woodwork for beginners_1916

7/28/2019 Woodwork for Beginners_1916

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WOODWORK FORBEGINNERSBY

IRA SAMUEL GRIFFITHChairman of the Manual Arts Department

University oj Missouri

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESSPEORIA, ILLINOIS

1916


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Copyright, 1916, ByIra Samuel Griffith

SEP 27 1916

3CI.A438573


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) PREFACE>^ This Book has been written in the hope that it may be of- service in those grammar schools where a more extended treat-

ment of subject-matter, such as that contained in the author'sEssentials of Woodworking, is not possible of utilization to anextent sufficient to warrant its adoption as an individual text.The average time presupposed for the accomplishment ofthe subject-matter contained herein, with its efficient applicationin the form of projects or models, is from one to three hours aweek for a period of two years, or its equivalent. One-third ofthis time may well be devoted to correlated mechanical drawing.

With the limited time at the student's disposal as presup-posed in this text, there is hardly time for any study of relatedinformational matter, such as trees and tree growth. Then,too, in many schools such subject-matter is efficiently treated inthe classes in nature study, or should be.

The teacher desiring an outline of a course in woodwork withdrawings of possible projects suitable for grammar grades isreferred to the author's Correlated Courses in Woodwork andMechanical Drawing.

Assignment of text for study should be by sections, as theyrelate to the shopwork being done, rather than by page sequence.


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CONTENTSPAGE

Preface 3Chapter I. Lumber Terms; Working Draw-

ings; Estimating Stock . . 7I. Lumber terms; 2. Working drawings;3. Stock bill.

Chapter II. Laying-out Tools; Their Uses 134. The rule; 5. Pencil and knife; 6. The try-square; 7. The framing square; 8. The bevel;9. The marking gage; 10. The dividers.

Chapter III. Saws; Their Uses ... 19II. Hand or crosscut-saw and rip-saw; 12. Saw-ing with hand or crosscut-saw and with rip-saw;13. The back-saw.

Chapter IV. Planes; Their Adjustments.Face Side; Face Edge . .24

14. Planes; 15. Adjustments of a standardplane; 16. Face-side, face-edge.

Chapter V. Squaring-up Stock ... 3017. Mill-marks; 18. Methods of squaring-upstock; 19. Squaring-up mill-planed stock, firstmethod; 20. Squaring-up mill-planed stock,second method; 21. Squaring-up rough stock;22. Planing a chamfer.

5


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6 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSChapter VI. Boring Tools; Their Uses.

Chisels and Chiseling . . 4323. Brace or bitstock; 24. The auger-bit;25. The drill bit; awls; the gimlet bit;26. Countersink bit; screwdriver bit; 27.Chisels; 28. Chiseling; 29. The gouge; 30.Whetting chisels and plane irons.

Chapter VII. Additional Tools and Appli-ances; Their Uses 53

31. Sandpaper; 32. Hammer; nailset; S3- Nails;nailing; 34. The screwdriver; screws; fasteningwith screws; 35. Glue; clamps; 36. The spoke-shave; working curved edges.

Chapter VIII. Simple Joinery .... 6137. Joinery; general directions; 38. Directionsfor making a dado; 39. Cross-lap joint; 40.Directions for cross-lap joint.

Chapter IX. Wood Finishing .... 6941. Materials for wood finishing; 42. Generaldirections for using brush; 43. Simple finishesfor close grained woods; 44. Simple finishes forcoarse grained woods; 45. Painting.


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WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSCHAPTER I

Lumber Terms; Working Drawings;Estimating Stock

1. Lumber Terms. Every boy who has had to cutkindling knows that woodwill split when struck alongthe general direction of itsgrowth. The fibers separateeasily, Fig. 1. ''Grain "is aterm used to designate thedirection of the fibers; " alongthe grain" means in thegeneral direction of growth."Length" in woodwork hasreference to that direction inwhich the wood splits easiest;that is along the grain. A board might therefore, be wider

h^-un,^ than it is long.

Splits Easiest Alongthe Grain

> Fig. 2 will makeclear the mean-

-! ings of other termsh^^ commonly used.

Fig. 2. Common Terms Illustrated Fig. 3. Direction of Surface Grain


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WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSIn planing, a surface will sometimes be roughened

instead of smoothed; this is called working ''against thegrain." Fig. 3 shows the reason for the roughening;the remedy consists in changing the direction of theplaning, or of the board.

TOP


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LUMBER TERMS WORKING DRAWINGS 9ing represents an object as it appears, while a workingdrawing represents the object as it really is, Fig. 4.The latter is of the utmost importance to the workmanfor it tells him concisely all about the object, its size,shape, kind of material, etc.

Fig. 5 shows two views of a common wood spool.The front view is the view one would get by looking atthe object from the front; the side view, the view one

Fi. 6. Mechanical Draw-ing Cage

Fig. 7. Cage Unfolded

would get by looking at the side of the object; a topview, the view one would get by looking at the top ofthe object, the observer in each case being so far awayfrom the object that the views show the real shape ofthe object and not its perspective. The side view will befound at the side of the front view and the top view willbe found directly above the front view. An examina-tion of Figs. 6 and 7 should enable one to fix the relation-ship of the views in mind. Fig. 6 represents an objectwithin a ^'cage" where the views have been drawn upontransparent screens. Fig. 7 shows the cage as it opensout so as to bring all of the views in one plane, as theymust be on drawing paper.


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10 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSThe various kinds of lines in a working drawing have

different meanings. The very light lines of indefinitelength are known as construction, extension, or pro-jection lines. They are the first lines drawn. Theheavy lines represent visible edges or outlines of theobject. The broken or dotted lines represent hiddenedges or outlines. Those Hnes having arrow barbs andnumbers are known as dimension lines, and the barbs

SECTION AT AB


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LUMBER TERMS WORKING DRAWINGS 11Small objects are drawn full size, that is, the object

and drawing are of the same dimensions. A drawingis said to be drawn to scale when its parts are similar inproportion to that of the object it represents. Thereare various scales used, such as ^'^ = V (>^ inch = lfoot); 3" = V, known as a quarter scale; and on verysmall objects we may have such scales as ^'' = V\ etc.Whatever the scale used, the figure on the drawingrepresents the size of the object's corresponding part.

Fig. 9. Drafting Tools

Working drawings are best made with instruments.Fig. 9 shows a set. The T-square is used in makinghorizontal lines, the lines being drawn from left to right.The triangles are used in the making of vertical andobHque lines, the Unes being drawn from the T-squareupward.

3. Stock Bill. A good workman will prepare fromhis working drawing a stock bill. Fig. 10 is an exampleof a form used by one large company. Teacher andpupil are referred to Projects for Beginning Woodworkand Mechanical Drawing, sl companion book, pages16-21, for a detailed description of how to make and


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12 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSfigure simple projects such as are usually made in ele-mentary manual training work.

Example of Form for Bill of MaterialsTicket

orCatalogNumber


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CHAPTER IILaying-out Tools; Their Uses

4. The Rule. There are various styles of rules.Whatever the style the unit of measurement is the foot

HINGES

Fig. 11. Rulewith its subdivisions into halves, quarters, eighths, andin some instances sixteenths. Fig. 11.

5. Pencil and Knife. A knife is used to lay out workthat must be quite accurate, such as joints. Where

Fig. 12. Thumb-gaging Widthaccuracy is not so important a pencil may be used.Pencil lines should be made with a well sharpened lead,

13


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14 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERShowever. A good rule to observe in bench woodworkis: Use a knife and gage for laying out except wherea finished surface would be permanently injured.

Figs. 12 and 13 illustrate two ways of marking a boardto width roughly, preparatory to rough sawing. Where

Fig. 13. Marking Width with Straight-edge

the original edge is fairly straight, thumb-gaging isresorted to. Where the edge is not straight two measure-ments for width are made, one at each end of that partof the board to be removed, and a straight-edge used toconnect these. Length in either case will be measuredfrom the end of the board, leaving enough margin to

allow for checks at the endof the board ; and the try-square or framing squareand pencil are used todraw a line straight acrossthe board.

6. The Try-Square.The try-square, Fig. 14,

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BLADE

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Fig. 14. Try-square

is used for three purposes in general, first, to act as a guidein laying out lines across the grain of a piece of stock,


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LAYING-OUT


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16 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSFig. 15 ; second, to test the edges, Fig. 16, or ends. Figs. 17and 18, of a board to see if they make right angles, or aresquare with the faces; third, to test a piece of stock byshding the square along it with the eye fixed upon theP"'"j"n"'g"i"'r5 r'jf fg ' i y m y 1 1 y 1 1 y 1 1 \i\ m i > 1 1 ii i i,ii i w i V'K i'"''!'"'"!'"'"

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TONGUEgraduations at the far edge to seewhether any change takes place as thesquare is pushed along. Fig. 19.

7. The Framing Square.The fram-ing square, Fig. 20, will be found usefulabout a shop where the try-square istoo small. It is of very great value tothe carpenter in the framing of housesand barns, etc.

r_ -Ê

-BLADE

THUMB -3CREWFis. 21. Bevel

8. The Bevel. The bevel, Fig. 21,is nothing more than a try-square witha movable blade and a thumb-screwwhich will hold the blade at any desired

^^ Square^"^^"^ angle with reference to the beam.


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THUMB-SCREW

LAYING-OUT TOOLS 179. The Marking Gage. The marking gage, Fig. 22,

is used for laying out accurate lines along the grain ofthe wood.The spur, or marking point, is to be sharpened like

a knife pointby meansof a file, the cuttingedge to act when thegage is pushed for-ward with the righthand. A left handedperson will have to draw the gage toward him or elsereverse the cutting edge of the spur.As the graduations on a gage stick or beam are not

reliable, it is safer to set a gage by means of a rule held

v^ 3HEAD OR BLOCK

Fig. 22. Marking Gage

Fig. 23. Setting Marking Gage

as in Fig. 23. As in all other work, make certain of theaccuracy of the setting by again measuring with therule after the thumb-screw has been adjusted for thefirst setting. Measure from the gage head to thesharpened point of the spur.


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18 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS10. The Dividers. A good pencil compass will be

found better for elementary woodwork than the dividers,Fig. 24, because they do not scratch the wood. Car-

Fig. 24. Dividers

penters, however, find much use for dividers. Somedividers are made with one leg removable with an adjust-ment such that a pencil may be substituted. Dividers,like compasses, are used in describing circles or arcs.


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CHAPTER IIISaws; Their Uses

11. Hand or Crosscut-Saw, and Rip-Saw. Saws, asdetermined by their teeth, are of two general classescrosscut and rip. The former class are used for cutting

Fig. 25. Efifect of ChiselingAlong the Grain

Fig. 26. Effect of ChiselingAcross the Grain

across the grain, the latter for separating the fibers alongthe grain.An examination of Figs. 25 and 26 will indicate thenecessity for differently shaped teeth for saws cuttingacross and along the grain. The rip-saw has the cuttingedges of its teeth across the front of the teeth, and isin fact nothing more nor less than a lot of little chisels,

19


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20 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS

Fig. 27. Teeth of Rip-saw

cutting in rapid succession as the blade is pushed forward,Fig. 27. The handsaw or crosscut-saw is Uke the rip-sawin all respects except that the cutting edges of the teeth

must be on the sidesrather than across thefront of the teeth, Fig. 28.Try the experiment of try-ing to cut a kerf acrossthe grain by holding the

chisel as in cutting along the grain, the reasonfor shaping the teeth with the cutting edges onthe sides of the teethwill readily be seen.

12. Sawing withHand or Crosscut-Saw and with Rip-Saw.In using thesesaws, generally theboard to be sawedwill be placed upon apair of trestles or"sawhorses.'' Placethe knee upon theboard and assume aposition for rippingsimilar to that shownin Fig. 29. The in-

mET1D VIEW (EXAGGERATED)

EDGE VIEWCUTTING EDGE

Fig. 28.SIDE VIEWTeeth of Crosscut-saw

dex finger of the right hand should extend along theside of the saw to assist in guiding it; place the thumbof the left hand upon the board at the place the cut is tobe made and the blade of the saw against the thumb


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22 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSand then crosscut to meet the ripped kerf, thus leavingon the main board all but just what is wanted. Thispractice is more economical and is less likely to result ina split piece.

BACK PIECE BLADE

The handsaw

-^POINT TEETH HEELFig. 31. Back-saw

13. The Back-Saw. The back-saw, Fig. 31, is usedfor both ripping and crosscutting upon fine work. Theblade is made quite thin and is reinforced by means ofa back piece. or crosscut-saw and the rip-saw

are used mainly upon coarser worksuch as the cutting out of stock. Insuch a case the penciled fines areplaced so as to lay out the piecesomewhat wider and longer than thedimensions desired for the finishedpiece. Here the saw is placed so asto "straddle" the penciled line. Inaccurate sawing, as with a back-saw.

Fig. 32. Accurate a knife line is used, being placed atSawing to Line ^^^ ^^^^^ location desired for thefinished piece. The saw blade is then placed so as tobring the kerf entirely upon the waste wood, but withno wood left between the kerf and line, Fig. 32. Theproper starting positions for the back-saw are shown


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PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 25makes it less suited for planing edges of 15'' and over.It is used by carpenters for smoothing, the blade beingground and whetted straight across with the cornersslightly rounded.The jointer, Fig. 38, is used mainly for planing edgesof long boards, etc. The blade is ground and whettedstraight across. The extra length keeps the blade fromcutting the hollows until the high spots have beenremoved.The block-plane, Fig. 39, is of especial advantage

where a vise is not available for holding the stock, andone hand must be used to hold thestock while the other holds theplane. It differs from the otherplanes in that it has no cap-ironand in having the bevel of theplane-iron placed up instead of down. The mouth ofthis plane is adjustable, a small lever at the front ofthe plane being used for this purpose.

Fig. 39. Block Plane


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PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 27press no tighter against the irons than is necessary toprevent their moving from side to side in the throat ofthe plane when tested with the fingers.

In adjusting a plane-iron for depth of cut, hold theplane as in Fig. 42, looking toward the Hght. Sightalong the plane bottom, at the same time turning thebrass adjusting nut until the cutting edge projects veryslightly, not muchmore than thethickness of apiece of drawingpaper. A shallowset plane-iron re-sulting in "tissuepaper" shavingswill enable one tosecure good resultsquicker than anyother kind of a set-ting. Where thewood is rough sawed, a carpenter, it is true, will setthe iron sHghtly deeper, but he invariably sets it shal-lower as soon as he has removed this surplus stock. Asecond adjustment consists in moving the lateral adjust-ing lever, while sighting along the bottom of the planetoward the hght, until the cutting edge of the iron shallproject evenly.

16. Face Side, Face Edge. The first surfacebroad surface, should the piece not be square in section,and the first edge selected or prepared have a specialuse and are given distinguishing names. The first sur-

Fig. 42. Sighting a Plane-iron


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28 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSface is known as a face side or working face, and the firstedge is known as a face edge or joint edge. They aremarked as indicated in Fig. 43, the marks being madenear the middle of the length of the piece, so that theymay be distinguished from the other surfaces, which arenot marked. From these two marked surfaces alltesting, as described later, is done, the head of the gage

Fig, 43. Face Side; Face Edge Fig. 4-4. Faces Turned In

and the beam of the try-square being held against theseand these only. To do otherwise is to introduce addi-tional chances for errors.Where the project is to consist of but one member, thebetter broad surface and the better edge are selected for

face side and face edge. Frequently it is difficult todecide which is the better surface or edge. Usually,however, streaks of sapwood, or small knots, or checksappear more numerous upon one surface than the other.


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PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 29Where several members are to be joined together to

form a project, such as a table or chair, it is best to soselect the faces that they may be turned in when themembers are put together. Fig, 44. Faces are morelikely to be accurately made than are the reverse sur-faces and, for this reason, the joints are more likely tofit properly if the faces are placed so that the mortisesor joints may be made in them. This would mean, ofcourse, that the surfaces selected for faces should be thepoorer rather than the good surfaces as in the case of thesingle piece project.


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CHAPTER VSquaring-up Stock

17. Mill-Marks. Before the time of woodworkingmachines, such as we have to-day, it was customary tosurface or plane the broad surfaces by hand, as will bedescribed later in this chapter. To-day, woodworkers


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SQUARING-UP STOCK 31right angles to a face side or a face edge, is greatlysimplified.

Fig. 45 is an illustration of a machine used to planebroad surfaces of boards. This machine has long knivesattached to a revolving cylinder extending across thebed. As the board is made to travel over the bed by anautomatic feed, these knives, revolving at a speed of3,500 to 3,800 revolutions per minute, remove chipsentirely across the board. Where the board is fed overthe' table slowly, thus giving the knives plenty of timefor action on a given place, it is difficult for a beginner totell a machine planed board from one that is hand planed.The little ridges and hollows across the machine planedboard are there, however, and must be removed with thehand plane, where a stain or filler is to be applied later.If this is not done, every ridge and hollow will be madeto stPvUd out prominently when the stain is applied.

18. Methods of Squaring-up Stock. For the sakeof convenience we may classify the methods of squaring-up stock under the following heads; squaring-up mill-planed stock for (1) outside finish; (2) inside finish;(3) squaring up rough-sawed stock or mill-planed stockwhere accuracy is very important. In reality there isbut one method of squaring-up stock number three the others being modifications of the order for this.The simplest process of squaring-up stock is that used

in preparing stock for outside building finish, such, asbase, corner boards, cornice members, etc. For thispurpose mill-planed stock is made use of, stock thick-nesses being specified. Since such finish is usuallypainted, and, being on the outside, does not require a


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32 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSfine treatment, nothing is done to the broad surfaces,not even planing off the mill-marks or sandpapering.Many manual training shop problems, such as cutting-boards, bird houses, etc., may be treated in this samemanner.A larger number of manual training projects will makeuse of the second method of squaring-up stock that

Fig. 46. Position in Edge Planing

used in preparing interior building finish. This differsfrom the one just described in that, being intended forinside work where the surfaces will be stained and waxedor varnished, the mill-marks must be removed from oneor both broad surfaces, and these sandpapered well.Like outside finish, inside finish, too, does not requirethat its broad surfaces be perfectly true or out of wind,merely smooth. The reason stock slightly warped willanswer for all exterior and most interior finish is due tothe fact that most of the wind can be ''nailed out" inassembUng, Fig. 101.

Projects in furniture construction and in pattern-


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SQUARING-UP STOCK 33making, however, do not as a rule have assembUes whichpermit of "naihng out" warp or wind. For this reasona third method, more difficult than those mentioned, isrequired in which the first surface must be made true,with warp and wind removed. A uniform thickness isgaged from this trued surface.

19. Squaring-up Mill-Planed Stock. First Method:

Fig. 47. Starting the Stroke

(1) Select and mark one of the broad surfaces for aface side, Fig. 43. (2) Select and plane a face edge(a) square to the face side and (b) straight as to length.

Place the piece in the vise and assume a position asin Fig. 46. Plane the edge straight as to its length andsquare to the face side just prepared. In elementarymanual training the jack-plane will be used for thispurpose. Press firmly upon the knob in starting thestroke. Fig. 47, and upon the handle at its close, Fig. 48;otherwise the ends will be lowered more than the middleof the board. In planing a long board it will be neces-sary to stop and start some of the strokes in the middle


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34 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSof the length of the board. It is possible to do thiswithout leaving any plane marks by lowering the planegradually in starting and raising it gradually in stopping

Fig, 48. Finishing the Stroke

Fig. 49. Sighting for Straightness Fig. 50. Straight-edge Test

a stroke, getting what is known as a '^ feathered " shaving.Take off no more shavings than are necessary to securethe required straightness and squareness.

After the first stroke or two, hold the piece towardthe Hght, as in Fig. 49, close one eye and sight for


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SQUARING-UP STOCK 35straightness. The beginner will do well to make useof a straight-edge test, as in Fig. 50, until he has madesure he can "sight" correctly. No light should appearbetween the edge of the stock and the straight-edgewhen they are held between the eye and the light.The second test, that for squareness of the edge, is

made by holding the try-square as in Fig. 16 and sight-ing toward the light. Hold thebeam firmly against the face sideand test at a sufficient number ofplaces along the edge to deter-mine what the true condition is.

In edge planing the beginnershould remember that his plane-iron is sHghtly rounding on itscutting edge, and that all heneeds do to take a shaving atany given place is to continueholding the plane level but movethe whole plane body over untilthe rounded central part of thecutter is immediately over the "high" place on thestock. Fig. 51 shows the plane placed to take a shavingoff the edge at the arris nearest the worker. The finalstroke should be taken the full length of the stock anddown the middle of the edge that any slight unevennessresulting from partial strokes may be removed.

Place the face mark on this edge when it meets therequired tests, marking it as in Fig. 43.

(3) Plane the second edge (a) square to the face side, (b)straight as to its length and (c) parallel to the face edge.

Fig. 51. Removing aHigh Arris


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36 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSWhere a definite and exact width of board is required,

a line is gaged from the face edge by means of a mark-ing gage set as in Fig. 23 and held as in Fig. 52 with thehead against the face edge. The line should be lightly-made and the planing continued until half of the hghtV-shaped groove is removed. Test the edge for square-

ness frequently as thegage line is approachedthat the edge may besquare when the line isreached. If the gageline is approached pro-perly the edge should bestraight and parallel tothe face edge. It iswell for the beginnerto test this edge forstraightness, and forwidth with the slidingtry-square test.

Fig. 52. Gaging Where the wastestock is more than p, in.

it should be ripped parallel to the gage line and aboutyi in. away from it.

If much stock is to be removed the plane-iron may beset so as to take heavy shavings. When nearing thegage line it should be set to take fine shavings.Not infrequently, while no definite width is required,

it is desired to have the second edge planed straight,square to the face side, and parallel to the face edge.In such a case, the worker simply planes the second


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Fig. 53. End Planing; First Position

SQUARING-UP STOCK 37edge until it is straight, square, and meets the slidingtry-square test illustrated in Fig. 19.

(4) Square up one of the ends (a) to the face side,(b) to the faceedge. Ends maybe finished in twoways: by sawingaccurately to theline squared acrossfrom the face edge,Figs. 15 and 32;second, the end

may be planed square. Ends sawed to make joints areusually ''undercut" very slightly; that is, the sawing isdone in such a wayas to leave theface slightly longerthan the back, thusinsuring a fit onthe face.

In planing anend, the plane-ironshould be verysharp and set veryshallow and true.Test the end byholding the blade of the try-square across it with thebeam against the face side and then the face edge, Figs.17 and 18.End planing dift'ers from edge and surface planing

in that the plane-iron must not be allowed to cut entirely

Fig. 54. End Planing; Second Position


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38 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSacross the piece or the far edge will be broken off, Fig.53. To avoid this, plane about two-thirds of the wayacross the end and then reverse the piece and plane fromthe other edge, Fig. 54. Test frequently as indicatedabove, and plane no more than is necessary to secure aresult which meets the two tests indicated.

(5) Square up the second end (a) square to the faceside, (b) square to the face edge. Where no definitelength is required for the piece, the second end is merely

Fig. 55. Measuring Length

planed as was the first end, the same tests being appKed.That is, the try-square is held with its blade across theend and its beam against the face side and then againstthe face edge, Figs. 17 and 18.

If the end is to be sawed square without planing, thetry-square and pencil, or knife for accurate work, willbe used to scribe a line across the face side and one edge,as in Fig. 15. The stock is then sawed as in Fig. 32.Where a definite length of stock is prescribed, therule should be placed as in Fig. 55, and the exact lengthmarked. A line is scribed through this mark. Fig. 15,and the surplus stock either sawed exactly to the linewhere a sawed joint is to be made, or sawed about a


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SQUARING-UP STOCK 39scant T6 in. outside of the line where a perfectly smoothend is to be left. After this latter sawing, the re in.surplus stock is removed with the plane.

Fig. 56. First Test for Surface Fig. 57. Second Test for SurfaceTrueness Trueness

Fig. 58. Third Test for Surface Fig. 59. Fourth Test for SurfaceTrueness Trueness

20. Squaring-up Mill-Planed Stock. SecondMethod: The only difference between the second methodand the first method consists in the fact that the firstbroad surface, instead of simply having its face markput on, must be planed smooth and free of mill marks.There is but one test for this surface, a test with the try-


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40 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSsquare held as in Fig. 56 to see whether the board isstraight across the grain, the test being made at a numberof places along the board.

21. Squaring-up Rough Stock. Third Method ojSquaring Stock: (1) True and smooth a broad surfacefor a face side, testing as in Figs. 56, 57, 58, 59. Puton the proper face mark, Fig. 43.


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SQUARING-UP STOCK 4122. Planing a Chamfer. Very frequently the arrises

of a board are removed; the result produced is known asa chamfer. Chamfers are laid out with a pencil rather

Fig. 61. Planing Chamfered Edges

than gage and try-square and knife. While the latteris more accurate the V-shaped grooves produced, spoilthe appearance of the piece after the chamfering is

Fig. 62. Planing Chamfered Endscompleted to the lines. Hold the pencil as in Fig. 60,first having measured the required distance the chamferis to be laid out from the arris. This method of layingout a chamfer is known as pencil gaging. The lines will


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42 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSbe laid off on edges, on ends, and on the surface at thetwo edges and two ends where the chamfer is to beplaced, entirely around the piece of stock.Holding the plane as in Fig. 61 plane the two arrisesextending along the grain. Next, holding the planeas in Fig. 62, but moving it in a horizontal direction,plane the two end chamfers. By holding the plane asindicated in Fig. 62 a shearing cut is secured which,with the buttressed effect produced by planing the edgechamfers first, makes it possible to plane entirely acrossthe end without splitting the far corner. In all caseswhere a plane is turned across the stock so as to securea shearing cut, the plane should not be turned so far thatthe benefit of its length is lost as an aid to producing astraight surface.As a rule, the eye will detect inaccuracies in a chamfer.

If a further test is desired, Fig. 63 illustrates one.

Fig. 63. Testing a Chamfer


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CHAPTER VIBoring Tools; Their Uses. Chisels and Chiseling

23. Brace or Bitstock. The brace, Fig. 64, is usedto hold various kinds of bits. A ratchet brace differs

Fig. 64. Brace, or Bitstock Fig. 65. Inserting a Bit

from the plain brace in that, by means of an adjustment,it can be made to turn in one direction or the other, aswell as being made to act as a plain brace.To insert a bit, hold the brace as in Fig. 65, revolving

the crank to open and close the jaws.43


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44 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS24. The Auger-Bit. The auger-bit, Fig. 68, is used

for all ordinary work. The size of hole a bit will borecan be told by the number on its tang, which number isthe numerator of a fraction whose denominator is 16 on

Fig. 66. Horizontal Boring; First Position

Fig. 67. Horizontal Boring; Second Position


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46 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSWhere it is desired to bore entirely through a board, it

is best to bore from the first side until the spur shows onthe back, then reverse the piece and finish the boring

from the reverse side, other-wise the nibs might splitthe wood on the reversesurface.

25. The DriU Bit; Awls;the Gimlet Bit.The drillbit. Fig. 72, is temperedquite hard and may beused to bore in metal aswell as in wood. As thisbit has no spur, it is bestto make a ''seat" for it.In metal a punch is used;in wood an awl, Fig. 73,will be used.

Gimlet bits. Fig. 74, are used mainly in boring smallholes for screws.The brad awl is used in making very small holes for

Fig. 71. Measuring Depth

Fig. 72. Drill Bit Fig. 73. Scribe Awl

Fig. 74. Gimlet Bit

Fig. 75. Couiitersiak Bit Fig. 76. Screwdriver Bit


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CHISELS AND CHISELING 47small screws, but more especially for nails. It differsfrom the scribe awl only in that its extremity has achisel edge instead of a point.

26. Countersink Bit ; Screwdriver Bit.The counter-sink bit, Fig. 75, is used to enlarge the holes bored forBEVEL OR GRIMD FERRULE TANG

rt

HANDLE'Fig. 77. Firmer Chisel LEATHER Tipi

Fig. 7.SOCKETFraming Ciiisel

i=in?RULE

the bodies or cores of flat-head screws, that the headsmay be sunk slightly below the surface of the wood.The screwdriver bit, Fig. 76, is used in connection with

the brace for the rapid insertion of screws. To avoid thescrewdriver bit's jumping out of the groove in the headof the screw, after each half turn of the crank, move thecrank backward veryslightly.

27. Chisels.Thetwo kinds of chiselsmost commonly usedare the firmer chisel.Fig. 77, and the framingchisel. Fig. 78. The firmer chisel is lighter than theframing chisel and is used for fine work. The framingchisel is used where the work is such as to demand

Fig. 79. Mallet


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48 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSpounding with a mallet, Fig. 79, to force its edge intothe wood. The firmer chisel is usually fitted on atang, though it may be fitted with a socket.The size of a chisel is indicated by the width of the

cutting edge.

Fig. 80. Position of Hands,Horizontal Chiseling

Fig. 51. Position of Hands,Vertical Chiseling

A chisel, to do good work, must be kept sharp. Toavoid any chance for injury, both hands should at alltimes be kept back of the cutting edge, Figs. 80 and 81.

28. Chiseling. In paring across the grain horizon-tally, place the piece of wood in a vise so that both handsmay be free to manipulate the chisel. Fig. 80. With thebevel side of the chisel up, pare almost all the way acrossthe piece, taking fairly large cuts at first, with thinnerones as the fine is approached. Reverse the piece, andfinish the cutting from the second side.The sides of such a groove would be sawed first.


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CHISELS AND CHISELING 49Where it is desired to trim or pare the sides of such

a groove to make the groove wider, the chisel will be

Fig. 82. Gougeheld as in Fig. 81, the worker standing so that he maysight along the Hne he is cutting. Very small portionsare taken at a time, about yi in. of the blade being used

Fig. 83. Position of Hands,Heavy Cut Fig. 84. Position of Hands,Light Cut

for cutting, the rest of the blade being held against thesurface already pared. The movement of the handle isforward and downward to give what is known as a shear-ing cut. Fig. 81.


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50 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS29. The Gouge. The gouge, Fig. 82, which is a

chisel of curved section, may have its bevel on either theinside or outside of the curved blade. Figs. S3 and 84illustrate the manner of holding an outside beveled

Fig. 85. Grinding a ChiselFig. 87. Starting Position in W^hetting

gouge for taking heavy and Hght cuts. Gouges cutbetter when given a circular movement at the cuttingedge as the tool is pushed forward.

30. Whetting Chisels and Plane Irons. Whenedged tools become dulled through repeated whettings,or through being brought into contact with metal,they must be ground, Fig. 85. Grinding is a ratherdifficult task for beginners to learn to do well. Beginnersought, however, to learn tj whet their edged tools.


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CHISELS AND CHISELING 51

Fig. S8.Shape ofJack-planeIron. E X -aggerated.

Whetting consists in rubbing the tool backward andforward, Fig. 86, taking care to hold the tool at one and

the same angle. This angle may be deter-mined as follows: place a little oil on thestone, and placing the iron as in Fig. 87,gradually raise the handle until the oilcan be seen to press out from under thecutting edge, Fig. 86. To raise the handle

any higher would result in a blunt edge in whetting.Not to raise it high enough to expel the oil would resultin the whetting beingdone at the heel of thebevel, which would dono good.

Oil is used upon awhetstone to mix withand remove the littleparticles of steel which,otherwise, would clogthe pores of the stone.A chisel has its edgeground straight across.A plane iron for general

manual training pur-poses is ground straightacross but is whettedslightly rounded as inFig. 88.Whetting usually causes a wire edge to be turned up

on the face of a chisel or plane-iron. This wire edge maybe detected by rubbing the fingers along the face out

Fig. 89. First Stropping Position

Fig. 90. Second Stropping Position


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52 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERoover the edge. To remove this edge, strop the toolupon a piece of leather upon which has been placed aslight coating of oil and emery dust. Hold the toolfirst as in Fig. 89, then as in Fig. 90, alternating rapidlyfrom one position to the other as the stropping proceeds.

Fig. 91. Thumb-nail Test forSharpness

Fig, 92. iVIechanics' Test forSharpness

There are a number of ways of telling whether an edgeis sharp or not. One way is to draw the edge over thethumb-nail as in Fig. 91. If the tool is sharp it can befelt '' taking hold." If the edge is not sharp it willsimply slide .over the nail.A more delicate test, the one used by carpenters, isto make the same kind of a test but using the ball of the

thumb, Fig. 92. Judgment is required in this lattertest or a cut thumb will be the result. Do not use afinger. The thumb is calloused and when the sharpedge ''takes hold" it is cutting in this callous.


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CHAPTER VIIAdditional Tools and Appliances; Their Uses.31. Sandpaper. Sandpaper should be used onlyafter the edged tools have, completely finished their

work. Sandpaper is intended merely as a means of

Fig. 93. Sandpapering FlatSurface

Fig. 94. Sandpapering CurvedSurface

smoothing a surface, and any attempt to make it do thework of an edged tool will result in an unsatisfactorypiece of work.

In sanding flat surfaces use a block, holding the paperwith the fingers as indicated in Fig. 93, sanding along,not across, the grain of the wood. Curved surfaces willbe sanded with the paper held free in the hand, as inFig. 94.On flat surfaces the arrises are kept sharp, unless upon

the arm of a chair, or similar part, where the sharpnesswould cause injury or discomfort.

53


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54 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSThe relative fineness or coarseness of sandpaper can

be told by the number stamped upon the back of eachCLAW

Fig. 95. Claw Hammersheet. These numbers vary from 00 to 2, the formerbeing quite fine and used for sanding shellac and otherfinishes. No. 1 is most (_------w- t hcommonly used in manual /cup pointtraining work. Fig. 96. NailsetNever sandpaper the parts to a joint; the edged tools

must be depended upon entirely for joint work.32. Hammer; Nailset.The hammer most com-

monly used by woodwork-ers is what is known as abell-faced claw hammer,Fig. 95. The face of thishammer is slightly roundedthat it may be used in set-ting nailsupon outsideworkwhere the depression leftby the face of the hammeris not objectionable.Fig. 97. Setting Nails

Upon inside work, and in cabinet work, a nailset, Fig.96, will be used in setting nails. Such a set is held as in


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ADDITIONAL TOOLS 55


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ADDITIONAL TOOLS 57

Fig. 105DeterminingLength ofScrew

would have done. Withdraw the nail and start it in anew location.

In withdrawing a nail, place a block of scrap woodunder the head of the hammer toprevent its marring the wood,Fig. 102. If the nail is long, useseveral blocks of different thick-nesses as the nail is withdrawn.

34. The Screwdriver ; ScrewsFastening with Screws.In Fig.103 is shown a common type ofscrewdriver. The end if shapedas shown will be found less likelyto ''jump out" of the groove in Screw' Gagethe head of the screw, resulting in ^^ ^^^a marred surface on the wood.

Screws used in woodwork are of two kinds: round-head and flat-head, either bright or blued steel, or brass.

They are made entirely by machines andare put up in pasteboard boxes and soldby the gross. The size of a screw isdesignated by its screw gage and its lengthin inches. Fig. 104 shows the manner ofplacing a screw in the screw gage to deter-mine its gage. Fig. 105 shows the mannerof determining its length.When fastening two pieces of hardwood together,

holes will have to be bored in both lower and upper pieceas shown in Fig. 106. This illustration shows the screwhole in the upper member countersunk ready to receivea flat-head screw. Round-head screws require no

Fig. 106.Holes Boredin Hard Woodfor Screw


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ADDITIONAL TOOLS 59applying a steady heat to the outer pot or kettle. Wateris added as the glue cooks until the glue has a con-sistency which will flow freely when applied with a brush.

THUA\B-S CREW-HANDLE

Fig. 111. Spokeshave

Clamps are used to expel the surplus glue frombetween the parts being glued together. Two kinds arein common use, the hand-clamp, Fig. 108, and the bar-clamp, Fig. 109.

In placing the hand-clamp, see that the jaws are keptparallel, adjusting by ro-tating the clamp as inFig. 110. Tighten theback spindle last.

36. The Spokeshave;Working Curved Edges.The spokeshave, Fig. HI,is practically a short plane,and like the plane shouldbe adjusted so that it willremove thin shavings. Itis used chiefly upon curvedsurface work and may be either pushed or pulled.To make a curved edge upon the edge of a board,

pencil gage lines on each of the broad surfaces whichshall indicate the amount of curvature. Next, on theedge, pencil gage two hues each a distance from an edge

Fk 112. Gaging Chamfers forCurved Edge


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60 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSequal to one-fourth the thickness of the piece, Fig. 112.Spokeshave or, if the edge is straight, plane off the twoarrises so as to leave three surfaces, the central one beingthe broader. Next, estimating the amount with theeye, remove the two central arrises until five equalsurfaces have been formed. Holding the sandpaper asin Fig. 94, sand along the grain until a smooth curve isformed.


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CHAPTER VIIISimple Joinery

37. Joinery; General Directions. The term joineryas used herein refers merely to the fitting together oftwo or more parts called the members. Take into con-sideration the direction of the grain in planning the rela-tive positions of the members. Make due allowancewhere shrinkage is likelyto be considerable.As far as possible, plan

to have the members joinface to face. Face sidesare more likely to be truethan are the other two sur-faces and therefore thejoints are more likely tofit properly.Make all measurements from a common starting point,

as far as practicable. Remember to keep the head ofthe gage and the beam of the try-square against one orthe other of the faces, unless there should be specialreasons for doing otherwise.In practice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sidesof a joint by superposition rather than by measurement.Laying out by superposition consists in placing one mem-ber upon another and marking upon the second member

61

Fig. 113. Locating bySuperposition


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SIMPLE JOINERY 63laid on the bench and accurately marked without dangerof misplacing the openings.While the knife is used almost exclusively in laying out

joints, there are a few instances in which a pencil, if wellsharpened and usedwith slight pressure ispreferable. To illus-trate, suppose it is de-sired to locate the endsof the mortises in theposts. Fig. 114. Toknife entirely acrossthe surfaces of the fourpieces and around thesides of each, as wouldbe necessary to locatethe ends of the mor-tises, would injure thesurfaces. Instead, pen-cil these lines and gagebetween the pencillines. Those parts of the pencil lines enclosed by the gagelines the ends of the mortises may then be knifed,if desired, to assist in placing the chisel for the final cut.

In sawing joints in hard wood, the saw should be madeto cut accurately to the line. When working soft wood,beginners are often permitted to leave a small margin about one thirty-second of an inch between the knifeline and the saw kerf. This margin is afterward paredaway with the chisel.

In assembling framework and the like, where it is

Fig. 115. Location of Joints RoughlyjNIarked


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64 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSnecessary to drive the parts together, always place ablock of wood upon the member to be pounded to takethe indentations that will be made. A mallet is prefer-able to a hammer for such pounding.Frequently a piece of work will require the making oftwo or more like parts. To lay out these parts, that is,to mark out the location of intended gains, mortises,

Fig. 116. Making EndsEven Fig. 117. Marking DuplicateLengths

shoulders of tenons, etc., so that all shall be alike, thefollowing method is used: (1) On the face edge of oneof the pieces measure off with the rule and mark withknife the points at which the lines for the joints are to besquared across. If knife marks would show on thefinished surface as scratches, use a sharp pencil instead.(2) Lay the pieces on the bench top with the face edgesup; even the ends with the try-square. Figs. 116 and117. Square lines across the edges of all of them at thepoints previously marked on one of them. The piecesmay then be separated and lines corresponding to theHnes just made on the face edges be carried across


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SIMPLE JOINERY 65the face sides of each piece separately, the try-squarebeam being held against the face edge in so doing, ofcourse.

In all duplicate work the aim of the worker should beto make as much use as possible of the tool he has inhand before laying it down and taking another. Toillustrate, if there should be a number of like parts, eachrequiring two different settings of the gage, he shouldmark all of the parts at the first setting, then all at the

Fig. 118, Testing Dado for Deptlisecond setting, rather than to change the gage for eachpiece so that each piece might be completely markedbefore another is begun.

38. Directions for Making a Dado. A dado, Fig.118, is made by cutting a rectangular groove entirelyacross one member into which the end of another memberfits. Dadoes are cut across the grain of the wood; whensimilar openings are cut parallel to the grain, they arecalled simply grooves. Dadoes are used in the makingof shelving, window and door frames, etc.

(1) Locate by means of the rule one side of the dadoand mark its position with the point of the knife.(2) At this point, square a sharp line across the piecewith knife and try-square. (3) By superposition, locateand mark the second side. (4) Square these lines across


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66 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSthe edges of the piece a distance equal to the approximatedepth of the dado. (5) Set the gage for the requireddepth and gage between the knife lines on the two edges.(6) Saw just far enough inside the knife lines that thesides of the dado may be finished to the lines with thechisel. Saw down just to the gage lines, watching bothedges that the kerfs be not made too deep. (7) Chiselout the waste until the bottom of the dado is smooth andtrue. Test the bottom as shown in Fig. 118. Two

Fig. 119. Cross-lap Joint

brads are driven into a block having a straight edgeuntil they project a distance equal to the proposed depthof the dado. (8) Pare the sides of the dado to the knifelines. These sides might be finished in another way, bysetting a wide chisel in the knife line and tapping itgently with a mallet. If care is taken the successivesettings of the chisel need not show.Where the dado is to be cut on a piece narrow enough

that the saw may be made to follow the fine accurately, itis considered better practice to saw accurately to the line.39. Cross-lap Joint.Usually, stock for the two

members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed towidth and thickness in one piece. Place two sets offace marks on the piece, so that there shall be one set of


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SIMPLE JOINERY 67

Fig. 120. Testing for LikeDimensions

marks on each member after they are separated.Fig. 119.

40. Directions for Cross-lap Joint. (1) Square thetwo ends, measure from each of these the desired length

of each member, squareknife lines around, sawapart, finishing the endssquare to the lines. (2)Measure from one end ofeach member the requireddistance to the nearer

edge of the joint. Since the corresponding faces of thetwo members must be on the same side of the piecewhen the parts are put together, it will be necessaryto lay off the groove of one member on the faceand of the otherm.ember on the sideopposite the face.If the joints are tobe in the middle ofeach member but onemeasurement need bemade. (3) Squaresharp knife linesacross at thesepoints. (4) By super-position, locate andknife the second edge of each joint. (5) If the joints areto be in the middle of each member, before proceedingfarther, test to see that the lines have been laid out pro-perly. If the members are placed side by side and the

Fig. 12L Testing Bottom of Joint'


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68 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSends evened as in laying out in (2) above, the lines will ofnecessity correspond. Turn one of the members end forend and even the two ends ; the lines ought still to corres-pond. If they do not, points marked midway betweenthe corresponding lines will give the correct position forthe new lines, Fig. 120. (6) Extend the knife hnes acrossthe two adjoining surfaces of each member. (7) Set the

Fig. 122. Effect of Too Tight a Fit

gage for the required depth and gage between the knifelines on the surfaces. Though the groove on one memberis laid out on the side opposite the face, do not make themistake of holding the head of the gage against otherthan the face. (8) Saw accurately, Section 13, Fig. 32,to the knife lines and to a depth indicated by the gageHnes. (9) Chisel out the waste stock. Section 3S. (10)Test as shown in Fig. 121. A well-made cross-lap jointis one in which the members can be put together withthe pressure of the hands and which will not fall apartof their own weight. Fig. 122 shows the results of"forcing a fit.''


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70 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSwhat of the bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled intostick forms. When crushed and washed it is known asseed-lac. When fully purified, which is done by meltingand straining, it is spread out and is known as shellac.White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange

shellac is unbleached. Pure white shellac is used wherethe more yellow shellac would discolor. Orange shellac

is stronger than white and will lastlonger but is harder to apply be-cause it sets more rapidly.

Shellac varnish sets quickly,dries hard, but softens undermoisture. Unlike oil varnish, itdoes not *' level up" and must,therefore, be brushed on quickly,using long, even strokes. No spotsmust be omitted for they cannotbe "touched up."Most of the above finishes are

applied with a brush. The best brushes are madefrom bristles of the wild boar of Russia and Chinaand are expensive. They should be well cared for,being cleaned when not in constant use. Brushes whichhave been used in filler, or paint, or oil varnish arecleansed with turpentine, or kerosene, or gasoline, orbenzine. Brushes which have been used in shellac arecleansed with alcohol. Brushes which are used fromday to day should be kept suspended over night inthe liquid being used, so that their bristles shall nottouch the bottom of the bucket, otherwise they losetheir shape. Fig. 123.

Fig. 123. Brush Holder


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72 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSwill result. The reason for working out over the endsrather than from them will appear with a little thought.(7) Now work toward the second end. The arrows,

Fig. 126, show the generaldirections of the final orfeathering strokes,

'^v Edges are usually coveredFig. 126. Direction of Feather- ^^.g^ ^^^ adjoining surfacesing Strokes '

afterward.It frequently happens that surplus liquid runs over a

finished surface, especially when working near the arrises.This surplus can be ''picked up " by wiping the brush up-on the wire of the bucket until the bristles are quite freeof liquid, and giving the part afTected a feathering sweep.

If the object has an internal corner, work from thatout over the neighboring surfaces.

Panels and sunk places should be covered first. After-ward, the raised places, such as stiles, rails, etc., may beattended to. Wherever possible the work should belaid fiat so that the Uquid may be flowed on horizontally.This is of especial advantage in varnishing. Verticalwork should always be begun at the top and carrieddownward.

Tracing consists in working a liquid up to a given linebut not over it, such as painting the sash of a window.Tracing requires a steady hand and some practice. Asmall brush is generally used and the stroke is made asnearly continuous as the flow of the liquid will allow.Fig. 127.

43. Simple Finishes for Close-Grained Woods. Itis taken for granted that commercially prepared finishes


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WOOD FINISHING 73are to be used; it is hardly profitable for boys to try toprepare their own stains and other finishes.

First Finish: (1) Remove all dust from the sandedsurfaces. (2) Coat the piece to be finished with thinwhite shellac. (3) Allow this to stand over night;then sandpaper Kghtly with No. 00 paper held upon thetips of the fingers, Fig. 128. Sand just enough toremove the roughness of the shellaced surface. Do notuse a block for thesandpaper; it issmoothness and notlevelness that is re-quired. It is toolate to try to securea level surface. (4)Apply a coat of pre-pared floor wax.These waxes aremade to dry very

ji '-rx, J- Fis- 127. Tracingrapidly. Thedirec- *= tions for their appHcation will be found printed upon thecan labels. An easy way to remember these directionsis to note that such waxes are applied and poUshed justas are the paste shoe polishes so generally used. (5) Pol-ish this wax after it has stood some ten or fifteen minutes,using a flannel cloth. (6) After an hour another coat ofw^ax may be apphed and polished if desired. The morecoats of wax the better the finish.Second Finish: This finish is like the one just de-

scribed, except that a coat of stain of the desired coloris applied to the wood just before the thin coat of shellac.


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74 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERSStains are of three kinds: water, oil, and spirit. Each

has its advantages and its disadvantages. For simplemanual training pieces, oil stains are recommended.Such stains are nothing more than paint thinned toproper consistency. Apply them with a brush, andimmediately wipe the surface clear of the surplus mate-rial, using a cloth or piece of cotton waste. Makecertain that all excess has been removed from corners

Fig. 128. Sanding a Finish

as well as surfaces, otherwise a muddied effect willresult at the uncleaned places.44. Simple Finishes for Coarse-grained Woods.

The finishing of coarse-grained woods differs from that offinishing close-grained woods chiefly in the meanstaken to ^' build up" the open grain of the coarse-grainedwoods to the same level as that of its close grain. This isaccomplished by means of filler. Paste filler is usuallymade of ground rock crystal mixed with linseed oil,Japan drier, and turpentine. It may be either light ornatural in color, or colored in any one of a number ofshades.


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WOOD FLXISHIXG 75First Finish: (1) Thin the filler with turpentine until

it makes a thin paste. (2) With a stiff-bristled brush,force the filler into the pores of the wood and leavethe surface covered with a thin coating. (3) Allow thisto stand until the filler has ''flatted," that is, until the''gloss" has disappeared and the filler becomes dull andchalkish. The time required for this to take placevaries. Twenty minutes is not unusual. (4) Rub thefiller off just as soon as it has flatted do not let itstand longer, for the longer it stands the harder it is toremove. Rub across the grain as much as is possible,using a wad of excelsior. Finish fine work by going overit a second time with a cloth, rubbing with the grain aswell as across, that the ''high fights" may be clear offiller.On fine work use a felt pad to rub the filler into the

pores, and rub off with a cloth only.Twenty-four hours should be allowed the filler to

harden. One filling is suflicient for ordinary work; onfine work the above process is sometimes repeated afterthe first filling has hardened.The striking contrasts in the grain of wood such asoak and chestnut, obtained by the use of colored fillersare due to the dark fillers remaining in the open grainbut being wiped off of the close grain the "highlights." (5) Apply a thin coat of shellac and allow itto dry over night. (6) Sand lightly w4th No. 00 paperheld upon the finger tips. (7) Apply one or two coatsof wax.

Second Method: The second method is similar to theone just described except that before the filler is applied


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INDEX(numbers refer to pages)

Against the Grain 8Arris 7Auger-bit 45Awls 46Back-saw 22Bevel. 16Bit, Inserting 43Block Plane 25Boring to Depth 45Boring Positions 45Boring Through 46Brace or Bitstock 43Broken View 10Brush, Directions for Use 71Brushes, Care of 70Chamfer Planing 41Chiseling 48Chisels 47Clamps 58Compass 18Corner 7Countersink Bit 47Cross-lap Joint 66Cross-lap Joint, Directions for 67Cross-section 10Curved Edges 59Dado Joint 65Dividers 18Drafting Board 11Drafting Tools 11Drill Bit 46Duplicate Parts 64

Edge Planing 33Edge Tests 34Edges, Hidden 10Edges, Visible 10End 7End Planing 37Face 7Face Marks 28Face Side, Face Edge 27Faces, Placing of 29Feathering Strokes of Brush . . 72Feathering Strokes of Plane. . . 34Filler 74Finishes for Close-grainedWoods 72Finishes for Coarse-grainedWoods 74Framing Square 16Gaging Thickness 40Gaging Width 36Gimlet Bit 46Glue 58Gouge 50Grain 7Hammer 54Jack Plane 24Joinery, General Directions . . 61Jointer Plane 24Knife, Use of 13, 63Lac 69

77


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BOOKS -BOYSBird Houses Boys Can Build. By Siepert.

A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy spiritand combines the charm of nature with the allurements of con-tinuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird houses andshows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters,sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. The common housenesting birds are pictured and described with information regardinghouses, foods, etc., suitable for each. A pleasing and practicalbook for wide-awake boys. Price, 50 cents.Manual Training Toys for the Boys' Workshoi). By Moore.A popular boys' book. It contains 35 full-page plates of workingdrawings illustrating 42 toys, such as tops, whistles, windmills,running wheels, kites, water wheels, water motors, elastic guns andpistols, etc. The book also tells how to make each toy, the neces-sary material and tools, and how to use them. Price, $1.00.Beginning Woodwork, At Home and In School.By Van Deusen.

A valuable book for the boys' home work shop. It gives a veryclear description of just how to use the necessary tools and mate-rials in the construction of a number of simple articles for homeuse. A thoroly practical book and one which will give a boy theproper start in the use of woodworking tools. Price, $1.00.The Construction and Flying of Kites. By Miller.A book of unusual interest to the boy. It contains 7 full-pageplates of kites and 15 figuresover 40 kites shown. Gives the detailsof construction. Full of interesting suggestions. Just what everj-"live" boy wants. Price, 25 cents.Kitecraft and Kite Tournaments. By Miller.A valuable book for boj^s. It is a complete treatment of kites,and kite flying. It tells about kite construction, how to makevarious kinds of kites, bird kites, plain kites, box kites, etc., andhow to fly them. It also tells how to make and use messengers,suspended figures and appliances, balloons and parachutes, aero-planes, gliders, together wnth propellers, motors, gears and windingdevices. A book full of interest and instruction for every boy.Price, $1.00. PUBLISHED BYTHE MANUAL ARTS PKESSPEORIA - . - - ILLINOIS


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woodwork for beginners_1916

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