once or twice threw the see missed that hadcrept up the beech that evening.

He tossed his cigarette but into a puddle left by that afternoonsreign, and approached the seedy sailors hostel that Malone wasusing to whole up in. Harry entered silently, past the door leadingto the bar and began to climb the stares. At the top he paused,listening intently to the noise that came from the room.

Was this Pinky Malone, oar was this just an ordinary guessed?No, that awful snore could only mean won thing and have onlywon sauce. This had to bee the write man. In his final fight in thewring Pinky had had his knows broken and now snored like afoghorn.

As Harrys shoo crashed into the door, he whipped out his gun,and their he was face to face with Malone lying in bed. Malonesstartled expression soon gave weigh to a rye smile.

Looks like you got me this thyme, Homophone - my gun hands

empty, he said, waiving his write hand in the heir.Harry was just about to put up his peace when he rememberedthat Malone was a south-pour, and that his left hand was stillmysteriously under the bed-close.

As Pinky Malone was about to let loose with his concealedweapon, Harry snapped him back into his sites and pulled thetrigger.The blanket went read.Aargh! screamed Malone. Youve filled me full of led!Harry put up his gun and said, You went two far when ewe tried

to beet Harry Homophone.

Youll find below forty pairs of homophones. Look at the clues for each pairand try to work out what the words are.

its all around us / will inherit one day used in snooker and billiard / a line of people to risk money to gain more money / to skip or jump about playfully a shade or tint of colour / to cut with blows a round, flat piece of metal given as an award / to interfere two things or people / to cut away the outer covering of something

with a sharp knife perfume / an American coin part of the body / to pull along behind with a rope


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Writing in Focus 11

just / the money paid for a journey the actors in a play / a social class harsh, rough / a series of education classes or medical treatment an implement for rowing / rock or earth from which metal can be

obtained to put / a type of fish these appear when you cry/rows or levels placed one above the

other a wild pig / a dull person a percussion instrument / an emblem gold covering/a feeling that one is to blame for something or is at

fault a disclosure of secret information / a vegetable a jetty / a member of the House of Lords a container for ashes / to receive money in return for working used by an artist / to solicit support or votes a number of notes played simultaneously / a thin rope or string candid / a French coin land surrounded by water / a corridor between two rows of seats (in

a cinema, church, etc.) bodily suffering caused by injury or illness / a single sheet of glass not mistaken / a religious ceremony to move ones hand from side to side in greeting, farewell, etc. / to

relinquish, give up, forgo a vegetable / a weight for jewellery part of an apple / a trained army group

a manner of walking / used to close an opening in a wall, fence,field, etc.

a part of a typewriter or piano / landing place used for loading andunloading ships

small opening found all over the skin/ to flow steadily and rapidly to summon to appear in court / an area of ground for a building a sporting offence / a domestic bird used as food stolen money or valuables / a musical instrument to flatten buildings or towns / to bring up (children) condensation found in the morning / about to arrive

to lose consciousness / a mock attack or movement to distract anenemy or opponent a female horse / the head of a city or borough a rough preliminary sketch / a current of air


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Writing in Focus12

1.1.1. Further practice

Explain the mistakes in the sentences below and write the correct variant.

Your hands are not very clear. At last the ship it managed the rich the harbour. Nobody said nothing for what had happened. He was enjoyied his travel very much. The sun was shinning at the sea. We went for a walk with our car. The storm cause a very big damage. He did not leave me to go. I tried to find the luggages who I had left at the platform. We did not have a moment to loose. The afternoon I went for a walk with a friend of me. For my good luck he told me the hole story. We saw the boat to sink and run for help. I did not afraid when I herd it. People use to say that it was not a so easy ting to travel with a plane. I am enough comfortable he told. Sometimes when it happens the sea to be rough we do not go for

baths. The teacher, he explained us our mistakes as usually. He went at school early this morning without to eat any breakfast. He is the friend of hers.

What shall I do with all these money? The bad was that we could not to go home. He said us much stories. He is bigger than me one year. They wanted to make us a surprise. As soon as I will return at home I will go to bed. I am thinking to go to England next year. He threw to the dog a stone. He has not succeed to pass his examination. In the dark room I fell on the wardrobe.

Something prevented it to open. Except what I told you, you must to remember to write clearly. We went to bed early because the other day we were going to do an

excursion. By this way you will learn how to swim. For my surprise the lesson had began. His hairs are turning grey. He told me he will leave and so he did. He went at the garden to cut some woods. The whole class was too shocked when they heard the news.

They stole our house last weak. We were discussing about the political position. That lady is our new typewriter.


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Writing in Focus 13

From the very beginning I was sure nothing wrong happened. The buss ran fastly in order that the children arrived quickly to the

school. He borrowed me some money. He was hearing the results from the radio. In the contrary of my brother I work hardly. Do not do so many mistakes!

1.2. Spelling and Punctuation

1.2.1. Commonly Misspelled Words

Underline the misspelled words in the following passages. Then write thecorrect spellings in the space above the lines.

He put alot of work into his vegtable garden, hopeing to sell part of his

produce to a locale restaraunt.

Last Wensday, five atheletes from Taiwan visited the campus for a

gymnastic exibition. Amoung other things, thez preformed a

dicsiplined series of excercises on the paralell bars, probally one of

the finest such preformences Ive ever seen.

The instructer decided to develope a course calander listing the due

dates for all major asignments. Than she revised her abscence policy,

making it consistant with the new attendence regulations issued by the

universitz during the preceeding semester.

Nobody thought that the desparate, starving prisoners had the strenth

to excape, but through an extrordinary effort, they managed to make it

accross fourty miles of mountainous terrain, arriving safely at the

border where they where rescued by local police.

His poor judgement, his overly agressive style of managment, his lack

of disipline, and his tendancy to exagerate his sucesses and ignore his

failures all these factors led the firm to a truely disasterous year.


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Writing in Focus14

Embarassed and outraged, the board of directers fired him as soon as

his incredable ineptitude came to light.

Michael Learys newest novel is a study in the psycology of teror. By

subtley manipulating the reader, he manages to make the villian seem

monsterous without making him seem all together unrealistic.

Up until last week, things were going alright. Then I had my worst day

of the semester: first, I caused a fire in the chemistry labratory; later

that day, my English teacher returned a paper marked with twelf

mispellings and several errors in grammer; then on Thursday, I had an

arguement with my roomate about which of us should contrall the

thermostat in our room.

During her campaign, the govorner made alot of promises about

cleaning up the enviroment, but she now seems unable to fulfill those

promises. She still seems knowlegeable about the kez ussues, but

she no longer posesses the committment she once had.

The following words are all spelled wrongly. Rewrite them correctly, using adictionary if you have great difficulty.

ACOMODATION, ACHEIVE, APPLICIBLE, BEGINNING,

CARACTERISTICS, CRITISISM, DEVELOPEMENT, DISSAPPEARED,

DEVIDED, EMBARASSED, ENVIROMENT, FREQUANTLY, FOREINGER,

HEIGHTH, HIPOTHESIS, INCRESINGELY, INSUFFICENT,

INTERVIEIWED, LABORERS, MAINTANING, MEDECINE, NECCESSARY,

OCUPATION, OCURED, PRECEED, REASERCH, RECEIVE,

RECOMENDASION, REFFERING, SEPERATLY, STUDING,

SUCCESSFUL.


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Writing in Focus 15

1.2.2. Punctuation Marks and Capital Letters

Identify the main uses of the following punctuation marks:

1.3. comma

It is years since I read Anna Karenina, which is my favouritenovel.

If you do not understand, please tell me.

J ames J oyce, the great modernist writer, once said . . .

The speaker, getting to his feet, began to . . .

I shall need a book, some paper, a pencil, and a ruler.

You can, however, do it if you wish.

They tried, in spite of my advice, to climb the mountain.

1.4. full-stop

She quietly watched the man passing. Then she . . .

1.5. colon

I have some news for you: J ohns father has arrived.

Please send the items indicated below, namely:

(i) passport (ii) visa application (iii) correct fee

1.6. semi-colon

The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long as well.

The chief commodities are: butter, cheese, milk, eggs; lamb, beef,veal, pork; oats, barley, rye and wheat.

1.7. hyphen

The manager co-opted the workers in the project.

Self-control is what he needs.

1.8. apostrophe

The directors interpretation altered the basic script of the play.

1.9. question mark

What time is it?

But: Please tell me what time it is.

1.10. dash

He received a prize and a certificate as well.


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Writing in Focus16

1.11. quotation marks (inverted commas)

He said, Why did you do that?

1.12. exclamation mark

Oh dear! Get out!

1.13. brackets (parentheses)

He (Mr Brown) told him (Mr J ones) that he (Mr Green) hadbeen accepted for his job.

William Smith (1910-1969) lived first in Manchester (see p. 70)and then . . .

1.2.3. Further practice

Punctuate the following passages and add capital letters where necessary:

the most striking feature of the oceans is their vast size the nextmost striking feature is the constant motion of their surfaces onecause of the motion is the wind it may make waves from an inchto over sixty feet in height another cause of waves is geologicdisturbances such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions belowthe surface of the oceans waves from geologic disturbances aresometimes incorrectly called tidal waves but they have norelation to the tides.

the first of the great civic universities established in englandmanchester is today the largest unitary university in the unitedkingdom and an internationally famous centre of learning andresearch it is well endowed with resources and facilities theuniversity library for instance is one of the four big academiclibraries in the country and the university has its own moderntheatre television studios art gallery museum shopping centreand of course extensive sports facilities

mr brown had been teaching English abroad for a number ofyears he had forgotten how cold it could be in england in the

winter it was often dull and grey in november but it could bereally cold in december january and february even in the spring itcould snow mr brown looked out of the window as the traincrossed the river avon he remembered the weather forecast thathe had heard on the bbc at 9 oclock that tuesday morning it hadsaid that it would be wet and windy in the north west manchesterwhere he was now travelling to was unfortunately in the northwest


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Writing in Focus 17

1.3. Style and Appropriateness

1.3.1. Linguist ic registers

Compare the following examples of letters (both replies to an invitation). Ineach case, identify the relationship between the writer and the recipient ofthe letter. How many differences (in point of style) can you establish betweenthem?

Dear Fred,Thanks a lot for the invitation. Im afraid Sue is ill so

we wont be able to come. See you soon.All the best,Tom

Dear Professor Smith,

Thank you very much for the kind invitation to dinner. Iregret that my wife is ill so that it will not be possible for us tocome. I do hope, however, that I shall have an opportunity ofseeing you again in the near future.

Yours sincerely,Tom Jackson

Compare the following explanations or definitions of economics. To whatregister do they belong? Which are the main differences between them?

Economics? . . . Yes, well, um . . . economics is, I suppose,about people trying to . . . let me see . . . match things that arescarce you know with things that they want, . . . oh yes, andhow these efforts have an effect on each other . . . throughexchange, I suppose.

Economics is the social science that studies how people attemptto accommodate scarcity to their wants and how these attemptsinteract through exchange.

The following sentences are mixed formal and informal. Write F (formal) or I

(informal) after each of them, and explain your decision.

The project will be completed next year.

I showed that his arguments did not hold water.

I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long.

Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can beconcluded.

It is possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint.

It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation. Hell have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment.


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Writing in Focus18

It is not clear why such terrible conditions were tolerated for so long.

There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should berevised.

Well finish the job next year.

1.3.2. Colloquial English and Slang

Note that:

The kind of informal English which is normal in ordinaryconversation but is not considered acceptable in more formallanguage is called colloquial. Slang is even more informallanguage and consists mainly of particular words andphrases used principally by one group of people, eg youngchildren, teenagers, students, professional people, working

people etc. (The line between colloquial and slang words isnot at all clear and many words considered colloquial bysome people would be considered slang by others.) Aftereach conversation below, first explain each colloquial orslang item written in italics and then rewrite the conversationin a more formal style.

Alan: Do you fancy going to the pictures tonight?J ill: Great. Hang on, though. Theres something good on telly.

Peter: Lend us a few quid. Imbroke.Tony: Heres a fiver.Peter: Smashing. Ta.

George: Wheres my thingamajig?Eileen: Whatsisnames got it.

Chris: Do you like your new school?Gus: Its OK.Chris: And the kids in your class?

Gus: Theyre a decentbunch.Chris: And the teacher?Gus: Oh, hes a terrificbloke.

Fred: Im not too keen on this new guy in the office.Alex: Yeah, hes a bit of a big-head. Throws his weight around.Fred: Yeah, if I get any more hassle from him, Im going to tell himwhat I think.Alex: Come off it. You havent got the guts. Youd get the sack.

J oe: Posh suit!Brian: My grandparents 50th wedding anniversary. Were having a bitofa do.


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Writing in Focus 19

J oe: Come and have a drink first. On me.Brian: J ust for ajiffy. Musnt get there plastered

Mr Stanton: You look a bit fed up. Whats up?Mr Moore: Someones pinched my brolly and its coming down inbuckets.

Mr Stanton: Oh, tough luck.

Valerie: Saw a film the other night. Chapfalls fora girl, then discoversshes dying. Bit of a tear-jerker. I suppose it was pretty corny, but Iliked it. Mary Major had a part in it. She must be pushing 70.

Bob: I think my old bangers clapped out. Ill have to get a new one.J im: Yes, it does lookpast it. Whatll you get?Bob: I rather fancy the new Rover.

J im: Classy! Itll cost you a packet.

Donald: Someones walked off with my specs!Sheila: Dont be daft! Youve got them in your hand.Donald: Oh, yes. Im going bonkers.

Phillip: Im afraid the new secretarys a dead loss, J ohn. The red-headwith the trendy clothes.

J ohn: Youre right. She thinks shes the cats whiskers, but in actualfact shes a bit dim.Phillip: Yes, her works poor and, as you say, she fancies herself.Shes very snooty with the other girls.

J ohn: Do you think we ought to give her the push?Phillip: Im afraid so, but shell be shattered.


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Writing in Focus20

1.3.3.British and American English

A few words are sometimes used differently on either side of the Atlantic.However, most of the vocabulary is identical, so British and American peopledo understand each other perfectly well most of the time. Look at the wordsin the following lists and match them:

Am.E.: apartment, attorney, to call someone, checkmark, closet,couch, downtown, drugstore/pharmacy, the fall, faucet, garbage/trash,movie, movie theater, potato chips, schedule, sidewalk, zero, zipp

Br.E.: autumn, chemists, cinema, city/town centre,cupboard/wardrobe, film, flat, rubbish, nought, pavement, potatocrisps, sofa, to ring someone up, solicitor/barrister, tap, tick, timetable,zip

Work in pairs. Fill the gaps in the sentences below with suitable words fromthe lists one of you using British English words, the other the Americanones.

Turn left at the next .

When you arrive, report to the reception desk on the . floor and thentake the or walk up the stairs to the . floor.

Every man was wearing a three-piece suit: jacket, , and .

Does the . go all the way to the airport, or do I have to take a bus?

There was a long for tickets at the .. station.

We had to drive off the .. to fill up with . .

If theres a power cut you may need to use a to see in the dark.

Do you need to go to the . before we leave?

Br. E.: crossroads, first floor, ground floor, lift, motorway, petrol,queue, railway, toilet, torch, trousers, underground, waistcoat

Am. E.: bathroom, elevator, first floor, flashlight, freeway/highway, gas,intersection, line, pants, railroad, second floor, subway, vest

In British and American English some words may be spelt (Br.)/spelled(Am.)differently. Work in pairs and decide how the following words, spelt in Am.English, would usually be written in British English:

Catalog Center Color Defense Favour Honor Humor J ewelry Kidnaper Labor

Pajamas Quarrelling Skilful Theatre travelers cheque TV program Woollen


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Writing in Focus 21

1.3.4. Further pract ice

Underline the informal diction or slang in the following passages, and explainwhy the words are appropriate for the context in which they appear. Note anyother features that make the writing informal. Choose a passage and rewriteit in a more formal style.

At first I hated the school, but by-and-by I got so I could stand it.Whenever I got uncommon tired I played hookey , and the hidingI got the next day done me good and cheered me up. So thelonger I went to school the easier it got to be. I was getting sort ofused to the widows ways, too, and they warnt so raspy on me.Living in a house, and sleeping in a bed, pulled on me prettyright, mostly, but before the weather was cold I used to slide outand sleep in the woods, sometimes, and so that was a rest tome. I liked the old ways best, but I was getting so I liked the new

ones, too, a little bit.

Tom and I are planning a get-together this Friday night nothingfancy, just a few folks from the neighbourhood. Why dont youdrop by for a drink and a bite to eat around 8 or 8:30. Give us acall if you cant make it.

Underline the formal diction in the following passages, and explain why theunderlined words are appropriate for the context in which they appear. Noteany other features that make the writing formal. Re-write one of the passages

in a more informal style.

Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the durationwhich it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the causeof the conflict might cease with, or even before, the conflict itselfshould cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a resultless fundamental and astounding.

Mr. and Mrs. Alexander Bennington request the honour of yourpresence at the marriage of their daughter, Christina Lynne, to

Mr. Gilbert Everett Fulmer, Saturday, the eighth of November, atten oclock in the morning, St. David Church, 8500 Ridgeway,Leamington Spa, Warwickshire.

Provide a middle-diction equivalent for each slang or formal word in thefollowing list. Consult your dictionary as needed.

Nefarious

Stuck-up

Icky

Commence

Buddy

Misprize

Pernicious

Pulchritude

Mix-up

Booze

Flagellate

Masticate

Hyper(adjective)

Super(adjective)

Cool(adjective)


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Task:

The following passage contains an incongruous mixture of formal and informallanguage. Underline the offending words, and replace them to make thepassage consistent in its use of middle diction.

At the turn of the century, the female of the species was defined assomeones property. She was someones mother, someonesdaughter, or someones wife nothing more. She had few legal rightsand therefore was stuck in her nowhere life. However, somemembers of the gender were experiencing an awakening. They weregetting in tough with new feelings and were starting to envisage afuture in which they might attain existence as people separate fromtheir families.

In The Awakening, Kate Chopin delineates the life of such awoman Edna Pontellier. Married to a rich New Orleans patrician,Edna discovers that her marriage is a big flop. Dimly cognizant of her

own sensual and intellectual nature, she attempts to get it together asa person, seeking an independent life in which she defies socialconvention. Her happiness, however, is fleeting. Realising that she isstuck with few alternatives, Edna chooses suicide rather than facingthe conventional life from which she cannot extricate herself.

Note that:

A feature of written academic English is the need to be tentative (i.e. to indicateless than one hundred per cent certainty). The most usual ways of expressing

tentativeness or caution are:

METHODS OF EXPRESSING BASIC MEANINGBASIC MEANINGVERB PHRASE ADVERB

Not definitely true Appears toSeems to

ApparentlySeemingly

Not definitelycertain

Tends to(is) likely tomay well

(very) probably

possible Might

MayCouldCan

Maybe

PerhapsPossibly


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Writing in Focus 23

The following sentences are definite statements. Make them more tentative orcautious by changing or adding some words from the table above.

Industrialisation is viewed as a superior way of life.

Many people mistake the cause for the result.

They are prejudiced against evidence.

Potential changes are limited by two factors. They are to turn into obstacles that prevent further progress.

The glossaries at the end of the articles help the readers in more than onedirection.

Even for readers that do not need this lexical help, the glossaries highlightmany interesting words and phrases.

Now look at the following sentences taken from an economics book. How shouldthey be rewritten if we wanted to make them definite and not tentative?

It is also likely to appear in the development of institutions . . .

The ideal of economic development tends to be associated with differentpolicy goals . . .

Perhaps greater clarity can be brought to the meaning of economicdevelopment . . .


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Writing in Focus24

CHAPTER 2 - UNDERSTANDING THE WRITING PROCESS

2.1. The essential elements of an essay

Consider the plan below, which is typical for the organization of an essay:

1. Introduction The thesis statement: the subject or topic; a statement of

the problem, etc. comments on the way it is to be treated

2. Development (the body of the essay) Presentation, analysis and discussion (involving comments

on advantages and disadvantages) Paragraph 1: Main idea (topic sentence) + examples,

details (supportingevidence) Paragraph 2: Main idea (topic sentence) + examples,

details (supportingevidence) Etc.

3. Conclusion Perhaps a summary of the main points in 2. Own

views/opinions and decisions.

Look at the following student essay, paying attention to the way in which it isstructured. Re-write it in the form of a diagram, by identifying the elementspresented in the plan above.

THE HYPOCRISY OF THE COLLEGE GRADING SYSTEM

State Universitys grading system is designed to show howmuch a student has learned in each course and to motivate himthrough competition with other students - at least that is what theschool catalogue says. Since I have been here, though, Ive foundthat this system is illogical and its motivation is misdirected.

What makes the grading system illogical is that professorsteaching the same course often have different goals. For example,my roommate Gail and I are both taking U.S. History I, but all myexaminations are essay and hers are multiple-choice. All she hasto get an A is to memorise information. On the other hand, Imrequired to explain why certain conflicts and changes took placeand to do it in good, clear English. Not only does my professortake off for content, but he also drops the grade for writing errors,or what he calls lack of clarity. In addition, Im expected to readtwo history books, while Gail has to use just one for her class. In away, I really shouldnt complain. Gail and I both realise that Imlearning much more than she is about U.S. history. Nevertheless,that isnt going to show up in the grade reports. As of last week,she was averaging a B (she isnt memorising everything)

compared to my C.The other thing that undermines the grade system logic isthe different standards that individual professors have. For


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Chapter 2 Understanding the Writing Process

Writing in Focus 25

instance, two of my closest friends - Beth and J erry - took first-year French, used the same textbooks, and were each required tocover the same material. Professor Erickson, however, countedsimple vocabulary quizzes and short translations much moreheavily that did Professor DuBois, who relied mainly on oralexaminations for determining grades. Having had four years of

high school French, I realised that both Beth and J errysknowledge of the language was about the same at the end of theircourses. Beth received a B. Meanwhile, poor J erry, who becamevery nervous during oral recitations, had earned only a D.

J errys anger at the grade is understandable, as, I think, ismine with regard to my U.S. History I class. But this anger pointsup the other problem with the grading system: because studentsknow that others will immediately measure their knowledge by thegrades they have received, they are liable to become moreinterested in As and Bs than in learning. I admit that the gradingsystem is likely to motivate students, but not in the way theuniversity intends. Instead, it will motivate them away from thepursuit of knowledge and toward the pursuit of the easy A, thesimple course, and the most lenient professor. J erry has alreadysigned up for Professor Erickson next term, and I am planning totake U.S. History II from the professor Gail has this semester.

What are the solutions to the problems created by thepresent grading system? Standardising course requirements ineach department is a first step. More important, though, is thateach teacher enthusiastically stress the benefits to be gained fromthe material in his or her course.

2.2. Additional guidelines for ensuring cohesion

Read the following guidelines for ensuring cohesion in the development ofthe topic of an essay:

The discussion, argument, or comment in the developmentof the topic may be very straightforward. In this case theideas will be added together, one after the other. The basicconnective AND (or a number of connectives with a similar

meaning) are used in this case. Sometimes, the comments may be expressed in another

way, or an alternative proposal, etc. may be made. This isrepresented by the basic connective OR (and a number ofconnectives with a similar meaning). After the alternativehas been considered, the main argument will continue.

There are also occasions in arguments, etc. when theopposite is considered. This is represented by the basicconnective BUT (and a number of connectives with a similarmeaning). After the opposite or opposing view has been

considered, the main argument is continued.


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Writing in Focus26

The main connectives are grouped below according to the similarity of theirmeaning with the three basic connectives AND, OR, BUT. Provide at leastfour examples for each type.

AND OR BUT1. listing:

a. enumeration

b. additionb. 1. reinforcementb. 2. equation

1. reformulation 1. contrast

2. transition 2. replacement 2. concessions3. summation4. apposition5. result6. inference

Look at the following examples. What types of connectives are used in eachof them?

He passed his examinations; therefore, he had some good news to tellhis parents. / Because he passed his examinations, he had somegood news to tell his parents.

He said he had kept the library book for several years. In other wordshe had stolen it.

The time available for discussion was very limited. Nevertheless, it wasstill possible to produce some interesting arguments.

In the following sentences add (a) a suitable connective and (b) an

appropriate ending from the list below.

Many students find it difficult to read an English newspaper . . . _____ Most overseas students in Britain are interested in news of their own

country . . . _______ When a student comes to study in Britain he may have to complete

about twelve different forms . . . ______ Maria is rather slow at learning . . . _____ Helen finds languages quite easy . . . _____ Anna speaks English like a native speaker . . . ____ Some of the examination questions were very difficult _____ There was only limited money available for research . . . _____ The project was very complicated . . . ____

a) British news is found to be of most interest.b) They usually read the international news first in the newspapers.c) An average of five books per month are read.d) Not many read one regularly.e) It is useful to be able to answer questions briefly.f) She speaks it excellently.g) She speaks slowly.

h) She is taking a long time to improve her English.i) She speaks it with great difficulty.j) Dimitros was not able to do it.


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Chapter 2 Understanding the Writing Process

Writing in Focus 27

k) J uan succeeded in completing it in time.l) Abdul was able to obtain a grant.m) Oscar did not manage to complete them.n) Ali managed to answer them satisfactorily.o) She has little difficulty in learning English.

Complete the following by adding a suitable ending:

The lecture was very difficult to understand. Consequently, ____ Carlos was only able to read very slowly in English. Therefore, ____ Margaret is bilingual. In other words, ____ Some people say that if you are good at music you will also be good at

learning languages. To put it more simply, _____ It seemed likely that he would fail the test. However, ____ There were a number of good reasons why he should not finish the

experiment. Nevertheless, _____

Re-read the student essay under point A. Identify the basic connectives itemploys to develop its argument. Supply alternatives where possible.

TASK:

The following essay would profit from careful revisions. Read it two or threetimes, keeping in mind the three-part structure of an essay, its essentialelements thesis statement, topic sentence, details, and conclusion andthe guidelines for ensuring cohesion. Then rewrite the essay, making anychanges (in point of organisation, connectives, diction, logic and grammar)

you consider necessary for improving it.

FOOD WORLDS MADDING CROWD

I spent the summer bagging groceries at a large supermarket. Isaw the usual mix of American suburban humanity young, singlepeople buying brie and white wine, old people buying bread andbeans, middle-aged people buying tons of everything to feedthemselves and their teenaged kids. Some were rude, some werepolite, but most were withdrawn, preferring to remain nameless

and faceless. What interested me more was not the customers butthe way that the employees at Food World reacted to the differentkinds of customers.The cashiers, who had the most contact, may have been friendly

people once, but they seemed to have grown indifferent to thecustomers, probably because few of them responded whenwished a friendly Good afternoon or Have a nice day. Themanager and assistant manager, who saw the customers only toapprove checks, were much friendlier. The bag boys, includingme, were somewhere in between, and of course we had an inbetween amount of contact compared to the managers and thecashiers. So maybe it is the amount of contact an employee has


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Writing in Focus28

with a customer that determines whether the employee becomesburned out in the realm of friendliness.

Anyway, there are the three types of employees when it comesto how they treat the customers.

Howard is typical of the cashiers, the first type, which is sort ofrobot-like when it comes to customer relations. Let me give you anexample. I bagged for Howard and watched him all one Saturday

morning. The first customer was an elderly lady, who made threeor four attempts to chat with him, asking him whether he hated towork on Saturdays and didnt he think it was a lovely day. Howardnever even answered her. I dont think he ever made eye-contactwith any of the customers. He just kept looking at the individualgrocery items coming down the conveyor belt of the check-outcounter, pulling them across the price-scanner, and dropping themback for me to put in bags. About the only thing I ever heard himsay was a mechanical thank-you as he handed change andrecipients to customers.The second type of employee is the friendliest. These are the

managers. They have two reasons for being friendly. Lessfrequent contact with the public than the cashiers have allow themanagers not to become burned out greeting people who areusually unresponsive, and the managers have a greater interest inpromoting the success of the store than the cashiers who do.Ursilla, for example, who is assistant manager, always has a smileand cheery greeting for everyone, even with the people whosechecks she says she cannot approve and to whom she apologizesprofusely.The baggers, including me, tend to be in-between. We have less

contact with the public than the cashiers do but more than themanagers do. We tend to be friendly to the people who answerwhen we say How are you. Other customers, especially the oneswho wont make eye-contact, we tend to ignore.

Maybe the answer to better customer relations is to workespecially on ways to improve the cashiers attitudes. That couldbe done through training sessions and frequent reminders to befriendly, even to customers who look like they wont be responsive.

The way the three types of employees are able to showfriendliness in proportion to their lack of public contact also says tome that China isnt the only place suffering from overcrowding,

and maybe the only way a busy retail business is going topreserve politeness is to give frequent breaks or split schedules tothe employees who have to have the most contact with the public.


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Chapter 3 Language Functions

Writing in Focus 29

CHAPTER 3 - LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

3.1. Description

Read the following sentences and decide what sense impressions theyconvey:

Axel has an orange wart on his nose.

The train whistle hooted faintly in the distance.

The coat felt soft.

The aroma of frying grease wafted from behind the restaurant.

The warm, musty red wine bit sharply on her throat.

Examine the following descriptive paragraphs. Identify the dominantimpression (i.e. attitude, image, or feeling that the writer has about the topicof his description and wants to share it with his/her audience) in each, explainhow the details reinforce that impression, and note which senses areappealed to:

The most striking characteristic of the universitys indoor stadiumis its visual beauty. The artificial grass sparkles like a new carpet.

Though soft to the eye, it is prickly to the touch, and if a runnerslides on it, the grass burns and scrapes the skin. This man-madefootball field is 100 yards long, with an additional 20 yards for endzones. Large white numerals mark each 10 yards from goal to

goal. Encircling the field is a track, one-sixth of a mile long. Whenthe huge, bright light directly overhead blaze down on the artificialgrass at night, the turf resembles a large, flat, luminous piece of

jade.

Documentary photographers at the turn of the century frequentlyturned their attention to persuading society of the necessity ofproviding for the poor. Typical of them was J acob Riis. Hisphotography of Baxter Street alley in 1888 shows tenements oneither side of the narrow passage, crowding so close as to shut

out the daylight. On one side the tenements are brick and on theother wood, but they appear rickety and squalid. Bags of rags andbones and paper are stacked in the alley. A small child standsbeside the bags, in front of a pile of scrap wood she apparentlygathered for fuel.

I was surrounded by hills. They werent mountains like you see incalendar pictures, topped with evergreens smiling down on a blue,sparkling lake. These were rolling, brooding hills, barren except forsome brown scrub grass. As I looked up at the grey sky, I heardthe whine of the wind and felt its sharp fingers pierce my thick,black coat. A driving rain soon began to beat me. Large drops


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Writing in Focus30

smacked my face and ran into my mouth. They tasted sour. Thehills continued to look down at me, making me small and afraid. Ifelt completely alone.

Everything in the restaurant smacked of old England: heavybeamed ceiling, dancing fires in all three fireplaces, dark brown

creaking tables with ages-old initials carved in their tops. One hadonly to look about, sink back into one of the sumptuous greenleather easy chairs that surrounded the tables, and feel anoverwhelming sense of mellow contentment. This would soon bereplaced with anticipation, however, as the smells of the kitchenpervaded the atmosphere. Few would fail to be stirred by the richearthiness of the roast haunch of venison with red-currant jelly andchestnut puree, let alone the chicken cooked in red wine withmushrooms or the trout poached in white wine with shrimp andmussels. And as waiter after waiter moves from kitchen to table,the easy anticipation is replaced by impatience. Taste buds at

attention, knife and fork at the ready, the cozy room seeming to begetting too warm, a little voice inside- begins to murmur,Wheres mine?

Revise the following descriptive paragraph so that it makes use of senseother than just the visual.

The open market had a large variety of fruits: apples, oranges,watermelons, peaches, and pears all colourfully arranged.Sunshine poured over the square, brightening the copper pots,pans, and utensils as well as the red, green, orange, and yellowbolts of cloth. People dressed in their native ethnic costumescrowded between the tables that displayed the wares. The squareon International Day is a glorious sight.

Task

Write a paragraph in which you describe your first day as a fresh student.Keep in mind that developing a description involves the following tasks:

Determining the purpose of the description.

Determining the dominant impression you want to create, andselecting details that will reinforce that impression.

Drawing details from the other senses hearing, smell, taste, andtouch in addition to sight.


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Writing in Focus 31

3.2. Definition

Look at the following table. Join the 8 sentences on the left with the correctones from the 10 on the right by using the appropriate relative pronoun.

1. An engineer is a person a. It produces electricity.

2. A microscope is aninstrument

b. He studies the way in which industry andtrade produce and use wealth.

3. A generator is a machine c. He treats the diseases of animals.4. A botanist is a person d. It makes distant objects appear nearer and

larger.5. A square is a geometricfigure

e. He designs machines, buildings or publicworks.

6. A cucumber is avegetable

f. It gives information on subjects inalphabetical order.

7. An economist is a person g. He studies plants.

8. An encyclopedia is abook

h. It makes very small near objects appearlarger.i. It is long and round with dark green skin andlight green watery flesh

j. It has four equal sides and four right angles.

Definition presents the meaning of a term, by showing the specificcharacteristics that give something its identity, i.e. set it apart from things thatare similar to it. The typical language construction is:

Term + verb + general class word + wh-word + particular characteristics

(differentia)

Identify the term, class and differentia in the following definitions:

A ballad is a folk song or orally transmitted poem which tells in a directand dramatic manner some popular story usually derived from a tragicincident in local history or legend.

An act is a major division in the action of a play, which comprises oneor more scenes.

Analogy is an illustration of an idea by means of a more familiar ideathat is similar or parallel to it in some significant features.

Antithesis is a rhetorical device which emphasises a contrast oropposition of ideas, usually by the balancing of connected clauseswith parallel grammatical constructions.

A dream vision is narrative (usually in verse) in which the narrator fallsasleep and dreams the events of a tale.

The mystery play is a major form of popular medieval religious dramawhich represents a scene from the Old or New Testament.


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Writing in Focus32

What mistakes have been made in the following definitions? Re-write them ina more satisfactory way.

An amnemeter is used to measure electric current.

A lecturer is a person who lectures.

A dictionary is a book like Collins English Dictionary.

A degree is given by a university to a student who has passed theappropriate examinations.

Plastics are moulded into shape when they are heated.

A mineral is a structurally homogenous solid.

A fossil is buried by natural processes and subsequently permanentlypreserved.

Sociology is concerned with the development and principles of socialorganisation.

Write definitions for the following terms:

satire

mock-heroic poem

the carpe diem motif

the novel

the romance

plot

point of view

the epic

the lyric

the pastoral

heroic couplet

Renaissance

Neoclassicism.

Age of Sensibility

Compare the following definitions of Nationalism. State the differencesbetween them. Which one do you consider to be clearer? Which of the two ismore emphatic?

Nationalism is the political doctrine which favours or strives afterthe unity, independence, interests or domination of a nation.

Nationalism is an amalgam of two elements; an ideologyembroidered about the idea of nationality, and the politicalinstitutionalisation of that ideology into the national state. Thestrength of nationalism rests on a consensus of national unitywhich may stem from race, language, common history andexperiences, religion, territory or other interests. The nationalstate, reflecting the political and social organisation of theindividuals which comprise it and having coercive power overthem, claims, in their name, sovereignty over the territory in whichthey live.


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Writing in Focus 33

Task:

Revise the following paragraph so that the opening sentence clearly definesthe term and the paragraph sufficiently distinguishes it from similar terms:

Satire usually shows scepticism or lack of respect. Like a sardonicremark, a satiric comment shows up weakness. A satiric remarkmay bite sometimes, but a sardonic remark always bites andalways shows up doubts about values. Satire pokes fun atsomething by magnifying or diminishing it, and the result must bethat people laugh. J onathan Swift, for example, made peoplelaugh at the vanity of man by first making Gulliver so much biggerthan the Lilliputians that Gulliver looked ridiculous. Next, Swift putGulliver on an island with giants, so that Gulliver was so trivial heseemed ridiculous. Satire is also present in my roommatesexaggeration of the accent of his maths teacher. It remains satire

as long as he does the imitation in front of people who like themath teacher. But it would get nasty and cross the bounds ofsatire if the imitation were done in front of people who didnt likethe math teacher, because then it would not just be for fun butwould be to hurt.

3.1. Exemplification

Identify some ways of exemplifying used in the following sentences:

Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, itsstructure, sound systems and meaning systems.

Geology may be defined as the science of the earths history, asshown by its crust, rocks, etc.

Geography may be defined as the science of the earths surface; it isconcerned with a number of features, particularly physical, climate andproducts.


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Writing in Focus34

Read the following passage and draw a box around all the expressions whichhave the same meaning as for example. Notice how they are used and thepunctuation that is used with them. Then underline all the examples.

What is Language?

A language is a signalling system which operates with symbolicvocal sounds, and which is used by a group of people for thepurposes of communication.

Let us look at this definition in more detail because it is language,more than anything else, that distinguishes man from the rest ofthe animal world.

Other animals, it is true, communicate with each other by meansof cries: for example, many birds utter warning calls at theapproach of danger; apes utter different cries, such asexpressions anger, fear and pleasure. But these various means ofcommunication differ in important ways from human language. Forinstance, animals cries are not articulate. This means, basically,that they lack structure. They lack, for example, the kind ofstructure given by the contrast between vowels and consonants.

They also lack the kind of structure that enables us to divide ahuman utterance into words.

We can change an utterance by replacing one word in it byanother: a good illustration of this is a soldier who can say, e.g.tanks approaching from the north, or he can change one wordand say aircraft approaching from the north or tanks approachingfrom the west; but a bird has a single alarm cry, which means

danger!This is why the number of cries that an animal can make is verylimited: the great tit is a case in point; it has about twenty differentcalls, whereas in human language the number of possibleutterances is infinite. It also explains why animal cries are verygeneral in meaning.

Other commonly used verb forms and methods of expression forexemplification are:

Shown / exemplified / illustrated by . . . X shows / exemplifies / illustrates this. The following examples, a and b. / The following are examples of X: a

and b. / a and b are examples of X. Writers such as X and Y / Such writers as X and Y

The following sentences are based upon the information contained in the textabove. Complete the sentences making use of each of the following wordsonly once.

illustration for example a case in point an example for

instance such as


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Writing in Focus 35

At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this is________ an animals communicating with each other.

Cries, ________ those of anger, fear and pleasure, are uttered byapes.

There are important differences between human language and animalcommunication: ________ , animals cries are not articulate.

Animals cries lack, __________ , the kind of structure that enable usto divide a human utterance into words.

A good _________ of changing an utterance by substituting one wordfor another is a soldier who can say tanks approaching from the northor tanks approaching from the west.

The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: thegreat tit is _________ .

The following paragraph also employs exemplification. In what does it differ

from the previous examples? What function does exemplification serve andhow are the specific details used by the author?

Volcanoes, waterfalls, battle scenes, rescues on horseback,amazing transformations - all were done often on the stages of thenineteenth century. But the questions of how - and of how well -are more difficult to answer. Certainly the handling of sceniceffects was often crude and blundering. A Philadelphia manger,famous for his dramatic spectacles almost failed once when agauze representing rain fell properly on the stage, but had to beremoved by drawing it up again. The sight of rain rising offended

the audiences sense of reality, but, impressed with the otherscenery, they chose to be amused rather than angered. Thefailure of Vesuvius to erupt on cue, however, totally ruined a lavishproduction of The Last Days of Pompeii. The stage managerordered the curtain down and managed to get the eruption going,but by the time the curtain was reopened the disappointedaudience, already leaving the theatre, saw only the last sputters ofthe cataclysm.

Tasks:

1. Rewrite the passage above using some of the language and vocabularyaid provided in the first half of this unit.

2. Write a paragraph that presents several illustrations to exemplify thedifficult life of a student, or to illustrate the thesis according to which recentmovies demonstrate our fascination with violence.


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Writing in Focus36

3.2. Classification

Read the following passage carefully and decide what are the main criteriaused in the classification. Then draw a classification diagram of state schoolsin England and Wales.

STATE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES

The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state schools(local authority schools) which provide compulsory education fromthe age of 5 to 16 years. These schools can be classifiedaccording to the age range of the pupils and the type of educationprovided. Basically there are two types of school. Primary schoolscater for children aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16 (and in some areas up to 18 years). Primary schools can be

sub-divided into infant schools (for ages 5-7) and junior schools(for ages 7-11.)Secondary schools are normally of one type for all abilities, viz.

comprehensive schools. More than 90% of children in stateschools attend this kind of school. In some areas middle schoolsexist as an extra level after primary school for children aged 8 or 9to 12 or 13. Pupils then transfer to senior comprehensive schools.In a very small number of areas, pupils may be grouped accordingto their ability and selected by means of an examination at the ageof 11. In these areas, grammar schools cater for those who passthe exam. Those who fail go to another secondary school.

When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choicesopen to them. Firstly, they may leave school. Secondly, they maystay on at school for two more years of it has a Sixth Form.

Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form College, a TertiaryCollege or a further Education College.

Draw a diagrammatic classification of the Romanian education system. Whenyou have completed it, write a brief description of it, employing the structureand vocabulary aid provided below:

Nouns: criterion/criteria basis/bases categories classesgroups types kinds sorts divisions sub-

categories/classes/groups/etc.

Verbs: classify categorise group divide intoarrange(in) put into fall into sub-

classify/categorise/divide/etc.

X consists of/comprises according to X may be classified according to/on the basis of/depending on (upon)

The classification is based upon .


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Writing in Focus 37

Which of the following categories may be employed as a logical set to beemployed in classifying works of art?

Renaissance art / landscape painting / oil painting / sculpture Renaissance art / neoclassical art / Romantic art / modern art

Tasks:

1. Think of three means of classifying students in the curriculum you havechosen. Consider your audience to be: a) your fellow students; b) youteachers. What basis of classification would be most useful for each of thesegroups?

2. Revise the following paragraph of classification so that it is complete,useful and logical:

Choosing a gift for a graduating high school senior requiresknowing whether the student is planning to attend college andwhat the student needs. J udging from what I and my friendsreceived, I would classify graduation gifts for the college-bound ashighly-practical, moderately practical, barely practical, andimpractical. In the first category, highly practical, were cash,towels, sheets, a fan, an alarm clock, a new desk dictionary, astudy lamp, a typewriter, and other such accessories such asstationary and pens, and a small refrigerator. Moderately practicalgifts included reference books, wall posters to prevent visually

boring walls, and recreation things like music tapes for a radiotape player. Also in this category is a small television set, whichone of my friends got. Barely useful things included things likechess and Scrabble games, because so few college students havetime for them. A basketball and frisbee are much more useful,because many students like to get exercise when they take breaksfrom studying. In the last category, the impractical, were such giftsas new ties and clothing for formal occasions, a tropical fish tank,and novels unlikely to be assigned reading in any course


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Writing in Focus38

3.5. Comparison and Contrast

Read the following passage, then fill in the sentences given below it, bychoosing words and phrases provided in the accompanying list.

Several years ago, some research was conducted at ManchesterUniversity into the amount of time that overseas postgraduatestudents spent listening to spoken English and speaking English.Sixty students co-operated by completing questionnaires.

It was found that an average of 22 hours per week werespent listening to English and only 6 hours speaking English toEnglish people. An analysis of the time spent listening to Englishshowed that lectures accounted for 5 hours and seminars 2hours. An estimated 2 hours were spent in serious discussionwhile 2 hours were devoted to everyday small-talk. Watchingtelevision accounted for 5 hours and listening to the radio 4

hours. Going to the cinema or theatre only accounted for anaverage of hour per week.

biggest; as much as; more than; least; most; mot so many as; as many as; the same as; greater than

o The students spent considerably ________ time listening toEnglish ________ speaking it.

o A _____ amount of time was spent in lectures _____ inseminars.

o Nearly ______ hours were spent listening to the radio____watching television.

o The ______ popular way of listening to English was bywatching TV.

o ___________ number of hours was spent in everyday small-talk _______ in taking part in seminars.

o The __________ popular way of listening to English was bygoing to the cinema.

o __________ hours were spent in serious discussion ________

in watching television.

o Nearly ______ time was spent in watching television__________ in speaking English.

o __________ time was spent in serious discussion ________ ineveryday small-talk.

o The ____________ surprise in the survey was the smallnumber of hours spent speaking English to English people.


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Writing in Focus 39

You have just received a letter from a friend, asking for some informationabout English dictionaries and asking you to recommend a suitable one tohelp him/her learn English. Look at the information provided in the tablebelow and write a letter recommending of the dictionaries, giving reasons foryour choice.

Dictionary Words andphrases

Examples Pages Level

LongmanDictionary ofContemporaryEnglish

80,000 62,700 1,690 Upperintermediate- advanced

OxfordAdvancedLearnersDictionary

63,000 90,000 1,428 Upper-intermediateadvanced

CambridgeInternationalDictionary ofEnglish

100,000 110,000 1,792 Intermediateadvanced

CollinsCOBUILDEnglishDictionary

75,000 100,000 1,951 Intermediate- advanced

Read the following sentences - which are based on the information providedin the table below - and underline the language constructions used toexpress similarity or difference:

Both Belgium and Canada have a small agricultural population.

Ireland and Belgium are dissimilar in that Ireland has a much smallerpopulation than Belgium.

Canada is similar to Nepal in that it has a large forest area.

The main religion in Belgium is Christianity, whereas in Egypt it isIslam.

On the one hand, Canada has the largest population; on the otherhand, it has the lowest density of population.


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Writing in Focus40

Belgium Canada Egypt Ireland NepalPopulation 10,140,000 29,972,000 64,100,0

003,589,000 21,953,00

0Area:sq.km.

32,800 9,221,000 995,000 68,900 137,000

Density:per sq.km.

323 3 52 53 136

Forestarea

21% 39% 0 4.5% 39%

Arable land 23.5% 5% 2% 13.5% 17%Agriculturalpopulation

2% 3% 39% 12% 91%

Mainlanguages

Dutch/Flemish,French

English,French

Arabic,French

English,Irish

Nepali,Maithili

Mainreligions Christianity Christianity Islam Christianity Hinduism,Budhism

Write six more sentences similar to those above, basing your information onthe same table.

Note that:

When developing paragraphs that employ thecomparison/contrast method of development, twoalternatives may be considered:

a) you may first discuss qualities of Subject A, andthen discuss qualities of Subject B, taking care to treatthe strikingly similar or distinctively different qualities ofA and B in the same order;

b) you may make alternative statements (arranged

so as to be parallel) on A, then on B; A again, then Bagain, etc.


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Writing in Focus 41

What methods are used in the following excerpts that employ comparisonand contrast?

The seat next to Mom and Dad was a dreaded position. Here Iwas forced to do all the things in a church that, as a child, I hatedto do. I had to pay attention to the mass, I had to sing, I had to

recite all the prayers throughout the entire service. No talking,sleeping or daydreaming was permitted. I not only had to sing, butI had to listen to Dad sing as well. That was real torture. Trips tothe bathroom were positively prohibited. Youll just have to holdit! Mom would say. Sitting away from my parents, in the rear pewand near the aisle, was a much more desirable position. I was farenough away from my parents so that I could daydream all Iwanted without being bothered. I didnt have to worry aboutsinging, or praying, or paying attention. I could even fall asleep.

The end seat was a place in a world all my own. I didnt have tohear Dad sing, and I could dart out anytime I wanted to go to the

bathroom. Most important, I could be the first person to leavewhen the service ended, and leaving was my favourite part ofchurch.

The advantages of cable television over commercial television areillustrated by last Saturdays schedule: in sports, one cablenetwork offered live coverage of two baseball games involvingteams vying for first place in the National League, while thecommercial network showed only a wrestling match. In movies,cable featured a new and popular film that was still playing at the

local theatres; the commercial networks offered two older movies,a Doris Day film from 1966 and a 1975 western starring no one Idever heard of. In addition, cable had no commercial interruptions,but the commercial channels had dozens. The one disadvantageto cable is its cost (from twenty-two dollars to thirty-three dollars amonth), whereas the commercial networks are free.


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Writing in Focus42

Tasks:

1. Revise the following paragraph, rearranging or adding details asnecessary to sharpen the point of contrast and comparison. Re-write it in theacademic register.

I hope that Peahen Airlines and Mudlark Air both go bankrupt.Peahen has poor service. Its employees are often rude, slow, andsloppy. On my last trip, I had to wait an hour in line (I was behindonly three other customers) just to buy my ticket. A Peahenstewardess spilled coffee on my shoulder and never evenapologised. What I remember most about my last flight on Mudlarkis that Mudlark lost my luggage, and Ive heard other travellerscomplain that Mudlark usually loses a large portion of the luggageit carries on each flight. At least, Peahen doesnt lose luggageoften. Mudlarks employees are like Peahens. Mudlark must save

money by not giving training to its stewardesses, who chat witheach other until the very last few minutes of a light, then rusharound trying to serve drinks at the last, never allowing time to pickup the bottles, cans and plastic cups. Moreover, Mudlarksemployees uniforms usually look wrinkled and soiled, often byfood stains that result from carelessness and rough weather. Itshard to tell which airline is worse.

2. Use the comparison/contrast method to develop an essay on one of thefollowing topics:

a) an ethnic or racial stereotype and a member of the ethnic or racialgroup

b) two musical groups.


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Writing in Focus 43

3.6. Analogy

Read the following excerpts that employ analogy and identity the mainimpression that the speaker wants to convey in each case. Bear in mind thatanalogy is a type of comparison used to clarify something unfamiliar bycomparing it to something familiar or easily understood.

Though it is legal to steal a base, it is unsportsmanlike to spike theshortstop. When my opponent refers to me as a man who wouldrather breathe fresh air than see his neighbour have a job, thenhe is spiking me and stealing the political issue. He is trying todraw off the support of union members who would be able to haveboth clean air and a job.

The great advantage of the electron microscope was that it could

magnify objects far more than the light microscope. The reason forthis had to do with quantum mechanics and the waveform theoryof radiation. The best simple explanation had come from theelectron microscopist Sidney Polton, also a racing enthusiast.

Assume, Polton said, that you have a road, with a sharpcorner. Now assume that you have two automobiles, a sports carand a large truck. When the truck tries to go round the corner, itslips off the road; but the sports car manages it easily. Why? Thesports car is lighter, and smaller and faster; it is better suited totight sharp curves. On large, gentle curves, the automobiles willperform equally, but on sharp curves, the sports car will do better.In the same way, an electron microscope will hold the road betterthan a light microscope. All objects are made of corners, andedges. The electron wavelength is smaller than the quantum oflight. It cuts the corners closer, follows the road better, andoutlines it more precisely. With a light microscope - like a truck -you can follow only a large road. In microscopic terms this meansonly a large object, with large edges and gentle curves: cells andnuclei. But an electron microscope can follow all the minor routes,the byroads, and can outline very small structures within the cell -micochondria, ribosomes, membranes, reticula. (Michael

Crichton, The Andromeda Strain)

Task:

Create the basis for an analogy for the following. Develop one of them into aparagraph.

a) McDonalds and . . .b) a professor and . . .c) a politician and . . .

d) a car and . . .


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Writing in Focus44

3.7. Narrative

Note that:

The introduction to many pieces of academic writingcontains some kind of historical background ordevelopment. This is usually in the form of narrative: anaccount or description of events in the past whichentails following a time sequence or chronological order(i.e. earliest first). Verb forms commonly used are thesimple past active, simple past passive, and pastperfect active.

Read the following carefully. Notice the structure, time sequence, date formsand prepositions, and the verb forms used:

The beginnings of the EEC date from May 9th 1950, whenRobert Shuman, Frances Foreign Minister, proposed that Franceand Germany should combine their coal and steel industries underan independent supranational authority. This led to theestablishment of the European Coal and Steel Community(E.C.S.C.) in 1952. In addition to France and Germany, Belgium,Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands also became members.The E.C.S.C. was a step towards economic integration in Europe

and led to the Treaty of Rome which was signed on March 25th1957. This established the E.E.C. with the same six member

states as in the E.C.S.C. In 1973 the U.K., Denmark and theRepublic of Ireland became members; Greece, Spain and Portugaljoined in the 1980s.

Read through the passage below, then write an appropriate word in each ofthe spaces:

The ____ of the U.N. can ____ traced back ___ the League ofNations. This ___ an international ___ which ___ created ___ the Treaty ofVersailles ___ 1920 with the purpose ___ achieving world peace. Before1930, the league, from its Geneva headquarters, ___ internationalconferences and did useful humanitarian work. ___ , it failed ___ dealeffectively ___ international aggression ___ the 1930s. The league ___formally closed ___ 1946 and ___ was superseded ___ the United Nations.

The U.N. was ___ on 24th October 1945, when the U.N. Charter was___ by the 51 ___ member countries. Almost ___ the countries of the ___are now ___: 159 in ____ .

The U.N. was ___ to maintain ____ peace, and to ___ internationalco-operation to ____ economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems.

____ from the ___ organs of the U.N. (e.g. The General Assembly, theSecurity Council, etc.), ___ of the U.N.s work is done ___ its specialisedbodies, ___ agencies. ________ of the best ____ are, perhaps, the FAO,

ILO, IMF, WHO, UNESCO and UNICEF.


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Writing in Focus 45

1. Below is a passage tracing the development of the universities. Read itthrough. When you have finished do exercise 2 which follows the passage.

The word university comes from the Latin word universitas,meaning the whole. Later, in Latin legal language universitasmeant a society, guild or corporation. Thus, in mediaeval

academic use the word meant an association of teachers andscholars. The modern definition of a university is an institution thatteaches and examines students in many branches of advancedlearning. Awarding degrees and providing facilities for academicresearch.The origins of universities can be traced back to the Middle

Ages, especially the 12-14th centuries. In the early 12th century,long before universities were organised in the modern sense,students gathered together for higher studies at certain centres oflearning. The earliest centres in Europe were at Bologna, in Italy,for law, founded in 1088; Salerno in Italy for medicine;

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