W R A N G E L I S L A N D

R u s s i a n S t r o n g h o l d f o r B e r i n g i a n B i o d i v e r s i t y

Z A P O V E N D N I K

Cape Blossom

Cape Corvin

CapeWaring

Evans Point

Krasi

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UshakovskoeVillage

Chukch i

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HeraldIsland

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Cent r al M oun ta i n s

Somnitelnie Mountains

Mammoth Mountains x Mt. Sovetskaya

3602’ (1095 m)

Seabird Colonies

Walrus Haulouts

Polar Bear Den Areas

Snow Goose Colonies

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Wrangel Island

Doubtful SpitDoubtful Bay

Rogers Bay

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High densityfox denning

High densitysnowy owl

nesting

W r a n g e l I s l a n d 3

CCOONNTTEENNTTSSIsland of Blizzards

Time Capsule

BiodiversityPlantsInsectsBirdsMammals

Conservation Concerns

The Future

Chronology of Events

For Futher Reading

Special Thanks

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Cover photo creditsPolar bear familyNikita Ovsyanikov

Pacific walrusVasiliy Baranyuk

Ross’ gullA.V. Krechmar

Snow geeseArt Wolfe

PrimroseVasiliy Baranyuk

This publication is a production of theBeringia Conservation Program, Anchorage,Alaska. It was made possible through closecollaboration with Russian partners in theWrangel Island Nature Reserve, the WorldWildlife Fund (WWF) U.S., the RussianProgram Office of the World Wide Fund forNature, and with the generous support ofthe Pew Fellows Program in MarineConservation.

Researched and written by Dave ClineDesigned and produced by Terra Graphica of Anchorage, AlaskaPrinted in Alaska by Northern Printing, Anchorage, AlaskaMay, 2001

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : I s l a n d o f B l i z z a r d s4

Near the top of theworld in one of themost remote andinhospitable parts ofthe planet, lie two wild

and undeveloped islands of great signifi-cance to the conservation of life onearth. Untouched by glaciers during the last Ice Age and looking much asthey did in the Pleistocene epoch whenwoolly mammoths roamed the land,Russia’s Wrangel and Herald islands aretoday best known for their denning

polar bears. But they are also strong-holds for arctic biodiversity that is of planetary significance.

Consistent with its plan to develop asystem of nature reserves in the RussianArctic, the Soviet Central Governmentdesignated the Wrangel Island NatureReserve in 1976 to protect its colonies of snow geese, polar bears, and walrus.Together, the reserve’s two islands andtheir surrounding marine waters consti-tute one of Russia’s most treasuredsanctuaries for wildlife. It is the first and

IISSLLAANNDD OOFF BBLLIIZZZZAARRDDSSlargest strictly pro-tected area in thehigh Arctic withboth terrestrialand marinecomponents.As such it hasgreat potential toserve as a modelfor the conserva-tion of terrestrial andmarine biodiversity thatare ecologically linked.An

CircumpolarRegion

Wrangel Islandlies 87 miles(140 km) off thenortheast coastof Siberia.

Wrangel Island

Alaska

Russian

Siberia

Norway

Arctic Ocean

Gre

enla

nd

Cana

da

Finland

North Pole

Nikita Ovsyanikov

stations situated in several locationsaround the islands.The base camp is inthe small village of Ushakovskoe onWrangel Island. During the spring, sum-mer and autumn field seasons up to 25to 30 reserve staff and researchers maybe at work on the reserve. In winteronly a few rangers remain to insure anadequate level of law enforcement andbase camp maintenance.

A polar hydrometeorological stationwith a staff of eight to ten people is alsolocated in Ushakovskoe village whereless than 100 Eastern Siberian Yupik andChukchi people reside. Only official per-sonnel or those who have been grantedpermission are allowed access to thereserve.This applies to both land andsurrounding marine waters.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : I s l a n d o f B l i z z a r d s 5

important human dimension to thismodel is the meaningful involvement ofNative people in all aspects of reserveprotection and management.

That the reserve is of global signifi-cance is evidenced by its candidacy fordesignation as both a World HeritageSite and International Biosphere

Reserve by the United NationsEducational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO).World heritage sites are considered a commonheritage for all people, and are intendedto bring closer cooperation amongnations and worldwide recognition ofthe cultural and natural values of a spe-cial place. A biosphere reserve, mean-while, is a unique category of protectedarea dedicated to cooperative research.Such research will help discover solu-tions to our world’s environmental illsand show how we can live more in harmony with nature.

Wrangel Island lies 87 miles (140 km)off the northeast coast of Siberia

between the East Siberian and Chukchiseas. A large island at 93 miles (150 km)long by up to 78 miles (126 km) wideand encompassing an area of 2,938square miles (7,609 sq. km), it straddlesthe 180th meridian and thus lies in boththe Western and Eastern hemispheres.

Uninhabited and much smaller HeraldIsland (4.4 sq. miles; 11.3 sq. km) is situat-ed 40 miles (64 km) northeast ofWrangel Island toward the Bering Straitand Alaska. It consists mainly of graniteand gneiss mountains that rise 1,125 feet(343 m) above the surrounding sea.Theonly vegetation is patchy alpine tundraexcept around seabird colonies wherebird guano results in an unusually richflora for such high latitudes.

Both Wrangel and Herald islands aresurrounded by a 12 nautical mile-widestrictly protected marine zone of 4,457square miles (11,543 sq. km). Beyondthat a 24 nautical mile-wide buffer zoneof 14,461 square miles (37,453 sq. km)

provides additional protection.Total sizeof the reserve (combined terrestrial andmarine components) is 21,859 squaremiles (56,616 sq. km).

The reserve is closely tied ecological-ly with the Bering Sea ecoregion to thesouth. In spring and fall there are exten-sive migrations of fish, birds, and marine

mammals through the Bering Straightthat connects the Bering and Chukchiseas like the neck in an hour glass.Theecological health of one sea depends onthat of the other.

This unique protected area lies with-in the Chaunski region of the ChukotkaAutonomous District in the Russian FarEast. It is a federally protected area(zapovendnik) under jurisdiction of theNature Reserve Department of theMinistry of Natural Resources. Itsadministrative headquarters is in the vil-lage of Pevek on Chukotka’s north coastat Chaunski Bay.

Seasonal research and managementactivities are carried out from field

"The moonlight smooths out the outlines of the surface and imports to thescene an endless variety of the subtle shades from silver-white to violet-black. Dead silence reigns. Against a background of myriad stars twin-kling in the frozen air, the Arctic wilderness is particularly memorable."

-Vladimir Koshevoi

Mich

ael S

tisho

v

Wildflowers

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : I s l a n d o f B l i z z a r d s6

Travel to Wrangel Island is primarilyby helicopter in summer and fixed-wingaircraft (AN-2) in winter via the main-land villages of Schmidt and Pevek. Shipswithout icebreaking capability can reachthe islands only during occasional sum-mer ice-free periods.

The reserve is in the Arctic realm,covered by tundra (a Lappish word fortreeless plain) and underlain by "drypermafrost"(permanently frozen groundwith low ice content).The soil surfacethaws to a depth of only a few inchesduring the brief arctic summer.

Popularly known as the "Island ofBlizzards," Wrangel is swept by fierce

storms that completely erase the borderbetween earth and sky. Icy winds blowthe falling snow from open tundra areasand deposit it in deep drifts on lee slopesof stream bottoms and mountain ridges.Overcast skies, thick summer fogs, andimpenetrable pack ice add to the island’sforbidding character and isolation.

The mean annual temperature is11.7ºF (-11.3ºC) with the mean tem-perature of the warmest month (July)only 36.5ºF (2.5ºC). Even though the

sun does not set for three months dur-ing summer, the frost-free period lastsonly two to three weeks. Snow covercan be present from late August untilthe middle of June. From November 22to January 22 the polar night blanketsthe land with the full moon and north-ern lights (aurora borealis) casting aneerie light over the dark and frozenlandscape.

Precipitation is very low averaging only7.87 inches (200 mm) per year primarilyin the form of snow. Most is blown offthe island by the gale force winds. In thistrue arctic desert, wetlands are relatively

few. Spring runoff is brief with rivers andstreams running very shallow.

Wrangel Island has 900 shallow lakesand several large coastal lagoons. Majorrivers and numerous streams flow downfrom a crescent of low-rounded moun-tains.The highest peak is Mt. Sovetskayaat 3,596 feet (1,096 m).

The diverse landscape features andclimatic variation result in a rich array ofmicroclimates. For example, the northernplains are heavily influenced by the cold

northwest winds, whereas the centralhighlands and southern exposures aremuch warmer due to wind protectionfrom the surrounding mountains.

In contrast, Herald Island, asdescribed by polar bear biologist NikitaOvsyanikov, is a "rocky castle of anisland encircled by daunting cliffs." Therelatively shallow waters of the surrounding Chukchi Sea, though ice-covered most of the year, provide

Protected marine zones surrounding Wrangel andHerald Islands.

"Quite often in the reserve the monotony of the deep night is disturbedby the incomparable beauty and brightness of the Northern Lights. Theychange the appearance of the place beyond recognition. No words candescribe this sight." -Vladimir Koshevoi

Wrangel Island

24 mile wide buffer zone

HeraldIsland

12 mile wide strictlyprotected zone

rich feeding grounds for the diversity ofmarine life.

Because of a unique combination oflandscape features, climatic conditions,geographic history and isolation,Wrangel Island is characterized bygreater species richness and communitydiversity, endemism and relic speciesthan any other part of the Arctic at simi-lar latitude. It also has more Americanand Eurasian representations.

This booklet is intended to highlightthe reserve’s natural treasures and pro-vide suggestions on how conservation-minded citizens can help Russianmanagers conserve its unique biodiversity.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : T i m e C a p s u l e 7

During the height of thelast Ice Age some18,500 years ago,Wrangel and Heraldislands were near the

center of a 620 mile wide (998 km)bridge of land that connected Asia topresent day Alaska. At the time, vastpolar and continental glaciers locked up much of the earth’s water. As aresult ocean levels dropped as much as 600 feet (183 m). A bridge of landknown as Beringia emerged allowingnomadic Paleolithic hunters to followtheir quarry eastward into theAmericas.

Mammoth steppe is a term coinedby paleoecologists to describe the land-scape of Eurasia and North Americaduring the Pleistocene glacial epoch. Amixture of steppe and tundra plants(unlike any natural community today)

covered Beringia at that time.This lushvegetation in turn supported an abun-dance of mammals.

It’s not hard to imagine the vistas onthe mammoth steppes of the BeringLand Bridge resembling a northernSerengeti, with an exotic mix of hoofedanimals (wild horses, bison, saiga ante-lope, caribou, mountain sheep andwoolly mammoth) followed by age-oldpredators (wolf, saber-toothed cat andshort-faced bear).The most majestic ofall these wild creatures was the woollymammoth.

Fossils gathered on Wrangel Islandshow that a dwarf race of woolly mam-moth evolved there living among ancienthorses, bison, muskox and even woollyrhinoceros. Radiocarbon dates indicatethat the dwarf mammoths were alive7,000 to 3,700 years ago when Egyptiancivilization was already established. Based

on the size oftheir teeth, pale-oecologists knowthey stood aboutsix feet high (1.8m) as comparedto typical woollymammoths thatstood 10-11 feet(3-3.3 m). Limitedfood resourcesand absence ofpredators arebelieved primarily

responsible for the evolution of thedwarf mammoth on Wrangel Island.Isolated from the mainland, they survivedthe extinction of other mammoths bymore than 6,000 years.

Then about 13,500 years ago, the cli-mate warmed, causing glaciers to meltand sea levels to rise.The Bering LandBridge disappeared beneath the Beringand Chukchi seas leaving Wrangel andHerald islands as isolated remnants oftheir rich Beringian heritage.

With the onset of snowier wintersand sudden spring thaws, the rich grass-es of the mammoth steppes gave wayto sedges and mosses. Such forage wasnot as much to the liking of horses,antelope, bison, and mammoths.Eventually these grazers disappearedinto the mists of time along with thesaber-toothed cat and short-faced bear.

The earliest evidence shows humanoccupation of Wrangel Island around3,400 years ago.These hardy Paleo-Eskimo marine mammal hunters occu-pied a site, known as Chertov Ovrag,on the island’s southern coast at KrasinBay.They may have used domestic cari-bou (reindeer) to help them travel the87 miles (140km) of ice flows betweenthe mainland and the island.

Wrangel Island is named in honor ofthe Russian navigator and Arctic explor-er Ferdinand Petrovich von Wrangel(1790 -1870) who mapped much of theSiberian coast.While in Kolyma in 1824,

Wrangel became convinced that anunknown land must lie to the north ofthe Chukotka Peninsula between theEast Siberian and Chukchi seas. Hededuced this from the large flocks ofbirds seen migrating in that directionand from the stories of a distant landtold him by the local Native people.

Despite several efforts to discover"Doubtful Island" by crossing the ice inearly spring, open leads and stormyweather forced him to turn back.Nevertheless, it was Wrangel who cor-rectly located the theoretical blank spoton the map where the island namedafter him was later discovered.

The first European to actually reachone of the reserve’s islands was BritishCaptain Henry Kellert. He and his crewlanded on Herald Island in 1849 whilesearching for the lost John Franklin expe-dition which had disappeared while seeking a Northwest Passage. Kellertnamed the island after his ship the H.M.S.Herald. Although they could see a moun-tainous island to the southwest, heavy iceprevented them from reaching it.

TTIIMMEE CCAAPPSSUULLEE

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : T i m e C a p s u l e8

Two decades later in 1867 theAmerican whaler Thomas Longapproached and mapped the largeisland seen by Kellert. But he did nottake time from his whaling to go ashoreeven though it was an unusually favor-able ice-free year. It was Long whonamed the island after FerdinandPetrovich von Wrangel.

In 1881, the U.S. Coast Guard rev-enue marine steamer Thomas Corvin,under command of Captain CalvinHooper and with a contingent of scien-tists on board, landed on Herald andWrangel islands while searching for alost ship named the Jeanette.

The first Russian expedition reachedand raised the Russian flag on Wrangelin 1911 aboard the Vaigach.Then in

1916, the Tzarist government declaredthe island part of the Russian Empire.

The first colonists to arrive onWrangel Island were sent by the famousarctic explorer Vilhjamur Stefansson fromCanada in 1921.This small human com-munity took a heavy toll on the island’swildlife. For two years the WrangelIsland colonists struggled to survive,hunting everything that could be eatenor skinned.Then in 1924, the Soviets dis-placed the illegal Canadian settlement.They then established a permanentRussian settlement on the island in 1926.

There was considerable controversy during the ensuing years as to whichcountry owned Wrangel Island: theUnited States, Canada or Russia.Eventually Russia prevailed although con-troversy continues in some quarters tothis day. Subsequent efforts to developthe island’s resources led to excessivekilling of Wrangel’s wildlife until the estab-lishment of the nature reserve in 1976.

As early as 1644, when the Russian Empire thrustinto Asia, the Natives of eastern Siberia reportedstories of a great northern land to a Cossack trader.

"Wrangel Island … oftenisolated by impenetrablesea ice, has provokedinternational controversy,disaster and death." - Melody Webb

Pack ice

Kevin

Sch

afer

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 9

BBIIOODDIIVVEERRSSIITTYY

Wrangel Island’sunusual history,isolation, climateand geology havepreserved relics of

the mammoth steppe vegetation com-plex.The island’s 400 plant species andsubspecies represent an enormousfloristic richness for such high latitudes.For example, there are 17 species ofarctic poppies alone. Prevailing flora aremembers of the mustard, rose, butter-cup and saxifrage families. Unlike otherarctic areas, the pea, sunflower and blue-grass families are also well represented.

Of special significance are the 24species of vascular plants listed in theConservation of Arctic Flora andFauna’s (CAFF) Atlas of Rare EndemicPlants of the Arctic.These include sever-al species of poppies, oxytropes anddandelions.They are known from lessthan 20 sites in the Arctic with theirtotal populations at fewer than 3,000individuals. In fact, most are foundnowhere else in the world except onWrangel Island.

Grass-lichen, drygrass-grass-lichen,and occasional shrub-forb communitiesdominate the island’s lower and middlemountain slopes.There are also sedgebogs with sphagnum moss, sedge-cotton-grass bogs and thickets of elfin willows.Even on high mountain tops lichens andmosses cling to life on large boulders.

Relatively large areas in the warmcentral parts of the island are occupiedby subarctic vegetative communitiescomposed of mosses, grasses, lowshrubs and tussock tundra. Other natu-ral communities include alpine polardeserts, high arctic mineral bogs andarctic meadows. Unique wild peaassemblages with high species diversityand halophyte (salt loving) communitiesoccur on saline soils in central parts ofthe island.

Willow thickets high in the interiorriver valleys, sedge bogs in hollows,heather communities and wet meadowsin the warmer protected microhabitatsrepresent vegetative communities farbeyond the normal northern limits oftheir ranges.

Vegetation is especially rich alongriver valleys in the island’s interior whichare protected by high mountains fromthe cold arctic winds. Relic steppe andtundra-steppe communities with adiversity of low-growing flowering plantscreate an impressive carpet of colorduring the brief arctic summer along theupper reaches of Neizvestnaya(Unknown) River.This is the mostimportant refugium for rare plants onthe reserve. For example, the entireworld population of three relicendemics (i.e., they have survived sincethe Pleistocene), Potentilla Wrangelii,Hierochloe vrangelica and Oxytropis

Nikita Ovsyanikov

Biodiversity: the variety of living thingsin an ecosystem.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y10

layers of warm air next to the plant.A third adaptation developed by arcticpoppies and mountain avens is to tractthe sun. By facing directly into the sunas it arcs across the sky, their saucer-shaped petals act as solar collectorsreflecting the sun rays into the flower’scenter and increasing the temperatureup to 64.4ºF (18ºC).Warmthseeking insects inadver-tently pollinate theplant, speedinggrowth and devel-opment of theplant’s seed.

IInnsseeccttss

Speciesdiversityof insectson WrangelIsland is unusually

high for such northern lati-tudes. For example, there are sevenspecies of leaf beetles, ten species ofweevils and twelve species of diurnalbutterflies. According to scientists, thisphenomena is reflective of the reserve’sdiverse flora and of its geographic isola-tion, which led to the evolution of twelveclosely related endemic species from thegroups mentioned above.

The reserve’s insect fauna is domi-nated by springtails, beetles, butterflies,bees and mosquitoes.What is unique

uniflora, are confined to a few smallareas here. Another important refugiumis in the Doubtful Bay area where tun-dra-steppe communities are well repre-sented.These diverse habitats host a fargreater variety of species than are foundon the mainland or through the entireCanadian Arctic Archipelago andGreenland.

Flowering plants have developed anumber of fascinating strategies to sur-vive the reserve’s harsh conditions. Mostare low growing to avoid the cold polarwinds. Some form dense, compact cush-ions that hug the ground such as themoss campion. Others, such as thewooly lousewort, wrap themselves in ablanket of fine whitish hairs that trap

about them is the high number ofadvanced species associated with cer-tain groups of plants. In addition, otherspecies of insects on Wrangel Islandrepresent families not normally found inarctic tundra.These include a variety ofbugs, mayflies and click-beetles. Species

typical of tundra-steppe live insedge habitat in the vicinity

of Doubtful Bay andare found nowhere

else on theisland.

Finally,three speciesof "American"mosquitoesand butter-flies of the

genusParabarrovia are

present.They havenot been found any-

where else in Eurasia.

FFiisshh

SSince Wrangel Island’s shallowrivers and lakes freeze to thebottom in winter, there are noresident freshwater fish.Arctic char, pink and chum

salmon and occasionally arctic cod andgobs enter coastal lagoons and mouthsof larger rivers in limited numbers.

Marine fishes include sculpins, arcticcod, Canadian eelpout, arctic flounderand saffron cod. Comprehensive information is lacking, however, on theirlife histories, population dynamics, distri-bution and ecological relationships.

Arctic cod are the most numerousand vitally important food source to avariety of marine birds and mammals.Adult cod are associated with both theocean bottom and pack ice.They spawnunder the ice in winter but just where isunknown.Young of the year are normal-ly found in the upper meter of waterwhere the greatest abundance of theirfavored planktonic food occurs.Theyoung cod are an early season foodsource for murres and kittiwakes withpeak numbers taken during spring icebreakup.

Large schools of adult cod form infall (September through October) andenter the warmer coastal waters nearriver mouths. Here they are pursued bythousands of gulls, seals and large podsof beluga whales.

Wrangel plant expert, Dr. Boris Yurtsev

Dav

e Cl

ine

Pollinating bumblebee Nikita Ovsyanikov

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 11

BBiirrddss

Wrangel and Heraldislands are the lastland falls for migra-tory birds flyingnorth through

central Beringia in search of secure feed-ing, nesting and brood rearing areas. Inmany respects the island avifauna aretypical of all arctic bird communities.That is, there is a higher proportion ofshorebirds and waterfowl compared topasserines that dominate bird communi-ties in all other latitudes, and a high pro-portion of species with a circumpolardistribution at the northern limits of thetundra life zone.

Yet in other respects reserve birdlifeis unique. For example, with 50 nestersand another 110 migrants or occasionalvisitors (160 total species), there is highspecies diversity compared to other arctic areas of similar size. Additionally,the reserve birdlife is enriched by more

southern species such as the arctic warbler and ruff, and by higher popula-tions of American species (includingsnow geese and Baird’s and buff-breast-ed sandpipers) than other parts ofEurasia. Endemism is reflected in thefact that auks, murres, puffins, black-legged kittiwakes and snow buntingsshow definite morphological distinctionsfrom other arctic populations.The onlyregular year-round residents in goodlemming years are the snowy owl andnorthern raven.The snowy owl is theonly bird of prey that nests annually onWrangel Island.

WaterfowlAmong waterfowl, snow geese are

the most noteworthy and one of the principal reasons for establishment of the Wrangel Island Nature Reserve.A colony of 20,000 to 30,000 pairs nestannually in the upper reaches of theTundra River.This constitutes the only

Horned puffinNikolay Konyukov

Snow gooseNikita Ovsyanikov

12

proximity to those of snowy owls.Theowls’ aggressive defense of their nestsagainst marauding arctic foxes probablyprotects the geese from the crafty egg-eating predators. High density and stabili-ty of the snowy owl nesting population isan important factor for recovery of thedepleted Wrangel Island snow goosepopulation.

Wrangel Island snow geese are trulyan international resource. Each fall theymigrate to wintering areas along thecoast of British Columbia and to theSacramento and San Juan River valleysof California.

Pacific black brant also nest onWrangel but in very modest numbers(20 to 30 pairs). Since this small dark-colored coastal goose cannot protectitself very well from the predatory arcticfox, it also commonly places its nestsnear the protective influence of nestingsnowy owls and glaucous gulls.Thisoccurs along upper reaches of majorriver valleys in central parts of the island.

As typical of most geese, many non-breeding brant summer far north of thepopulation’s principal nesting grounds.For Wrangel Island brant these nestinggrounds are on Alaska’s Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and Russia’s ChukotkaPeninsula. An average of 8,000 to

large colony of snow geese in Eurasia. Inthe most favorable nesting years, twocolonies of up to 500 pairs can be foundin the Mammoth River valley (at VeselyiCreek) and in the upper reaches of theNeizvestnaya River (at Prigalet Creek).

Russian snow goose researcherEvgeny V. Syroechkovsky found that thesize of the main snow goose colony var-ied greatly (500 to 6,400 acres; 202 to2,590 hectares) from year to yeardepending primarily on the amount ofsnow cover in spring. A unique featureof Wrangel snow geese is that somenesting occurs even under the mostextreme weather conditions. In years of early snow melt practically all suitablenesting areas are occupied whereas in

years with late springs only the corearea is used. In these years many geesemove to nest in smaller colonies in thevicinity of active snowy owl nests orabandon their nesting efforts entirely.

Prior to establishment of the Nativevillage of Ushakovskoe in 1926, geesereportedly nested in nearly all ofWrangel Island’s mountainous valleys. Inthe years that followed, the gathering oflarge numbers of goose eggs by villagersand scientists alike, combined with exces-sive hunting of molting birds and damageto habitat from reindeer herding causeda dramatic decline in goose numbersuntil only one large colony remained.

A common strategy of the snowgeese is to place their nests in close

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y

wintering

nesting

nesting

wintering

staging

Snow Goose Migration

Black Brant Migration

Snow geese

Vasil

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uk

King eider

U.S

.Fish

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ildlif

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rvice

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 13

12,000 birds fly to Wrangel Island tomolt their feathers in lagoons on theisland’s southern and western coasts,and in some lakes on the AcademyTundra. In fall, brant from Wrangel Islandjoin those from throughout the vastBeringia region on the migration south.Practically the entire world’s populationcongregates at Izembek Lagoon on theAlaska Peninsula. Here they spend fourto six weeks fattening up on eelgrassbefore flying across the North PacificOcean to their principal wintering areasin lagoons along the west coast ofMexico’s Bach Peninsula.

Seaducks, like the common eider,nest solitarily and in colonies up to 25miles (40 km) from the coast in the

vicinity of nesting snowy owls in thevery central parts of the island alongmajor river valleys. Its more abundantcousin the king eider is restricted tolowland marshes for nesting.Weighingup to six pounds, the common eider isthe largest duck in the NorthernHemisphere.These seaducks rely on arich diet of seafood that includesamphipods, barnacles, clams, marineworms, and crabs which they crush with

their large bills. Because of the inclusionof sea urchins in their diet, eider bonesare often tinted pink.

The only freshwater dabbling duckand irregular breeder on Wrangel Islandis the northern pintail. Eight otherspecies of dabblers and several divingducks are occasional visitors.

ShorebirdsAs is typical for the arctic tundra in

general, shorebirds are by far the mostabundant group of birds on the reserve.The most common and widespread ofthe 36 recorded species are the black-bellied plover, ruddy turnstone and redknot.These three circumpolar arcticshorebirds find the well-drained dry

habitats to their liking. Here they canuse their short bills to pick favored fooditems directly from the ground or fromthe thin vegetative layer.

Dunlin and pectoral sandpipers arealso common but prefer moister wetlandhabitats. Asiatic golden plovers seek outthe warmer hollows and southernmountain slopes.The red phalarope isrepresentative of a small group of swim-ming shorebirds that

forage by spinning and picking their foodfrom the water surface of wetlands.

Baird’s and buff-breasted sandpipersare the reserve’s rarest shorebirds.Although both are common in tundraareas of North America, they have beenrecorded in Eurasia only in a few loca-

tions on the Chukotka Peninsula andWrangel Island.The buff-breasted sandpiper can be considered a typicaltundra-steppe species whose range hasbeen significantly reduced since thePleistocene glacial epoch. It nests onwell drained tundra-steppe along thesouthern coast and central parts of theisland. Baird’s sandpiper, meanwhile,occurs only along narrow river valleys

or mountain canyons where practicallyno other sandpipers live.

Two American species of shorebirdsrecently recorded on Wrangel Island arethe lesser golden plover and semipalmat-ed plover. And two species more charac-teristic of southern tundra areas, theshort-billed dowitcher and ruff, have alsobeen found nesting on Wrangel Island.

SeabirdsSome of the largest seabird colonies in

the Chukchi Sea are situated along theeastern and western coasts of Wrangeland on Herald islands. Seabird numbersvary significantly from year to year (up to220,000 pairs) depending primarily onseverity of the weather and food availabil-ity as related to ice conditions. Numberson Wrangel ‘s Cape Waring colony, forexample, range from 20,000 to morethan 100,000 pairs.An additional 70,000pairs nest on Herald Island.

Nik

olay

Kon

yukh

ov

Wrangel Island is the last landfall for migratory birds flying north throughcentral Beringia in search of secure feeding, nesting and brood rearingareas. -Dave Cline

Red Knot

Black guillemotNikolay Konyukhov

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y14

All seabird colonies in the reserveare inhabited by a dominant mixture of black-legged kittiwakes, thick-billedmurres, black guillemots and pelagic cormorants. Species composition andproportion varies depending on thetype of rock structure that form thecliffs where colonies are located. Coastalcliffs on Wrangel Island are composedof relatively thin, easily eroded slates.Colonies situated there are dominatedby kittiwakes that make their nests onsmall ledges formed in the process ofslate erosion. Murres cannot nest suc-cessfully in such places because they lay their eggs directly on narrow rockledges.The Cape Waring colony is located on limestone cliffs. Murres andkittiwakes nest there in about equalproportion as conditions are favorablefor both species, small ledges are usedby kittiwakes and narrow "shelves" bymurres. Herald Island, meanwhile, isinhabited mostly by murres and guille-mots as its cliffs provide granitic rock

ledges for murres as well as cracks andcavities preferred by guillemots.

Horned and tufted puffins and pelag-ic cormorants are few in number and atthe northern limits of their range in the reserve.

Arctic terns are common and thechampion of long distant migrants.Each year they fly some 26,000 milesroundtrip between their nesting groundson the reserve and the Antarctic icepack where they spend the winter.

In addition to the abundant black-legged kittiwake, four other species ofgull are very common: the glaucous,ivory, Ross’ and Sabine’s.The latter threeare the most handsome, hardiest,rarest, and longest flying migrants of thegulls.

Sabine’s gull is an ancient arcticspecies taxonomically isolated fromother gulls.Wrangel Island is probablythe only place in the Russian Far Eastwhere it commonly nests. Loosecolonies of 10 to15 pairs occur on thelake-dotted northern coastal plain.Thiselegant gull with a dark gray hood andbeautifully forked tail feeds on variousinvertebrates of lake shores. Onceyoung are on the wing, Sabine familiesfly to coastal lagoons before migratingsouth to the open waters of the BeringSea and Sea of Okhotsk.

In fall, the two other rare and beauti-ful gulls, Ross’ and ivory, migrate past thereserve. Like Sabines, both are taxo-

nomically isolated, ancient arctic species.Ross’ gulls in their white plumage withsoft pinkish blush on breast and bellyand thin black necklace, follow the iceedge on their fall migration from nestinggrounds in eastern Siberia thus avoidingthe open sea. Inyears whenthe

iceedge isto the north-northwest, thousands or even tens ofthousands of Ross’ gulls migrate alongthe shores of Wrangel Island. From mid-September to mid-October they can beobserved from Cape Blossom toDoubtful and Rogers bays.

The beautiful ivory gull nests evenfurther to the west of Wrangel Islandthan Ross’.This immaculate white ice-loving gull, although not as abundant asthe Ross’, migrates past the reserve bythe thousands during a two to three-week period in November. In yearswhen walrus are at their haulouts, ivory

gulls stay around the local villagewell into December where they

appear as ghost-like butter-flies in the polar night.

RaptorsAn occasional pair of

gyrfalcons nest nearseabird colonies onboth Wrangel andHerald islands wherethey prey principally on

guillemots. On rareoccasions an arctic pere-

grine falcon and rough-legged hawk may visit the

islands.The snowy owl is, how-ever, the principal bird of prey on

the reserve. One of the largest of itskind, this handsome day-flying owl withpiercing yellow eyes preys primarily onlemmings. During periods of lemminghighs which occur on Wrangel Islandmore frequently than in other parts ofthe Arctic and usually continue for morethan one year, owls reach nesting densi-ties of four nests per four square miles(10 sq. km) over large areas (in moun-

Nik

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Murre chick

Snowy

owl chickAnatoliy Kochnev

On a rare visit to remote and inhos-pitable looking Herald Island in 1988,reserve staff were excited to discoverLapland longspurs, white and yellowwagtails, wheatears, American pipits,bluethroats and several other passerinesnear a seabird colony sheltered fromprevailing north and east winds. Seabirdguano appeared primarily responsiblefor the unusually lush vegetation on thesite that in turn attracted the surprisingdiversity of songbirds.

Regular New World visitors to thereserve include cliff swallow, white-crowned sparrow, savanna sparrow anddark-eyed junco. Although no nests forthese species have yet been found,ornithologists suspect that nesting maywell occur.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 15

tainous parts of the islands and alonghigh river banks). In the most favorablehabitats, densities may reach five toseven nests per four square miles (10 sq.km). Such densities are the maximumknown for the species.

Snowy owls breed every year onWrangel Island with some nests foundeven during lemming lows. Such stabilityin nesting owls has not been recordedanywhere else in the Arctic. Several hun-dred pairs of breeding snowy owls neston Wrangel Island in good lemming years.In vigorously defending their nests andyoung from arctic foxes, the adult owlsprovide a safer nesting haven for snowgeese, black brant and eiders. During lem-ming lows, snowy owls are hard to findon the reserve having migrated to moresouthern regions where hunting is better.When rodents are not available in theseareas, snowy owls switch their diet toptarmigan, waterfowl, shorebirds, seabirdsand even arctic hares.

The reserve’s three species of jaeger-- parasitic, long-tailed and pomarine --are close relatives of gulls that havebecome predators. All three are experthunters. In fact the name jeager comesfrom the German word for "hunter."Pomarine and long-tailed jaegers are themost common on the reserve, with theparasitic nesting in low numbers.Pomarine numbers rise and fall in syn-chrony with those of lemmings, itsfavored prey. Long-tailed jaegers prey

on lemmings but also on insects, birdeggs and young shorebirds.Though lesscommon, their numbers are more sta-ble than the other two. On their winter-ing grounds at sea, jaegers practicepiracy by harassing seabirds until theydrop the fish they are carrying.Thepirate bird then swoops down to catchthe stolen food in midair or retrieve itfrom the water surface.

SongbirdsAlthough 52 species of passerines

have been identified on the reserve,only three are considered commonnesters: Lapland longspur, snow buntingand hoary redpoll.

Snow buntings are the harbingers ofspring, arriving on the reserve in Aprilwith the land still in the grip of winter.They prefer the drier stony habitatswith open ground, and nest in moun-tainous areas.

Longspurs arrive with other passer-ines in late May and early June.Theyprefer tussock tundra and willow thick-ets. Hoary redpolls are seldom foundfar away from their favorite willowthicket habitats.

Northern ravens are residents ofboth Wrangel and Herald islands wheresingle pairs nest and raise young almostevery year near major seabird colonies.Ravens are the first bird migrants toarrive on the islands in spring (earlyMarch) and can be seen performing

their aerial courtship flight antics aroundcliffs still covered in snow and ice. In lateautumn after other bird migrants havealready departed, raven family groupsrange widely over the islands in searchof still available food items.

The completely black ravens withnaked feet are capable of survival undersome of the most harsh weather condi-tions on earth. Relying on their superiorcorvid intelligence, these resourcefulscavengers are expert at finding carrionon the tundra, exploiting the rich har-vest of chicks and eggs at seabirdcolonies, and cashing food from polarbear kills.

The northern wheatear and whitewagtail, although not common, are regu-lar nesters throughout a variety of islandhabitats. No nests have yet been found,but male arctic warblers are heardsinging quite regularly in shrub thickets.

A.V.

Krec

hmar

Bluethroat

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y16

MMaammmmaallss

There are only eight speciesof resident terrestrial mam-mals in the reserve. Five ofthese eight are endemicand two, reindeer and

muskox, were introduced. An additional10 species of marine mammals inhabitthe reserve’s coastal waters

Polar BearThe animal for which the Wrangel

Island Nature Reserve is most famous isthe polar bear.The concentration of anaverage of 300 to 350 polar bearmaternity dens is exceptionally high.The strategic location of the reserve inprime polar bear habitat and deepsnow on mountain slopes are key fac-tors for successful overwinter denningof pregnant females.The highest densityof dens on Wrangel Island is usuallyfound along the eastern and westerncoasts, in the Dream Head Mountains,as well as the Thomas, Pillar and WaringCapes. In some years, for example, 50dens can be found at Cape Waringwithin a three square miles (eight sq.km) area.

Even higher densities can be found onHerald Island where up to 60 to 80bears may den in a single season.Thisrepresents the highest concentration ofdenning polar bears in the circumpolar

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

and monitoring. A U.S.-Russia Polar BearJoint Commission will be established withrepresentatives from the two federalgovernments and Natives of each coun-try. Russian polar bear specialists feel thatthe implementation of effective lawenforcement measures to preventpoaching of polar bears in Chukotkashould be given highest priority. Otherpriorities of the commission will be toidentify key polar bear habitats, recom-mend habitat conservation measures,establish harvest quotas and developpublic education materials.This agree-ment is a major break-through in polarbear conservation. It provides anunprecedented opportunity for a collab-orative international effort that will moreeffectively protect polar bears and theirocean realm. In the process, Arctic biodi-versity will be better protected as well.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 17

Arctic. Herald Island is also vitally impor-tant to non-denning polar bears in win-ter. Polynas and leads that remain aroundthe island throughout the winter provideideal hunting opportunities. It is here thatbears can catch seals in open water.

Pregnant female bears come ashoreon the reserve in October andNovember in search of maternity densites. Sometimes it’s possible to seelarge concentrations of bears on theislands as in 1985 and 1993, when up to100 animals gathered to feed on thecarcass of a gray whale washed ashore.In the1990s when the ice pack retreat-ed 62 or more miles (100 km) north of

the reserve, 20,000 to 30,000 walrushauled-out on Cape Blossom andDoubtful Spit beaches. DuringSeptember and October more than150 polar bears were seen stalking thebeached walrus herds preying on theoccasional young animal and feeding onthe carcasses of those crushed whenthe herds stampeded into the water.

Female bears emerge from theirdens in April. After allowing their cubs aperiod of adjustment to the harsh polarworld, mothers lead them from theislands out onto the pack ice. Cubs staywith their mothers two years or moreduring which time they roam the packice in search of seals. In summer, mostfollow the ice edge north, while the

winter months find many along thecoasts of northwest Alaska.

The results of tagging and satellitetelemetry studies have revealed thatpolar bears that den and raise theiryoung on Wrangel and Herald islandsbelong to the Alaska-Chukotka polarbear population.This population inhabitsthe Chukchi and northern Bering Seaand eastern part of the East-Siberian Sea.

In 1998, U.S. and Russian negotiatingteams developed a bilateral "Agreementfor the Conservation and Managementof the Alaska-Chukotka Polar BearPopulation".The agreement was officiallysigned by the two nations October 16,2000. Pursuant to the agreement,Native residents of Alaska andChukotka will be permitted to huntpolar bears consistent with a quota sys-tem to prevent overharvesting.TheWrangel Island Nature Reserve and sur-rounding waters will, however, remainclosed to all hunting. Among the agree-ment’s provisions is a prohibition ontaking females with cubs and any bearspreparing to enter or leave their dens,and on use of aircraft, large motorizedvessels, traps and snares in hunting.

The agreement also identifies theneed to conduct collaborative research

In conserving large predators, we test our capa-bility to save nature; in conserving the polarbear, we test our capability to save the Arctic.

Nikita OvsyanikovN

ikita

Ovs

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Polar bear family

Scot

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Polar bear cubs

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y18

occupy favoredWrangel Islandhaulouts for one totwo months.Thelargest of thesehaulouts are atCape Blossom andDoubtful Spit.

When onshore,the blubbery wal-rus turns variousshades of pink asblood is shuntednear the skin sur-face to dissipateheat and preventhyperthermia. Should individualsbecome overheated on sunny days, theyclamber over each other to "chill out" inthe sea.Walrus haulouts can be greatplaces to view wildlife. Polar bears, arcticfox, wolverine, ravens and a variety ofgulls are attracted to the hauloutswhere they feed on the carcasses ofdead walrus.

Female walrus breed in January andFebruary when they are six to sevenyears old, bearing a single calf on the iceevery two to three years during theirnorthward spring migration.With oneof the lowest reproductive rates in theanimal kingdom, the Pacific walrus popu-lation is vulnerable to depletion.

A 1990 joint Russian/American sum-mer-fall census revealed a population ofabout 200,000 walrus.This represents 80

percent of the world’s walrus popula-tion.The combined Alaska and Russiaharvest (including an estimated 40 percent struck and lost) has averagedabout 5,000 a year.Walrus have longbeen a key subsistence food for coastalNative villagers of Chukotka and west-ern Alaska.To this day, they remain animportant part of local diets.Walrusivory tusks are highly prized by Nativeartisans. A commercial harvest thatoccured along the Chukotka coast toprovide food for several local fox farmcooperatives has virtually ceased due toloss of government subsidies.

Polar bear confronts walrus Nikita Ovsyanikov

Nikolai Konyukhov

WalrusWrangel Island is also one of the key

areas in the world for the Pacific walrus,Odobenus or "tooth walker". After over-wintering in the ice pack of the BeringSea, walrus follow the ice-edge as itretreats north through the Bering Straitin spring. Although most adult males staybehind on their Bering Sea haulouts, themajority of females and young adultsreach the vicinity of Wrangel and Heraldislands by the middle of July. Here theyfeed on clams and other marine inverte-

brates in the islands’ shallow coastalwaters. Using bristly whiskers on theirsnouts, the feeding walrus feel their wayalong the ocean bottom with eyesclosed.When clams are detected theyare grabbed from the seabed andsucked from their shells.This "tilling"action flushes nutrients into the watercolumn and increases the patchiness ofbottom habitats.

In years when the ice edge retreatsnorth from the reserve as it did in the1990s, more than 100,000 walrus may

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 19

LemmingsCollared and Siberian lemmings con-

stitute the only native rodents in thereserve.The collared is recognized as anendemic species (Vinogradov’s), distantrelative of those elsewhere in the Arctic,and the Siberian as an endemic sub-species. Lemmings inhabit the entireislands, the collared preferring the drierhabitats and the Siberian the wetter.Lemmings are noted for their four year

boom and bust population cycles. Inyears of population "lows," it can be hardto find a lemming.Then, three to fouryears later they appear to be every-where reaching "peak" densities of morethan 100 per acre. Despite decades ofresearch, scientists still can’t explain whatcauses such dramatic fluctuations in lem-ming population numbers.

Lemmings do not hibernate butremain active all winter in elaboratetunnel systems beneath the insulatingsnow cover. Small spherical bodies,short legs, small ears, furred feet, vestigi-al tails and the densest fur of any

rodent its size enable lemmings toendure some of the longest and coldestwinters on earth.The collared lemmingis the only rodent in the world tochange the color of its coat from sum-mer brown to cryptic winter white.

Lemmings are a critically importantcomponent of reserve food chains.Since they constitute the principal foodsource for snowy owls, jaegers and arc-tic fox, the populations of these preda-tors tend to rise and fall in synchronywith those of lemmings. During yearsof lemming "highs" their predators aremost abundant. In these years thebreeding success of geese, shorebirdsand passerines also tend to increasesince their principal predators are con-centrating their hunting efforts on lem-mings. During lemming lows, snowyowls and pomarine jaegers are hard tofind. Arctic foxes decline sharply as theyshift their hunting pressure to the eggsand young of geese, eiders and shore-birds. Some foxes specialize on seabirdeggs and chicks.

Arctic FoxArctic fox tend to be rather abun-

dant on Wrangel Island as conditions areparticularly favorable for this resourcefularctic canid.The main reasons for thisare the abundance of prey species,favorable denning sites on well drainedslopes of river valleys, and the fact thatthe reserve is closed to trapping.This

opportunistic predator also benefitsfrom being able to range far out on thepolar pack ice to scavenge from polarbear kills. Although arctic fox commonlycross the ice to the reserve from themainland, resident fox populations onthe island are demographically very sta-ble.The same adults and their offspringoccupy the same optimal den sites andhome ranges for a number of years.

WolverineThat master scavenger of the Arctic,

the wolverine, inhabits the reserve inlow numbers. First records for thepresence of this predator date back tothe late 1970’s after the introduction ofreindeer.Wolverines are commonlyseen hunting reindeer and feeding ongeese.They are also known to eat eggs,the young of various birds and lemmings, as well as to scavenge fromdead reindeer and walrus carcasses.

Wolves and Red FoxWolves and red fox have been

known to reach the reserve across theice from the mainland.Wolves actuallybecame established breeders on thereserve in the early 1980s after theintroduction of reindeer and muskox,their favored prey. Since they were con-sidered a threat to the reindeer herd,however, the five resident wolves wereeliminated from the reserve in 1983 (onorders from Moscow.) Current reservepolicy is to allow wolves to becomenaturally reestablished to help controlungulate numbers. After an almost twodecade absence, two wolves werereported to have reached WrangelIsland in 2000. Evidence indicates theyare ranging widely over the island prey-ing on reindeer. Should they prove suc-cessful breeders, a missing componentof the reserve’s predator-prey relation-ships will be restored and a new and

exciting chapteropened inWrangel’sunique naturalhistory.

Arctic foxNikita Ovsyanikov

Vasil

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Lemming

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y20

WhalesThe most commonly observed

cetacean in reserve coastal waters is the gray whale.This is the only benthic(bottom) feeding whale and is commonlyencountered in shallow water close toshore dredging the bottom foramphipods and crustaceans. Upon sur-facing, mud is often seen streaming froma feeding whale’s mouth as it forces largevolumes of mud and water over itsbaleen plates to strain food before swal-lowing. In traveling 10,000 to14,000 miles(16,093 to 22,531 km) between winter-ing grounds in the Gulf of California andsummer feeding areas in the ChukchiSea, the gray whale has the longestmigration of any mammal. Other baleenwhales occasionally seen further offshoreare the bowhead and humpback.

Since 1998, the number of graywhales summering in reserve coastalwaters has increased quite dramatically.Feeding grays are being observed alongmost Wrangel coasts. In Krasin Bay forexample, up to eight to ten whales canbe observed simultaneously.This mayreflect changing ice conditions in theChukchi Sea that allow gray whales topenetrate further north. At any rate, thistrend reflects the importance of reservecoastal waters as a refuge for marinemammals.

Among the toothed whales, themelon-headed beluga or white whalehas been known to appear by the

thousands along Wrangel Island’s south-ern coast in late autumn.They arebelieved to migrate west to WrangelIsland from Canada’s Mackenzie Riverdelta. Belugas are food "generalists" withmore than one hundred species of fish,shrimp, octopus, crabs, and clams intheir diet.They also possess the mostsophisticated biosonar of all cetaceans,along with varied and complex vocaliza-tions.This enables belugas to communi-cate and find food in even the mostturbid coastal waters. Commercialwhalers used to call belugas "seacanaries" because of their wide range of vocalizations.

In years of open water, pods ofnorthern dolphins have occasionallybeen seen migrating off Wrangel Island’s shores.

SealsRinged seals inhabit the reserve’s

coastal waters year round and consti-tute the principal prey of polar bears.Using their sturdy front claws, they havethe ability to scratch breathing holesthrough the shore fast ice.These breath-ing holes often open under a snow driftwhere the seal excavates a cozy cave.There it can haulout and rest protectedfrom the cold arctic wind. Such snowcaves also serve as nurseries where the mother seal gives birth to her one-pound pup, the smallest pups of allthe true seals.

With the approach of spring at theend of May and early June, ringed sealshaulout on the ice to shed their winter

Gray Whale Migration

Nikolay Konyukov

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : B i o d i v e r s i t y 21

coats. In favorable places like DoubtfulBay some 200 to 300 seals can be seenscattered across the ice surface in thewarm spring sunshine.

Bearded seals appear in the springwhen openings in the ice begin toappear.They remain throughout thesummer until continuous ice cover isestablished. An adult bearded sealweighs up to 750 pounds (340 kg),twice as much as any other arctic seal.Like the walrus it possesses longwhiskers and is a bottom feeder onshrimp, crustaceans, and fish.

UngulatesAt the time of discovery, no hoofed

mammals (ungulates) inhabited WrangelIsland.Then in 1948 and 1952, domesticreindeer were introduced and a stateherding enterprise was established.Withabandonment of herding in 1976, rein-deer numbers were reduced to only1,500.They currently number an esti-mated 6,000 animals, more than fourtimes the island’s carrying capacity.

Another introduction occurred in1975 when muskox were flown toWrangel Island from Alaska’s NunivakIsland.The animals thrived and nownumber about 600. Inuit call the muskox"oomingmak" which means beardedone.Well adapted to the "Island ofBlizzards," the shaggy haired muskoxactually has two coats of hair : an under-coat of soft thin wool called "qiviut" anda heavier overcoat of coarse guard hairsthat hang almost to the ground like arobe.This shaggy long overcoat ofbrown hair on muskox, the mostnortherly landmammal in theworld, recalls thatof the woollymammoth.

During the latesummer breedingseason or "rut" inAugust andSeptember, domi-nant muskox bullscompete for con-trol of their

harems. Using their heavy horns andthickened skulls, the bulls charge intoeach other in head-smashing cracks fromdistances of up to 150 feet (46 m).

For decades muskox and reindeerhad no natural predators on Wrangel tohold their numbers in check. Both herbi-vores, when in excessive numbers, posea serious threat to the nature reserve’sunique plant communities. And becausethey are known to eat goose eggs, toomany reindeer may also threaten the via-bility of the reserve’s snow goose colony.

Muskox

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"The wildlife of Wrangel Island show how land and sea are ecologicallylinked. Many polar bears need to come ashore to den. Seabirds must seekthe security of sea cliffs to nest, and walrus frequently haulout on islandbeaches. To conserve biodiversity on Wrangel Island and in the Chukchi Sea,you cannot draw a line at the shore."

-Dave Cline, Pew Fellow in Marine Conservation

Most notable wildlife features

• Most important onshore denningarea for polar bears in the circum-polar Arctic.

• Highest density of denning polarbears in the world.

• Largest Pacific walrus haulout in the world.

• Only large colony of nesting snowgeese in Eurasia.

• Largest seabird colonies in theChukchi Sea.

• Refugium for most diverse flora inthe Arctic including relic mammothsteppe communities.

• Northern most molting grounds forPacific black brant.

• Northern most nesting grounds forhorned and tufted puffins.

• Gathering place for Ross’, ivory andSabine’s gulls, three of the rarest,hardiest and long distance migrants in the gull family.

• Free-ranging herds of muskoxen and reindeer.

• Highest density of arctic fox.

• Most dense and stable snowy owlnesting population.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n c e r n s22

CCOONNSSEERRVVAATTIIOONN CCOONNCCEERRNNSS

Scientists predict that theArctic will be strongly affectedby human caused changes,including global warming,increasing ultraviolet radiation

due to ozone depletion, resource devel-opment, spreading contaminants, popu-lation expansion and burgeoningtourism. Based on the best available sci-entific information, here are the ways inwhich the world biodiversity heritageon the Wrangel Island Nature Reservecould be affected by these major humanrelated threats:

Climate ChangeThe eight-nation working group on

Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna(CAFF), with direction from the Arctic

Council under authority of the ArcticEnvironmental Protection Strategy, con-siders climate change the greatest threatto arctic biodiversity. A planet-wideincrease in temperature is being causedmainly by excessive burning of fossilfuels coal, oil and gas. Huge quantitiesof pollutants like carbon dioxide andmethane trap heat in the atmosphere,disrupting the global climate balance. Asa result, the world is warming.

Climate change scientists agree thatthe greatest warming will occur at thehigher latitudes. Ice cover in the ArcticOcean is in retreat and has alreadythinned by some 40 percent.Thisthreatens biodiversity in special wildplaces like the Wrangel Island NatureReserve in the following ways:

• Warming and drying can causereduced plant diversity and reduc-tion in the preferred forage plantsfor animals such as caribou andmuskox.

• With rise in sea level, coastal nest-ing habitats for shorebirds such assanderlings and red knots will bevulnerable to flooding.

• Diminishing snow and ice coverand shorter winters will dramatical-ly affect polar bears which needdeep snow banks for denning andextensive ice on which to hunt andbreed.

• If early season snows turn to freez-ing rain, animals such as caribouand muskox will find it difficult toforage on ice-covered vegetation.

The Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change cites "new and strongerevidence (from more than 400 scientistsin some 100 countries) that most of theobserved warming of the last 50 yearsis attributable to human activities." Boththe U.S. and Russian governmentsshould, therefore, join in a spirit ofcooperation to provide the leadershipthat will be necessary to negotiate anew international protocol on climatechange. Such a protocol should provideincentives to participating nations toreduce their reliance on fossil fuels, thusreducing greenhouse gas emissions, andpromote renewable energy sourcessuch as solar, tidal and wind power.

Upper terraces of Herald Island Nikita Ovsyanikov

poaching for their hides and gall blad-ders, additional mortality could sendpolar bear populations plummeting," Dr. Ovsyanikov concluded.

Although the MMS recommended onFebruary 9, 1995 that planning for thesimultaneous sale be stopped anddeferred for future consideration, it is asafe assumption that the oil industry willshow renewed interest in a future leasesale in the Chukchi Sea should the eco-nomic rewards look attractive.

The U.S. and Russian governmentsshould prohibit all oil and gas develop-ment in the Chukchi Sea because of the serious risks it poses to the marineenvironment and coastal ecosystems,vulnerable wildlife and local subsistenceeconomies. Instead, the two govern-ments should promote energy efficiency,conservation and development ofrenewable sources of energy such assolar, wind and tidal power as preferredalternatives to continued wasteful consumption of oil.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n c e r n s 23

Oil DevelopmentOn June 23, 1994 the U.S. and Russia

signed a Memorandum of Understandingby which they agreed to a simultaneousjoint oil and gas lease sale in the ChukchiSea. Boundaries of the proposed saleintruded on the Wrangel Island NatureReserve (see leasing area map).

The U.S. Department of theInterior’s Minerals ManagementService(MMS) then published a jointU.S./Russian "Request for Interest andComments" on September 6, 1994.While the U.S. petroleum industry andDepartment of Energy supported theproposal, Alaska Native and environ-mental groups in both the U.S. andRussia expressed their strong oppositionbecause of threats posed to the marineenvironment, its wildlife and subsistenceactivities.

"Such industrial intrusions into theremote and inhospitable Chukchi Seapose very serious threats to polar bearsand other wildlife of the high Arcticfrom disturbance and oil spills," said Dr.Nikita Ovsyanikov, Chief ResearchScientist for the Wrangel Island NatureReserve. "For example, some 80 per-cent of female polar bears in the regioncome ashore to den on Russia’sWrangel and Herald islands each year.The mother bears are extremely sensi-tive and cautious at this time and willoften abandon their dens and cubswhen disturbed.Together with increased

ContaminantsIncreasing concerns are being raised

by scientists, health officials and indige-nous peoples about alarming levels ofindustrial pollutants contaminating arcticfood chains.These contaminants arebeing carried long distances into theArctic by wind and ocean currents fromindustrialized areas of Europe andNorth America.

Information made public in 1992revealed the deliberate dumping ofnuclear materials by Russia in shal-low waters of the Arctic Ocean offthe Siberian coast. Although seriouslevels of radionuclides have not yetbeen reported on or around theWrangel Island Nature Reserve,there is concern that eastward flow-ing ocean currents along theSiberian coast could some day bringthese deadly contaminants toWrangel’s shores.

Persistent organic pollutants(POPs) are toxic substances thatinclude industrial chemicals likePCBs and pesticides like DDT. Suchpoisons are found almost every-where – soil, air and water – and

are highly toxic, having the potential toinjure wildlife at very low concentra-tions.These pollutants are persistant inthe environment, and tend to bioaccu-mulate, thereby causing significant injuryto certain human and wildlife popula-tions.The effects of POPs on wildlife

Clearly, altering our Earth’s atmosphere through excessive fossil fuel use isa massive experiment with uncertain outcomes. The risks associated withsuch systemic global change are high."

- Marine Conservation Biology Institute and World Wildlife Fund

1994 Proposed US/Russia Oil & GasLeasing Area in Chukchi Sea

Wrangel Island

Herald Island

Chukotka Russia

Alaska USA

Arctic Ocean

Chukchi Sea

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n c e r n s24

and Native people in polar regions areparticularly well-documented.

Responding to the growing concernand calls for action on POPs, the UnitedNations Environment Programme's(UNEP) Governing Council issued amandate for creation of an intergovern-mental negotiating committee (INC) toprepare a legally binding global treatyon POPs.The fifth and final negotiatingsession was held in Johannesburg, SouthAfrica on December 4-9, 2000.Negotiators finalized a treaty that will,for the first time in history, eliminate or

severely restrict the use and productionof this dangerous group of chemicals. Adiplomatic signing conference held inStockholm, Sweden from May 21-23,2001, resulted in the "Stockholm POPsConvention."

Meanwhile, particulate matter inatmospheric pollution referred to as"arctic haze" now equals the mean levelof Los Angeles city smog. Even morethreatening is the continued thinning ofthe Arctic ozone layer caused by ozone-depleting chemical pollutants.This coulddamage food chains if ultraviolet radia-

tion reaches lethal levels. Fortu-nately,the Montreal Protocol was adopted onSeptember 16, 1987 as an internationaltreaty to eliminate the production ofozone-depleting chemicals.There arenow 172 countries that are parties tothe protocol, 130 of which are develop-ing countries.

Signatory nations to the global treatyon POPs and the Montreal Protocolmust now insure strict compliance withthe provisions of these important inter-national agreements.

Northern Shipping RouteRussia, Japan and other nations have

long planned a "northern shippingroute" through the Bering Strait andacross the Chukchi Sea as a shorterroute between industrial ports inEurope and Asia. If ever established,such a venture could pose seriousthreats to the reserve and its wildlifefrom year-round disturbance, ship-wrecks, dumping of garbage, oil spills,infestation by rats, and possible alter-ation of marine mammal migrations.

The Russian government shouldinsist that reserve scientists are includ-ed on route planning and assessmentteams to insure that icebreakers andtheir ship convoys are kept as far awayas possible from reserve waters andsensitive wildlife habitat concentrationssuch as polynas and lead systems inthe Chukchi Sea.

TourismAdventure tourism is the fastest

growing business in the Arctic withviewing and photographing wildlifeamong the most popular activities.Thus, even such remote places as theWrangel Island Nature Reserve havebecome a destination for some tourcompanies.The reserve began encour-aging strictly guided ecotours toWrangel Island in 2000. Managementpriorities for these exclusive tours arefocused on nature education whileavoiding harm to the reserves plantsand animals. Such visitation providesreserve personnel opportunity to insti-tute meaningful educational experienceswhile earning much needed revenue tosupport reserve programs.

Tourism also presents challenges,however, to preventing undue distur-bance to the reserve’s biodiversity,especially its most vulnerable wildlifeand unique plant assemblages.Environmental conditions on WrangelIsland Nature Reserve are harsh, life is

tough and summertime, when mostpeople want to visit, is brief.This shortbut critical season is the only timeplants and animals can reproduce andprepare for the long winter.They havefew energy reserves to waste on recov-ery from human disturbance.

Adequate levels of staffing and fund-ing will be required if the full potentialof ecotours are to be achieved.The fol-lowing actions are encouraged to insurea high quality visitor experience whileprotecting the reserve’s unique biodi-versity values: require strict compliancewith permit guidelines for public visita-tion and establish a reasonable feestructure to support reserve programs;provide tour companies and their clientswith detailed guidelines on how best toenjoy the reserve without disturbing itswildlife; require that all visitors beaccompanied by a duly compensatedreserve guide; and insist that icebreakingtour ships and their onboard helicopters

Snow goose researchers

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"The havoc global warming could wreak onocean life may be much greater than we previ-ously imagined"

- World Wildlife Fund

be kept away from sensitive wildlifehabitats, such as polar bear denningareas, walrus haulouts and seabird nesting colonies.

Economic AdversityTragically, Russia’s ongoing economic

difficulties are making the WrangelIsland Nature Reserve and its uniqueassemblage of wildlife extremely vulner-able to irreparable harm from pollution,oil leasing, shipping, tourism, poachingand just plain neglect. Living and work-ing conditions for scientists and reservestaff are extremely difficult with degrad-ing infrastructure in regional towns andairports. Program funds are insufficientfor travel and acquisition of much need-ed office supplies and field equipment.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n c e r n s 25

Arctic PoppiesVasiliy Baranyuk

Especially Interesting Features of the ReserveRequiring Special Protection and Management

• Lower reaches of Tundra (Tundrovaya) River : Concentrations of molting snow geese andsabine’s gull nesting areas; the world’s highest density of arctic fox breeding dens.

• Upper reaches of Unknown (Neizvestnaya) River : Most stable and highest nesting densitysnowy owl population known for the species; new snow goose nesting colony.

• Doubtful Spit (Kosasomnitelnaya):Traditional walrus haulout.

• Cape Waring area: Highest density of polar bear dens, large seabird colonies, nesting area ofBaird’s sandpiper, semipalmated plover and gyrfalcon, and deposits of rock crystal and calcite.

• Western coast: High concentration of polar bear dens, seabird colonies, and Baird’s sand-piper nesting area.

• Dream Head Mountains: High concentration of polar bear dens.

• Upper reaches of Tundra (Tundrovaya) River :The only large annual snow goose colony.

• Mountain Kit area: Baird sandpiper nesting area, dancing grounds (leks) of buff-breastedsandpiper, concentrations of molting black brant, and large colony of Sabine’s gull.

• Lower reaches of Unknown (Neizvestnaya), Polar Fox (Pestsovoy), Red Flag (Krasniy Flag),and Hydrologysts (Gidrografov) Rivers: Concentrations of molting snow geese and mainnesting areas of Sabine’s gull.

• Goose (Gusinaya) River valley: Relic cryo-steppe (tundra-steppe) plant communities, tallestwillow thickets, numerous small colonies of snow geese and black brant, and nesting area ofBaird’s sandpiper.

• Middle course of Mammoth (Mamontovaya) River : Numerous cryophyt-steppe and tundra-steppe plant communities, relic communities of arctic continental halophytes (plants growingon soils with high salinity), snow goose and black brant colonies, and nesting areas of buff-breasted and Baird’s sandpipers.

• Upper Reaches of Unknown (Neizvestnaya) River : Micropopulations of relic plant endemicsand other rare plant species and communities.

• Lower Reaches of Mammoth (Mamontovaya) River and Jack London Lake:The largest con-centration of molting black brant, concentrations of shorebirds during fall migrations, andlarge colony of Sabine’s gull.

• Doubtful (Somnitel’naya) Bay region: Cryo-steppe and tundra-steppe plant communities,rare and endemic plant species, buff-breasted sandpiper nesting area, walrus haulout, polarbear concentration in the fall, concentrations of migrating Ross’ and ivory gulls.

• Cape Blossom region:Walrus haulouts and attendant gathering of polar bears; concentra-tions of migrating Ross’ and ivory gulls, and gray and beluga whales.

• Herald Island: Large concentrations of denning polar bears and largest seabird colonies.

• Coastal and marine zones: essential habitat for marine mammals, seabirds, artic fishes andinvertebrates.

As a result, research, management andlaw enforcement programs are suffering.

In a courageous attempt to improvethe situation, new reserve managerLeonid Bove developed and implement-ed a management plan in 1998-99.Thisresulted in improved refuge administra-tion, logistics and coordination withMoscow. Reserve headquarters weremoved, first to the village of CapeSchmidt, and then to Pevek on theChukotka mainland.Village residentswho did not have jobs on the islandwere assisted in moving to the mainlandand in finding living quarters and jobsthere. Meanwhile, the reserve’s basecamp in Ushakovskoe village was recon-structed to reduce maintenance costs,and remote field stations were repairedand upgraded with modest funds raisedfrom filming and ecotourism (education-al) projects. Native people who desiredto remain on the island and work forthe reserve were provided jobs asrangers and technicians.These changeshave enabled rangers to maintain ayear-round presence on the reserve toprovide it better protection and helpsupport seasonal research programs.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n c e r n s26

The Wrangel Island NatureReserve is a stronghold ofarctic biodiversity of greatinternational significance. It’sespecially important in pro-

viding essential habitat to polar bears,Pacific walrus, snow geese, a host othermigratory birds and a rich assemblageof rare plants. Given its key geographiclocation and wealth of natural values,the reserve is an ideal location for thestudy and monitoring of arctic biodiver-sity, climate change and contaminants.

Designation of the reserve as aWorld Natural Heritage Site andInternational Biosphere Reserve byUNESCO, and its selection as anInternationally Important Bird Area bythe National Audubon Society, will givethis special wild place the recognition itdeserves and help reserve staff raisedesperately needed funds. Supplementalinternational funding will in turn greatlyenhance the odds that conservationobjectives will be achieved.

Recommendations• Maintain the reserve as a "federally"

protected natural area under thejurisdiction of the Russian nationalgovernment.

• Construct and fully equip a state-of-the art polar research station onWrangel Island complete withoffices, laboratories, housing, kitchenand maintenance facilities.

• Install wind generators as the primary power source and testunder Wrangel Island’s severeweather conditions for more wide-spread applications in the Arctic.

• Assure that all reserve personnelare provided salary and benefitpackages commensurate with theirjob responsibilities.

• Establish a modern radio communi-cation network between reserveheadquarters and all field stationsand camps.

• Provide reliable, safe and affordableair transportation between themainland and the reserve, andemploy both helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft by building an allweather airstrip on Wrangel Island.

• Establish satellite ethno-ecologicalprotected areas on the Chukotkamainland to involve Native peoplein all aspects of protected areaconservation and management.

• Conduct periodic joint U.S. - Russiastudies and surveys of Alaska-Chukotka polar bear and walruspopulations to determine their sta-tus and trends.

• Maintain the reserve’s reindeer andmuskox populations within the car-rying capacity of their ranges. Allowwolves to reinhabit the reserve tohelp control these ungulate popula-tions, and seek funding for long-term monitoring of the island’s

TTHHEE FFUUTTUURREE

wolf-ungulate-vegetation complex.• Establish a state-of-the-art contami-

nants monitoring program forreserve lands and marine waters.

• Clean-up Ushakovskoe village’sopen dump, the former militarybase and abandoned village inDoubtful Bay.

• Establish a fully automated meteor-ological station on Wrangel Islandto be linked to national and inter-national weather service centers.

Establishment of a nonprofit PolarBear Conservation Fund is recommendedto aid in implementation of the U.S.-Russia bilateral “Agreement on theConservation and Management of the

Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population”and to secure better protection andmanagement of the Wrangel IslandNature Reserve. As envisioned, the fund would be overseen by an equalnumber of Russian and Americantrustees. Principle duties of the trusteeswould be to fundraise internationallyand recommend supplemental financial support for the most deserving polarbear research, habitat protection, publiceducation and law enforcement initia-tives. Special emphasis in this workwould be given to addressing needs of the nature reserve while insuring ahigh level of accountability for expendedfunds.

Herald Island sunset

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Polar Bear and WalrusConservation

Although polar bears inhabit some ofthe most remote parts of the planet farfrom human settlements and industrialactivity, the earth’s growing population isthreatening their future. Pollution andpoaching are particularly serious con-cerns. Scientists report that polar bearssuffer from elevated levels of POPswhich jeopardize their ability to repro-duce normally. Oil spills associated withpetroleum development and shippingpose additional threats. And globalwarming will affect the bears’ tempera-ture dependent breeding, hunting andmigration patterns particularly as thearctic ice pack continues to diminish.

Polar bear expert Dr. NikitaOvsyanikov reports that "the advent ofa market economy in Russia has greatlyincreased illegal demand for polar bearskins and gall bladders, and internationalopportunities for black market tradinghas stimulated an interest in poaching."

Although the Soviet Union madesport hunting of polar bears illegal in1956, and federal law still prohibits thekilling of polar bears in Russia, exceptfor subsistence by indigenous people,the nations economic troubles are mak-ing it difficult, if not impossible, toenforce the law.

The U.S. and Russian governmentsare obligated to fully implement andfund the bilateral "Agreement on the

Conservation and Management of theAlaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population."The need to prevent poaching is anobligatory condition of the agreement.Protection of key habitats, establishmentof hunting quotas, implementation ofeffective law enforcement measures toprevent illegal shooting of bears, andongoing cooperative research and mon-itoring should be made high priorityconcerns.

Like polar bears, Pacific walrus con-stitute a shared international resourcewhich requires coordinated manage-ment. Unregulated hunting, increasinghuman activity, oil spills, bottom draggingby commercial fishing fleets, and globalwarming all constitute significant threatsto the future of walrus. As tourismspreads throughout the Arctic, walrushaulouts have become prime targets forwildlife viewing. Extraordinary effortswill have to be undertaken by managersto insure that such viewing does notresult in a level of disturbance thatdrives the walrus away. A bilateral"Agreement for Conservation andManagement of Pacific Walrus" similarto that for polar bears should be nego-tiated between the two countries.

Polar Bear expertNikita OvsyanikovIrina Menyushina

Paleo Eskimo marine mammalhunters lived on WrangelIsland’s southern coast.

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C h r o n o l o g y o f E v e n t s28

Wrangel Island partof Bering LandBridge; Islandseparated from thecontinent by rise inocean levels.

CCHHRROONNOOLLOOGGYY OOFF EEVVEENNTTSS

The island’ssubspecies of dwarfwoolly mammothbecame extinct.

1763

RussianacademicianM.V. Lomonosovdrew map ofpolar areas thatshowed DoubtfulIsland whereWrangel Islandwas laterdiscovered.

Three expeditions ledby F.P.Wrangelunsuccessful in findingWrangel Island.

1849

British captain Kellet’s crew landedon Herald Island insearch of the lost John Franklin expedition and named it after his ship the HMS Herald.

1867

American whalerThomas Longapproached andmapped WrangelIsland and named itafter F.P.Wrangel.

1881

First landing on theisland by crew ofThomas Korvin ship;expedition ofLieutenant Berry.

1911

First Russianexpedition to reach WrangelIsland on shipVaigach. Russianflag raised.

1916

Note of RussianTzarist governmentdeclared that WrangelIsland belonged toRussian Empire.

1924

State flag of theUSSR installed inRoger’s Bay by RedOctober cannon boat.

1926

Resolution of theCentral ExecutiveCommittee of theUSSR declaredRussian sovereigntyover Wrangel Island.Polar meteorologicalstation and huntingvillage established onthe island.

1938

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Interdisciplinaryexpedition of theRussian Academy ofSciences visitedWrangel Island tobegin in depthstudies.

1948

Reindeer herdingenterprise establishedon Wrangel Island.

1953

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Chukotka DeputyCouncil passedresolution forprotection of walrus haulouts onWrangel Island.

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Long-tailed jaeger

Arctic Rosebay

3-4,

000

yrs

ago

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : C h r o n o l o g y o f E v e n t s 29

1968

1975

1976

1980

1982

1986

1989

1991

1992

1997

Wildlife refugeorganized topreserve walrus,polar bear, snowgeese and seabirdnesting sites.

Muskox introducedto Wrangel Islandfrom Nunivak Islandin Alaska.

"Wrangel IslandNature Reserve”established by theRussian nationalgovernment. Statereindeer farmremoved from theisland.

The first NatureChronicle publishedby the reserve.

Field stationestablished onHerald Island tosupport ongoingfield research.

Wolves that hadappeared on theisland in the late1970s eradicated.

American touroperators arrived topromote ecotourismdevelopment inChukotka and onWrangel Island. Firsttour ship arrived.

Joint Russian-American-Canadianwildlife studiesinitiated.

Militarydetachmentremoved fromCape Hawaii onWrangel Island.

Twelve mile-wide offshoreboundaryestablishedaround reservewith corridorfor boat accessto the islands.

U.S. and Russiannegotiating teamsachieve "Agreementon the Managementand Conservation ofthe Alaska-ChukotkaPolar Bear Population."

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WrangelIslandNativesVasiliy Pridatko

Ivory gull

1998

1999

2001

Twenty-four mile widemarine buffer zoneestablished beyond twelvemile marine boundary.

Reserveheadquartersmoved to Pevekon Chukotkamainland.

Regular visitsby touristships began.

1995

W r a n g e l I s l a n d : F u r t h e r R e a d i n g30

CAFF Circumpolar Seabird Working Group. 1997. Circumpolar eider conservationstrategy and action plan. CAFF International Secretariat, Reykjavik, Iceland.

CAFF Circumpolar Seabird Working Group. 1996 International murre conservationstrategy and action plan. CAFF International Secretariat, Reykjavik, Iceland.

Cline, David R. 1996. High priority needs for the conservation of arctic birds.Circumpolar Seabird Bulletin 2: 8-9

Davydova, M. and V. Koshevoi. 1989. Nature reserves in the USSR.Progress Publishers, Moscow.

Flint,V. E., R. L. Boehme,Y.V. Kostin, and A. A. Kuznetzov. 1984. Field guide to birds ofthe USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Lister, Adrian, and Paul Bahn. 1994. Mammoths. Macmillan, New York.

Mathews-Amos, Amy and E.A. Bernstson. 1999. Turning up the heat: how globalwarming threatens life in the sea. Marine Conservation Biology Institute and WorldWildlife Fund,Washington D.C.

National Audubon Society. 1993. Beringia natural history notebook series.Alaska Audubon Society, Anchorage.

National Audubon Society, Indigenous Peoples of Chukotka, Russia, and RussianInstitute of Nature Conservation and Reserves. 1993. A guide to environmentally andsocially responsible travel in Beringia. Beringia Conservation Program, Anchorage,Alaska.

Ovsyanikov, Nikita. 1998. Polar bears.Voyageur Press, Stillwater, Minnesota.

Ovsyanikov, Nikita. 1996. Polar bear : living with the white bear. Voyageur Press,Stillwater, Minnesota.

Portenko, L. A. 1981. Birds of the Chukchi Peninsula and Wrangel Island. SmithsonianInstitution and Natural Science Foundation.Washington, D.C.Volumes I & II.

Romanenko, Olga. 1994. Fishes, birds, and mammals of central Beringia: a taxonomiclist in English and Russian. National Park Service, Anchorage, Alaska and All RussianInstitute of Nature Conservation and Reserves, Moscow, Russia.

Scott, D. A. 1998. Global overview of the conservation of migratory arctic breedingbirds outside the Arctic. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) TechnicalReport No. 4, CAFF International Secretariat, Reykjavik, Iceland.

Sparks, John. 1992. Realms of the Russian bear: a natural history of Russia and thecentral Asian Republic. Little Brown and Company, Boston,Toronto, and London.

Stefansson,Vilhjalmur. 1925. The adventure of Wrangel Island. Macmillan Company,New York.

Talbot, S. S., B. A.Yurtsev, D. F. Murray, G.W. Argus, C. Bay, and A. Elvebakk. 1999. Atlasof rare endemic plants of the Arctic. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF),Technical Report No. 3, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska.

Vaughan, Richard. 1992. In search of Arctic birds. T. & A. D. Poyser, London.

Webb, Melody. 1981. Chronicles of a cold, cold war: the paperwork battle forWrangel Island. Anthropology and Historic Preservation Cooperative Park StudiesUnit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Zabelina, N. M., L. S. Isaeva-Petrova, and L.V. Kuleshova. 1998. Zapovedniks and nation-al parks of Russia. Federal Ecological Foundation of the Russian Federation and WorldWildlife Fund for Nature. Moscow.

U.S. Office of Naval Research, Naval Research Laboratory and Hunter College. 1999.Arctic Environmental Atlas. U.S. Department of Defense,Washington, D.C.

FFOORR FFUURRTTHHEERR RREEAADDIINNGG

SSppeecciiaall TThhaannkkssThis publication would not have been possible without vital informa-

tion provided by our key Russian partners Dr. Nikita Ovsyanikov andreserve manager Leonid Bove at the Wrangel Island Nature Reserve.Also extremely helpful were Vsevolod Stepanitsky and Dr. MichaelStishov of the Department of Protected Areas in the Ministry of NaturalResources, and Dr. Stanislav Belikov of the Institute of NatureConservation and Reserves, Moscow.The generous contributions ofphotographs from Vasiliy Baranyuk, Michael Stishov, Anatoliy Kochnev,Nikolay Konyukov, A.V. Krechmar, Irina Menyushima, Nikita Ovsyanikov,Vasiliy Pridatko, Irena Travina and Art Wolfe are especially appreciated.

Scott Schliebe, Joel Garlich-Miller and Steve Talbot of the U.S. Fish &Wildlife Service, and Dirk Derksen and Bob Gill of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey’s Biological Resources Division in Anchorage, Alaska offered valuable advise. Olga Romanenko of the Beringia Conservation Programalso provided valuable advise as well as professional translation services.Journalist Sumner MacLeish, Cindi Loker and WWF’s Angela Ross werethe copy editors.

The Pew Fellows Program in Marine Conservation made it po