word pad of psychology

8/10/2019 Word Pad of Psychology

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IN X

Introduction

Definition

Importance of child psychology

Theories of child psychology:

Psychoanalytical theory

Classical conditioning theory Mahlerstheory

Operant conditioning theory

Cognitive theory

Psychosocial theory Social learning theory

Reference


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INTRODUCTION

Psychology is the science dealing with the human nature, function &

phenomenon of his soul in the main. Psychological development is a dynamic process, which begin at the

birth and proceeds in a ascending order through a series of

sequential stages manifesting in the various characteristic behavior.

The aim is to understand the various aspect of child psychology,applied to the dental situation for successful management of the child

in the dental clinic.


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DEFINITION

Psychology : It is the science dealing with human nature,

function and phenomenon of soul in the main.

Child psychology : It is the science or study ofchildsmind and

how it functions. It is also the science that deals with themental power or an interaction between the conscious and

subconscious elements in the child.

Emotion : An effective state of consciousness in which joy,

sorrow fear, hate or the likes are expressed.

A feeling or mood manifesting in motor and glandular activity.


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Behaviour : It is any change observed in the functioning of the

organism. Behaviour Management:

The means by which dental health team effectively and efficiently

performs treatment for a child and simultaneously instills appositive

dental attitude in the child.

It can also be considered as an attempt to alter thechildsbehaviour

and emotion in a beneficial manner according to the laws of society


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IMPORTANCE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

To understand the child better.

To know the problem of psychology origin. To deliver dental services in a meaningful and effective manner.

To gain confidence of the child and of the parent.

To have a better treatment planning and interaction with otherdisciplines.

To produce a comfortable environment for the dental team to work on

the patient.


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THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

Child psychology theories can be broadly classified

intotwogroups:

1. Psychodynamic theories :

Psychology theory/ Psychoanalytical theory sigmund

Freud (1905)

Psychosocial theory/ Model of personality development-Erik Erikson (1963)

Cognitive theoryJean piaget(1952)


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2. Theoriesof learninganddevelopment of behaviour

Hierarchy of needs Maslow (1954)

Social learning theory by Bandura (1963)

Classical conditioning by Pavlov (1927)

Operant conditioning by Skinner (1938)3. Margaret SMahlerstheoryof development


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PSYCHOANAYTICAL THEORY Sigmund Freud(1905) was the originator of

Psychoanalytical approach. Freuds interest in

development arose from his desire to explain thedisorder of personality in adults. He thought the

personality to originate from biological roots, as a result

of satisfaction of set of instincts of which sexual instinct

was the most important. He describe five psychosexualstages. At each stages sexual energy is invested in a

particular part called an erogenous zone. He describe

human mind with the help of two models:

Topographic model

Psychic model/ psychic triad


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TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL

According to this model human mind consist of

conscious, preconscious and subconscious mind. The conscious mind is where we are paying attention at

the moment. It include only our current thinking and

awareness.

Preconscious mind involve ordinary memory and

knowledge; things of which we are aware, but where we

are not paying attention at all moments but can

deliberately bring them into conscious mind by focusing.

Subconscious mind is where the process and content

are out of direct reach of conscious mind. It consist of that

part of our mind which thinks and acts independently.


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PSYCHIC MODEL

Psychic structure proposed by freud in

psychodynamic theory is composedof threeparts:

ID: It is the basic structure of personality, which serves as areservoir or their mental representative.It is present at birth ,

impulse ridden and gratification [ pleasure principle ].

EGO it develops out of id in the 2 and 6 month of life when theinfant begins to distinguish between itself and outside world; it

is the mediation between id and superego. Unlike id , ego is

governed by the reality principle. It is concerned with memory

and judgement. It is developed after birth, expand with age andit delay, modifies and controls id impulses on a realistic

level[realityprinciple].


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Super Ego: It is the prohibition learned from environment [ more

from parents and authorities ] . It acts as a censor of acceptability ofthoughts ,feeling and behavior . It is determined by regulations

imposed upon the child b parents , society ,and culture [ethics and

morals ] .It is the internalized control which produces feeling of

shame and guilt.


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Ego defense mechanisms

The ego deals with the demands of reality, the id, and the super egoas best as it can. But when the becomes overwhelming, the ego

must defend itself. It does o by unconsciously blocking the impulses

or distorting them into a more acceptable, less threatening form.

These techniques are known as the ego defense mechanisms.


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Displacement

This is the transfer of the desires or impulses onto asubstitute person or object. For example, if a student isscolded by the teacher, he/she maytake itouton a lessdangerous substitute, i.e., shouting at juniors, slamming adoor or stamping feet.

Projection This is where characteristics or desires that are

acceptable to apersons ego are externalized or projectedonto someone else. A person having aggressive feelingstowards others may find it unacceptable to admit that he/she

has such feelings. Therefore these may be projected ontoothers such as he/she may now feel that others haveaggressive feelings towards him or her.


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Reaction formation

This is where a person displays behaviour that is exactly opposite

of an impulse that he/she dare not express or acknowledge, e.g.;

when you are not able to control your temper, you start laughing to

prevent anxiety or when you have bad experience of dental

treatment, to prevent anxiety you start thinking positive things about

the treatment.


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Regression

An individual attempts to avoid current anxiety by withdrawing to

the behaviour patterns of an earlier age. It is the age-inappropriate

response. For example, a child with a history of nail biting may resort

to the same after growing uo as well, in times of danger, like he maystart biting nails if not prepared for the exam.


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Repression This can take two forms; the expulsion of thought and memories

that might provoke anxiety from the conscious mind (primary

repression) and the process by which hidden id impulses areblocked from ever reaching consciousness (primal repression). It isimportant to note that, within Freudian theory, repressed memoriesare not deactivated; they continue to affect apersons behaviourlater in adulthood. However, this is mostly in disguised or symbolic

forms (such as dreams or neurotic behaviour), e.g.; if a child had apainful dental experience in the past, in the future he/she may avoidthinking about that painful event in order to repress anxiousness.


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RationalizationThis is an attempt to explain our behaviour to ourselves and

others, in ways that are seen as rational and socially

acceptable, instead of irrational and unacceptable. It alsomeans to find logic in ones actions, e.g., after poorperformance in exam, student may try to rationalize the sameby blaming the teacher of doing strict marking.

DenialThis is where a person may deny some aspect of reality, e.g.,

a patient with big ulcer in the mouth diagnosed as carcinomamay not be able to tackle the situation and he may consultanother doctor for denial of the diagnosis.


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SIGMUND FREUDS THEORY OFDEVELOPMENT

The expression of discomfort as a result of conflict

between the three components of the psychic structure

is defined as anxiety. Freud described six stages of

psychosexual development:


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Oedipus complex

Young boys have a natural tendency to be attached to themother and they consider their father as their enemy. Hencethey strive to imitate their father to gain the affection of their

mother. Freud has also described Oedipus complex as adesire to have a sexual relation with the mother. The name ofthe Oedipus complex comes from Greek mythology. Oedipus,the king of Thebe, unwittingly slew his father and married hismother. The little boy adopts his fathers manners, his

attitudes and interests thinking that by becoming like his fatherhe can win hismotherssexual love.


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Electra complex

Similarly, young girls develop an attraction towards their father and

they resent the mother being close to the father. Freud has reported

that little girls have a comparable Electra complex to resolve this. In

Greek mythology, Electra helped her brother slay the lover of their

fatherAgamemnon, in order towins fatherslove.


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Merit of Freuds Theory One of the earliest and the most comprehensivetheories of life long psychological development.

Demerits of Freuds TheoryFreud formulated this theory by his extensive studies on

adult psychological patients and hence its extrapolationto children is not very justified.

This theory is based on obsessed observations of thepsychologist.


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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV(1927)

Russian psychologist, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was one of the first tostudy conditioned reflexes experimentally on dogs. In his

experiments, what it could be very significant about a dog salivation

when a tone was presented? The key is that thetonestarted as a

neutral stimulus. That is, it itself did not originally produce theresponse of salivation. But Pavlov managed to convert that pairing

the tone with meat powder which was the unconditioned stimulus.


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That is, it itself did not originally produce the response of salivation.

But Pavlov managed to convert that pairing the tone with meat

powder which was the unconditioned stimulus. That is, the natural

unlearned process did not have to be created through conditioning.Through this process the tone acquired the capacity to trigger the

response of salivation. The dog learned to associate the tone with

food. Thus Pavlov demonstrated how learned associations were

formed by various events in anorganismsenvironment.


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The principles involved in the process

Acquisition Learning a new response from the environment by

conditioning.

Generalisationwherein the process of conditioning is evoked by aband of stimuli centered around a specific conditioned stimulus. Thusa test stimulus similar to training stimulus. Thus a test stimulus

similar to training stimulus results in response, e.g., a child who had

a painful experience with a doctor in a white coat always associates

any doctor in white coat with pain.


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Extinctionof the conditioned behaviour results if theassociation between the conditioned and theunconditioned response is not reinforced,e.g., in theabove mentioned example subsequent visits to thedoctor without any unpleasant experiences results in

extinction of the fear.Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. If

the child is exposed to clinic settings which are differentto those associated with the painful experiences the

child learns to discriminate between the two clinics andeven the generalized response to any office will beextinguished.


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Merits of Classical Conditioning

Simple to understand and very applicable

on a child in dental clinic.


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MAHLERS THEORY (1933)

This theory categorizes the early childhood objectrelations to understand personality development.

The period of childhood is thus divided into three

stages:

Normal autistic phase

Normal symbiotic phase

Seperation-individualization phase


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Normal autistic phase (0-1 yr)

It is a state of half-sleep, half-wakefullness.

This phase involves achievement of equilibrium with the environment.

Normal symbiotic phase(3-4 wk to4-5months)

The at this stage is lightly aware of the care taker but they both arestill undifferentiated.


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Separation-individualisationProcess (5-36months)

This phase is divided into four sub phases

Differentiation (5-10 months)Practicing period (10-16 months)

Rapprochement (16-24 months)

Consolidation and object constancy (24-36 months)

Merit of Mahlers TheoryCan be applied to children.

Demerit of Mahlers TheoryNot a very comprehensive theory.


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OPERANT CONDITIONINGSKINNER(1938)

According to this theory a child learn to produce response when the

consequence of it leads to the recurrence of the stimulus. Behaviourthat operates or controls the environment is called operant. It

stresses that reinforcement the critical factors for learning and

therefore for development of personality. The relation ship between

operant and consequences that follows them is called contingency.


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Skinner described four basic types of operant

conditioning distinguished by the type ofconsequences:

Positive reinforcement occurs if a pleasant consequencefollows the response, e.g., a child rewarded for good behaviour

following dental treatment.

Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant stimulifollowing response , e.g., if the parent gives in to the temper tantrums

thrown by the child, he reinforces this behaviour.


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Omission refers to removal of the pleasant responseafter a particular response, e.g., if the child mis behaesduring the dental procedures, his favorite toy is takenaway for a short time resulting in the undesirable

behaviour.

Punishment involves introduction of an aversivestimulus into a situation to decrease the undesirablebehaviour, e.g., use of palatal rake in correction of

tongue thrusting habit.

Positive and negative reinforcement are the mostsuitable types of operant conditioning for a dental office,while the other two types of operant conditioning should

be used wih caution. One mild form of punishment thatcan be used for children is thevoice control.


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Meritsof Operant ConditioningApplicable on children who are difficult to manage.

Useful in instillation of life-long positive behaviour in achild dental patient.

Demerit of Operant Conditioning

Overemphasis on use of negative reinforcerspunishment in dental clinic.


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COGNITIVE THEORY: JEAN PIAGET(1952)

Paget formulate his theory on how children andadolescents think and acquire knowledge. He derivedhis theories from direct observation of children byquestioning them about their thinking. According topiaget, the environment does not shape child

behaviour, but the child and adults actively seek tounderstand the environment. This process ofadaptation is made up of three functional variants:

Assimilation concern with observing, recognizing,taking up an object and relating it with earlier

experiences.


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Accomodationaccounts for changing concepts andstrategies as a result of new assimilatedinformation. Piaget calls the strategies and mentalcategories asschemas

Equilibrationrefers to changing basic assumptionsfollowing adjustments in assimilated knowledgeso that the facts fit better.

The sequence of development has beencategorized into four

major stages:

1. Sensorimotor stage(0-2 yr)

2. Pre-operational stage(2-6 yr)

3. Concrete operation stage(6-12 yr)

4. Formal operation stage(11-15 yr)


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Merits of Piagets TheoryMost comprehensive theory of cognitive development.

This theory propagated that we can learn as much

about childrens intellectual development fromexamining their incorrect answers to test items as fromexamining their correct answers.

DemeritsofPiagetsTheory

Underestimateschildrensabilities. Overestimates age differences in thinking.

Vagueness about the process of change.

Underestimates he role of the social environment.


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PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY: ERIK

ERIKSON(1963)

Erikson differed from Freud who felt the "Child isfather of the man... While Freud felt the mostimportant years of personality development werethe first five, Erikson emphasized the ongoingnature of personality development from birth

through death.Eriksonstheory postulate that thesociety responds to childs basic needs ordevelopmental tasks in each specific period of lifestate that in doing so, society assure not only thechilds healthy growth but also the passage andsurvival ofsocietysown culture and traditions.


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Erikson described 8 stages of life cycle

which are marked by internal crises

defined as a turning point. Each stagedemand resolution before the next stage

can be satisfactorily negotiated.


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Stage 1:

Basic trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 12-18 months): infant must form a

first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver or develop a

sense of mistrust

Dental applications

This stage identifies with development of separation anxiety in the

child. So if necessary to provide dental treatment at this early age, it

is preferable to do with the parent present and preferably with parent

holding the child.


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Stage2:Autonomy vs shame(18 months to 3 years): Thechilds

energies are directed toward the development of

physical skills, including walking, grasping, controllingthe sphincter. The child learn to control but may developshame and doubt if not handled well.

Dental applicationChild is moving away from mother, but still retreat to her

in threatening situations. So parents presence isessential in dental clinic. At this stages as the childtakes pleasures in doing tasks by himself; dentist mustobtain cooperation from him by making him believe thatthe treatment is his choice not of the dentist.


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Stage3:

Initiative vs Guilt(6 to 12 years): The child must deal

with demand to learn new skills or risk a sense ofinferiority, failure, or incompetence.

Dental application

child can be encouraged to view this visit as a new

adventure and encouraged to genuine success in it. If

this visit fail, it can lead to sense of guilt in child . He is

inherently teachable at this stage and so can be taught

about various things in detail set up. Independence has

to be reinforced rather than dependence.


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INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT


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Stage4: Industry vs. inferiority(6 to 12 years): The child must

deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense ofinferiority, failure, or incompetence.

Dental ApplicationChild drive for sense of industry and accomplishment,

cooperation with treatment can be obtained. This needsto be positively reinforced. Cooperation at this stagedepends on whether he/she understand what is needed

to please dentists/ parents.


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Industry vs. Inferiority


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Stage5:

Identity vs. role confusion(adolescence): the teenager

must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles,

politics, and religion.

Dental Application

Behavior management of adolescents can be

challenging. Any orthodontics treatment should be

carried out if child wants it and not parents as at this

stage, parental authority is being rejected.


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IDENTITIY VERSUS ROLE CONFUSION


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Stage6:

Intimacy vs. Isolation: The young adult must develop

intimate relationship or suffer feeling or isolation.Dental Application

At this stage, external appearance are very important as

it helps in attainment of intimate relation. These young

adults seek orthodontics treatment to correct theirdental appearance and this is characterized as internal

motivation.


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Intimacy versus Isolation


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Stage7:

Generativity vs. stagnation(care): Each adults must find

some way to satisfy and support the next generation.

Stage8:

Integrity vs. Despair(wisdom):The culmination is a

sense of acceptance of oneself as one is and a senseof fulfillment.


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Merits of Erik EriksonBased on age-wise classification of an individual, hence

easy to apply at any stage of development.Simple and comprehensive to understand.

Demerit of ErikEriksonBased on the extreme ends of personality.


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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:

BANDURA(1963)

Social learning theory is thought to be the most

complete, clinically useful and theoretically asophisticated form of behaviour therapy.

The learning of behaviour is affected by four principal

elements:

1. Antecedent determinants- the conditioning is affectedif the person is aware of what is occurring.

2. Consequent determinants- Persons perception and

expectancy (cognitive factors) determine behaviour.

3. Modeling- Learning through observation eliminates the

trial- error search. It is not an automatic process


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but requires cognitive factors and involves four processeswhich are:

Attentional processes

Retention processesReproduction processes

Motivational processes

Self-regulation- this system involves a process ofself-regulation, judgement and evaluation ofindividualsresponses to his own behaviour.

Dental applicationChildren are capable of acquiring almost any behaviour

that they observe closely and are not too complex for

them to perform at the level of physical development.Observational learning is an important tool inmanagement of dental treatment. If a young child


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observes an older sibling undergoing dental treatmentwithout complaint/uncooperative behaviour, he/she islikely to imitate this behaviour.Mothersattitude towardsdental treatment is likely to influencechildsapproach.

Meritsof Social learningTheory

As compared to operant and classical conditioning, thistheory is:

Less reductionistic

Provides more explanatory concepts

Encompasses a broader range of phenomena

Demeritsof Social LearningTheory

Based only on observation of behaviour of a person withoveremphasis on the role of the environment.


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REFERENCE

SHOBHA TANDON

S.G. DAMLEGOOGLE

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