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Hen 34(2/2012)

ARTICLES / ARTICOLI

WHO WERE THE FALSE PROPHETS?

ALESSANDRO CATASTINI, Universit di Roma La Sapienza

1. Two recent studies

Within two years of each other, two articles concerning the topic of the so-called false prophets have come to light: one by W.J. Wessels,1 the other by J.T. Hibbard.2

Wessels has investigated the topic in Jer 23:9-40 drawing attention to vv. 16-17and 18-223 and assuming that the collectors of the Jeremiah oracles had their own ideas about what constitutes a true prophet, and were using Jere-miahs oracles to serve their own purpose.4 Through a mainly periphrastic criticism, he claims the prophets criticized by Jeremiah are those who, together with kings as well as civil and religious notables of Judah, contributed to the fall of monarchy, the destruction of the temple and the deportation to Babylon.5

Hibbard focuses on Jer 26-29 and devotes himself to the concept of pro-phetic legitimation according to the point of view of the book of Jeremiah on one hand and the pertinent set of rules exposed in Deut 18 on the other. The difference between the two ideas lies in the fact that in Jeremiah the true prophet has the task of pursuing a series of changes in the political and reli-gious conduct of Judah.6

The reason I consider these two studies here concerning a topic any-thing but secondary in the field of Old Testament research is the need to understand some of todays procedures in scientific working as well as the evaluation given to them in some areas that are delegated to scholarly debate.

1 W.J. Wessels, Prophets Versus Prophets in the Book of Jeremiah: in Search of the True Prophets, OTE 22 (2009), pp. 733-751.

2 J.T. Hibbard, True and False Prophecy: Jeremiahs Revision of Deuteronomy, JSOT 35 (2011), pp. 339-358.

3 Wessels, Prophets Versus Prophets, p. 734.4 Ibidem.5 Wessels, Prophets Versus Prophets, p. 745.6 Hibbard, True and False Prophecy, pp. 353-354, 356. Hibbards study relies on the

theories of J.L. Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict: its Effect upon Israelite Religion (Berlin: Wal-ter de Gruyter, 1971): nevertheless, he does not take account of the objections of D.E. Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1983), pp. 87-88.

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Catastini Who Were the False Prophets? 331

Both Wessels and Hibbard discount some studies devoted to the topic at issue. I refer firstly to the work by A.G. Auld that produced a discussion some time ago.7 This scholar assumed that the favourable value of the term went back to a late usage and in any case, as far as prophetic narratives in the books of Kings are concerned, not-contemporary with related facts. This conclusion was drawn through evaluation of use of the term in prophetic books, especially in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Redactional stratifica-tions to be located separately in prophetic and prose sections as well as in the different traditios of the MT and LXX would confirm an evolution pro-ceeding through a negative connotation of the term down to a recovered meaning. In the books of Kings, this evolution would have involved a work of downright re-insertion of the term after it reached a fully positive connota-tion again. Auld linked the latter ideology to the use of the expression in II Kings 22, where the prophet Micha wished to differ from prophets who foretold falsely.8 Beginning with this charter, the new connotation of the term , was added with reference to characters like Elijah and Elisha.9

Later, G. Garbini highlighted how Jeremiah and Ezekiel were the litmus test of the severe anti-prophetic trend that paradoxically inspired the books of the writing prophets.10 This controversy included prophets and other leading figures of Hebrew society, including kings and prophets. That is how the pre-exilic ruling class was blamed: by a new viewpoint that made it guilty for the fall of Jerusalem. Attribution of blame to this class was included in the theme of the blood of the innocent and of the consequent, legitimate revenge of blood: the innocent being the people of Israel, the guilty being the old ruling class. With the return from exile, the figures of kings and priests were gradually reassessed. According to Garbini, around the II century B.C. the prophets were also rehabilitated. This new trend would have been encour-aged by the Pharisees, who intended to legitimize themselves as the heirs of the prophetic tradition.11 So, the Biblical text was subjected to changes in or-der to save whatever could be saved from the anti-prophetic tradition. Due to the impossibility of thoroughly distorting the text, only reparatory readjust-

7 A.G. Auld, Prophets through the Looking Glass: between Writings and Moses, JSOT 27 (1983), pp. 3-23; Id., Prophets through the Looking Glass: A Response, JSOT 27 (1983), pp. 41-44; Id., Prophets and Prophecy in Jeremiah and Kings, ZAW 96 (1984), pp. 66-82; R. Carroll, Poets Not Prophets: A response to Prophets through the Looking-Glass, JSOT 27 (1983), pp. 25-31; H.G.M. Williamson, A Response to A. Graeme Auld, JSOT 27 (1983), pp. 33-39.

8 Auld, Prophets and Prophecy, pp. 80-82.9 Auld, Prophets and Prophecy, p. 80.10 G. Garbini, Il sangue dellinnocente, in Id., Storia e ideologia nellIsraele antico (Bre-

scia: Paideia, 1986), pp. 155-167: 161 = G. Garbini, The Blood of the Innocent, in Id., Histo-ry and Ideology in Ancient Israel (London: SCM Press, 1988), pp. 111-120:115.

11 Garbini, Il sangue, in Id., Storia e ideologia, pp. 162-163 = Garbini, The Blood, in Id., History and Ideology, p. 116.



ments were made.12 Later Jewish tradition consequently proceeded towards a reassessment of prophetism in favour of the Pharisaic sect.

I later studied Auld and Garbinis ideas in depth, verifying the text-critical facets in order to find further explanations for the connotations of the term in the course of tradition; the result was a book which appeared in 199013 and articulated into the following points: I investigated Canaanite documents as to the phenomena of sacredness to

be traced back to the outline of Biblical Prophetism. I comprised Israelite culture itself in the term Canaanite and showed how, up to a very late period, the former differed very little from the prophetic typologies of other peoples in the area in question.

I outlined in Biblical sources the evolution that led to the dichotomy be-tween true and false prophets in connection with the post-exilical ideological preoccupation with erasing every religious matter still in common with other Canaanite peoples.

I tried to define the image of the prophets as depicted in the books from Isaiah to Zechariah excluding Jeremiah and Ezekiel, since this had been investigated by Auld,14 and underlined the tex-tual stratifications reveal-ing the change from the positive to the negative evaluation of the term .

I verified Garbinis hypothesis of a reinstatement of the prophets thanks to the Pharisaic sect around the II century b.C. and pointed out the sources substantiating this trend.

I verified Aulds hypothesis of a late addition of the term in the books of Kings, showing how relevant the LXX version is in confirming this opinion. Furthermore, I underlined other ideological implications im-plied by such a textual re-edition, that is an extreme Yahwism by which prophets actions were more and more decreased in importance and their every ancient quality was ascribed to Yahweh.

Finally, from an historico-religious perspective, I broached the characteri-zation of prophets and their morphology as specialists of the sacred as understood from I-II Kings narratives. Comparison with similar typolo-gies from other cultures led me to conclude prophetic narratives are the literary result of influence on Judaism during the Persian period.

12 Cf. the significant case of MT Jer 2:30: In vain I have struck down your children; they accepted no correction. Your own sword devoured your prophets like a ravening lion (NRSV). The anti-prohetic and earlier reading occurs in the LXX: In vain I have struck down your children; they accepted no correction. A sword () devoured your prophets like a raven-ing lion. The correction in the MT depicts the prophets as innocent victims of the people: cf. Garbini, Il sangue, in Id., Storia e ideologia, pp. 163-164 = Garbini, The Blood, in Id., His-tory and Ideology, p. 117. Cf. also P.G. Borbone, Luccisione dei profeti (Osea 6:5), Henoch 6 (1984), pp. 271-292.

13 A. Catastini, Profeti e tradizione (Pisa: Giardini, 1990).14 Auld, Prophets and Prophecy, pp. 68-73.



In the meantime further studies appeared15 likewise ignored by Wessels and Hibbard by scholars who persisted in not considering the above-men-tioned works. I emphasize the bibliographic omissions in Wessels article here because he affirms Jeremiah criticized the prophets since they contrib-uted to the fall of the monarchy, the destruction of the temple and the de-portation to Babylon. As one easily can see, this opinion had been formerly ex pressed by Garbini. At this point, it is important on one hand to reflect upon such a procedure of scientific working, which I shall do at the end of this article, and on the other, I have been given the chance here to investigate the topic of the false prophets in more depth, as I shall do in the following4.

2.

In my book I established a connection between the concept of falsity with the preservation of beliefs and rituals in common with the Canaanite culture while post-exilic Judaism disclaimed this connection in order to assert a new religious ideology.16 As I have said above, I omitted examining Jeremiah and Ezekiel because I thought Aulds conclusions were enough. After twenty-two years I realised a new consideration of these books would be very helpful to more precisely define the question of the false prophets as well as doctrines and reasons that caused its rise.

Since the problem is consituted by the definition of false prophets, one needs first of all to consider the passages where this definition occurs. Indeed, the expression is employed in the LXX: Jer 6:13, 33:7 (MT 26:7), 33:8 (MT 26:8), 33:11 (MT 26:11), 33:16, 34:9, 35:1 (MT 28:1), 36:1 (MT 29:1), 36:8 (MT 29:8), Zech 13:2.

The usage of in the LXX is self-explanatory because it refers to prophets whose context depicts them negatively:

- in Jer 6:13 the term prophet occurs just once in a negative context;- in Jer 33 (TM 26) the term recurs in vv. 5, 7, 8, 11, 16: in v. 5 the sense is

favourable and so is translated as ; in the remaining vv. the context is negative and is therefore translated as ;

15 For example: L.L. Grabbe, Priest, Prophets, Diviners, Sages. A Socio Historical Study of Religious Specialists in Ancient Israel (Valley Forge, Penns.: Trinity Press International, 1995); H.J. Hermisson, Kriterien wahrer und falscher Prophet im AT: Zur Auslegung von Jer 23,16-22 und Jer 28,8-9, ZThK 92 (1995), pp. 121-139; J. Hill, The Book of Jeremiah MT and Early Second Temple Conflicts about Prophets and Prophecy, AustrBiblRev 50 (2002), pp. 28-42; J. Asurmendi, Profetas buenos y malos, verdaderos y falsos, in Id. (coord.), Jeremas, ResBbl 37 (2003), p. 41-51; A. Osuji, Jer 28 (MT) and the Question of Prophetic Authenticity (From the Ideological to the Narratological), EstBb 63 (2005) 175-93; Id., True and False Prophecy in Jer 26-29 (MT). Thematic and Lexical Landmarks, EphTheolLov 82 (2006), pp. 437-452; Id., Where is the Truth? Narrative Exegesis and the Question of True and False Prophecy in Jeremiah 26-29 (Leuven - Paris - Walpole: Peeters Publishers, 2010).

16 Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, pp. 29-39.



- in Jer 34 (TM 27) the term recurs in vv. 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, all negative contexts; the rendering is employed only in v. 9: that is enough to bring in a negative judgement that implicates the other prophets mentioned in the chapter;

- in Jer 35 (TM 28) the term recurs in vv. 1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17; is employed just in v. 1 according the same procedure as Jer 34 (TM 27);

- in Jer 36 (TM 29) the term recurs in vv. 1, 8, 15, 19, 29; is employed only in vv. 1 and 8, where 1-7 and 8-32 are two autonomous pericopes: therefore, the same procedures of Jer 34 (TM 27) and 35 (TM 28) are reproduced;

- in Zech 13:2 the false prophet is linked with idolatry and the spirit of impurity.

With regard to the passage of Zech 13:2 I considered the wider context until v. 6,17 bearing in mind that the prophet mentioned is an Israelite:18

3. And if any prophets appear again, their fathers and mothers who bore them will say to them, You shall not live, for you speak lies in the name of the Lord; and their fathers and their mothers who bore them shall pierce them through when they prophesy. 4. On that day the prophets will be ashamed, every one, of their visions when they prophesy; they will not put on a hairy mantle in order to deceive, 5. but each of them will say, I am no prophet, I am a tiller of the soil; for the land has been my possession since my youth. 6. And if anyone asks them, What are these wounds amongst your hands? the answer will be The wounds I received in the house of my friends.

This passage is a notable piece of evidence: pre-exilic prophetism was equivalent to that common in all Canaanite areas. The mention of the wounds amongst the hands is basic in such a sense as demonstrated by the large amount of Old Testament records in which certain rituals practised by Israelites were considered the equivalent to idolatrous cults.19 Moreover, it is relevant that common blame attributed to prophets in v. 4 goes with the idea of lies, here expressed by the root . In this passage we can see a complete dissociation from these rites in favour of new Jewish commandments: ulti-mately, it was a time of transition towards a new religious definition.20

17 Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, pp. 28-39.18 The translation adopted is that of the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible except

for cases where disagree.19 Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, p. 29.20 The expression house of my friends could also be connected with the sacred banquet

called marzea: cf. A. Catastini, Invitation to a marzea (G.S. Greer, JSOT 32 [2007], pp. 243-262), RSO 81 (2008) [2010], pp. 425-430.



3. Jeremiah and the idea of lies: prophets sent / not sent by Yahweh and idolatrous rites

One can easily note how, with the exception of Zech 13:2, the term is not a rendition of a proper Hebrew word, but an inter-pretation of . This datum stresses the need for more in-depth research of the book of Jeremiah, as well as that of Ezekiel as to the terms and .

The idea of false prophecy in Jeremiah is closely connected with recur-rence of the term , lie.21 The term recurs thirty-four times in thirty-seven passages: 3:10, 23; 5:2, 31, 6:13; 7:4, 8, 9; 8:8 (bis), 10; 9:2, 4; 10:14; 13:25; 14:14 (bis); 16:19; 20:6; 23:14, 25, 26, 32 (bis); 27:10, 14, 15, 16; 28:15; 29:9, 21, 23, 31; 37:14; 40:16; 43:2; 51:17. In these passages, the controversy about false prophecy stands out at times immediately, at times depending on pericopes of which single verses are a part. This can be seen in the following expounded list:

3:10 Yet for all this her false sister Judah did not return to me with her whole heart, but only in pretense (), says the Lord. In the pericope idolatrous cults are condemned: cf. 3:6, 9 with reference to the cults of high places, green trees, stones and wood.

Jer 3:23 Truly the hills are a delusion (), the orgies on the mountains. Truly in the Lord our God is the salvation of Israel. This verse refers directly to idolatrous cult.

Jer 5:2 Although they say, As the Lord lives, yet they swear falsely ().Jer 5:31 The prophets prophesy falsely (), and the priests rule as the proph-ets direct; my people love to have it so, but what will you do when the end comes? In chapter 5 the causes of the Babylonian invasion are expounded; about them, cf. 5:7: [] Your children have forsaken me, and have sworn by those who are no gods and 5:19: As you have forsaken me and served foreign gods in your land, so you shall serve strangers in a land that is not yours; further-more, see 5:24: They do not say in their hearts, Let us fear the Lord our God, who gives the rain in its season, the autumn rain and the spring rain, and keeps for us the weeks appointed for the harvest, where Yahweh takes upon himself special qualities traditionally linked with Canaanite seasonal cults: the aim is to condemn Israelites who served foreign deities to propitiate seasonal cycle.

Jer 6:13 For from the least to the greatest of them, everyone is greedy for unjust gain; and from prophet to priest, everyone deals falsely (). Cf. 6:19: 19. Hear, O earth; I am going to bring disaster on this people, the fruit of their schemes, because they have not given heed to my words; and as for my teaching, they have rejected it. 20. Of what use to me is frankincense that

21 The root does not occur in Jeremiah.



comes from Sheba, or sweet cane from a distant land? Your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor are your sacrifices pleasing to me; v. 19 makes Yahwehs distancing himself clear and discloses the reference to idolatrous practices ex-posed in the following verse.

Jer 7:4 Do not trust in these deceptive words ( ): This is the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord. Jer 7:8 Here you are, trusting in deceptive words ( ) to no avail. Jer 7:9 Will you steal, murder, commit adultery, swear falsely (), make of-ferings to Baal, and go after other gods that you have not known. In chapter 7 the true cult is described in contrast to the Canaanite one: this datum is plainly expounded in v. 9, where Baal is recalled; see also 7:6, 18, 31.

Jer 8:8 Here you are, trusting in deceptive words to no avail (). Jer 8:10 and then come and stand before me in this house, which is called by my name, and say, We are safe! - only to go on doing all these abominations? .() Chapter 8 is begins with the eloquent words of vv. 1-2: 1. At that time, says the Lord, the bones of the kings of Judah, the bones of its officials, the bones of the priests, the bones of the prophets, and the bones of the inhabitants of Jeru-salem shall be brought out of their tombs; 2. and they shall be spread before the sun and the moon and all the host of heaven, which they have loved and served, which they have followed, and which they have inquired of and worshiped; and they shall not be gathered or buried; they shall be like dung on the surface of the ground. Vv. 9 and 19 persist in claiming Israels fault: abandoning Yahweh and serving other gods.

Jer 9:2 They bend their tongues like bows; they have grown strong in the land for falsehood (), and not for truth; for they proceed from evil to evil, and they do not know me, says the Lord..Jer 9:4 They all deceive their neighbors, and no one speaks the truth; they have taught their tongues to speak lies (); they commit iniquity and are too weary to repent. Also in chapter 9, sins and Israels falsehood are traced back to idolatry, as can be seen in vv. 12-13: 12. And the Lord says: Because they have forsaken my law that I set before them, and have not obeyed my voice, or walked in accordance with it 13. but have stubbornly followed their own hearts and have gone after the Baals, as their ancestors taught them.

Jer 10:14 Everyone is stupid and without knowledge; goldsmiths are all put to shame by their idols; for their images are false (), and there is no breath in them. In Jer 10:1-16 the contrast between Yahweh and Canaanite idols is stressed; in particular, the violent contents of vv. 2-5 must be taken into consideration: 2. Thus says the Lord: Do not learn the way of the nations, or be dismayed at the signs of the heavens; for the nations are dismayed at them. 3. For the customs of the peoples are false: a tree from the forest is cut down, and worked with an ax



by the hands of an artisan; 4. people deck it with silver and gold; they fasten it with hammer and nails so that it cannot move. 5. Their idols are like scarecrows in a cucumber field, and they cannot speak; they have to be carried, for they can-not walk. Do not be afraid of them, for they cannot do evil, nor is it in them to do good.

Jer 13:25 This is your lot, the portion I have measured out to you, says the Lord, because you have forgotten me and trusted in lies (). This verse deals with Jerusalems refusal to convert instead of following for-eign idols; cf. v. 10: This evil people [scil. Judah and Jerusalem], who refuse to hear my words, who stubbornly follow their own will and have gone after other gods to serve them and worship them, shall be like this loincloth, which is good for nothing.

Jer 14:14 And the Lord said to me: The prophets are prophesying lies in my name; I did not send them, nor did I command them or speak to them. They are prophesying to you a lying () vision, worthless divination, and the deceit of their own minds. In this verse the idea of a deceitful prophet is equivalent to that of a prophet speaking without being sent by Yahweh; moreover in v. 22 of the same pericope reference is made to foreign cult: Can any idols of the nations bring rain? Or can the heavens give showers? Is it not you, O Lord our God? We set our hope on you, for it is you who do all this.

Jer 16:19 O Lord, my strength and my stronghold, my refuge in the day of trou-ble, to you shall the nations come from the ends of the earth and say: Our ances-tors have inherited nothing but lies, worthless things in which there is no profit. Vv. 16:18 and 20 are explanatory of the idea of falsehood: it comes from idolatry.

Jer 20:6 And you, Pashhur, and all who live in your house, shall go into captivity, and to Babylon you shall go; there you shall die, and there you shall be buried, you and all your friends, to whom you have prophesied falsely (). In the episode of the clash with Pashhur the term depicts him, beyond his real office, as a false prophet; further, one must consider that the tirade against Pashhur follows the statement of a previous chapter, where Jeremiah condemns the Tophets idols.

Jer 23:14 But in the prophets of Jerusalem I have seen a more shocking thing: they commit adultery and walk in lies () ; they strengthen the hands of evildoers, so that no one turns from wickedness; all of them have become like Sodom to me, and its inhabitants like Gomorrah. The pericope of 23:9-40 constitutes a tirade against false prophets: cf. v. 21: I did not send the prophets, yet they ran; I did not speak to them, yet they proph-esied. Jerusalemite prophets were even worst than the Samaritan ones as these latter prophesied by Baal (v. 13).



Jer 23:25 I have heard what the prophets have said who prophesy lies in my name, saying, I have dreamed, I have dreamed!. In vv. 26-27 the meaning of the dream is explained: 26. How long? Will the hearts of the prophets ever turn back--those who prophesy lies, and who proph-esy the deceit of their own heart? 27. They plan to make my people forget my name by their dreams that they tell one another, just as their ancestors forgot my name for Baal.

Jer 23:26 How long? Will the hearts of the prophets ever turn back those who prophesy lies (), and who prophesy the deceit of their own heart? Cf. preceding item.

Jer 23:32 (cf. 23:27) See, I am against those who prophesy lying () dreams, says the Lord, and who tell them, and who lead my people astray by their lies and their recklessness, when I did not send them or appoint them; so they do not profit this people at all, says the Lord. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 27:10 For they are prophesying a lie () to you, with the result that you will be removed far from your land; I will drive you out, and you will perish. Cf. 27:9 : You, therefore, must not listen to your prophets, your diviners, your dreamers, your soothsayers, or your sorcerers, who are saying to you, You shall not serve the king of Babylon and 27:15: I have not sent them, says the Lord, but they are prophesying falsely in my name, with the result that I will drive you out and you will perish, you and the prophets who are prophesying to you.

Jer 27:14 Do not listen to the words of the prophets who are telling you not to serve the king of Babylon, for they are prophesying a lie to you. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 27:15 I have not sent them, says the Lord, but they are prophesying falsely ,in my name, with the result that I will drive you out and you will perish ()you and the prophets who are prophesying to you. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 27:16 Then I spoke to the priests and to all this people, saying, Thus says the Lord: Do not listen to the words of your prophets who are prophesying to you, saying, The vessels of the Lords house will soon be brought back from Baby-lon, for they are prophesying a lie () to you. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 28:15 And the prophet Jeremiah said to the prophet Hananiah, Listen, Hana-niah, the Lord has not sent you, and you made this people trust in a lie ( ). The idea of a prophet who speaks without being sent by Yahweh is applied.

Jer 29:9 for it is a lie () that they are prophesying to you in my name; I did not send them, says the Lord.



The idea of a prophet who speaks without being sent by Yahweh is applied. Moreover, cf. the wider context with v. 8: For thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: Do not let the prophets and the diviners who are among you de-ceive you, and do not listen to the dreams that they dream, and 23: because they have perpetrated outrage in Israel and have committed adultery with their neighbors wives, and have spoken in my name lying words that I did not com-mand them; I am the one who knows and bears witness, says the Lord where clear reference to foreign cults is made.

Jer 29:21 Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, concerning Ahab son of Kolaiah and Zedekiah son of Maaseiah, who are prophesying a lie () to you in my name: I am going to deliver them into the hand of King Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon, and he shall kill them before your eyes. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:23 because they have perpetrated outrage in Israel and have committed adultery with their neighbors wives, and have spoken in my name lying () words that I did not command them; I am the one who knows and bears witness, says the Lord. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:31 Send to all the exiles, saying, Thus says the Lord concerning Shemaiah of Nehelam: Because Shemaiah has prophesied to you, though I did not send him, and has led you to trust in a lie. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:14 And Jeremiah said, That is a lie (); I am not deserting to the Chal-deans. But Irijah would not listen to him, and arrested Jeremiah and brought him to the officials. The term is employed here in its simple sense and does not refer to prophecy; nevertheless, cf. vv. 1-2: 1. Zedekiah son of Josiah, whom King Neb-uchadrezzar of Babylon made king in the land of Judah, succeeded Coniah son of Jehoiakim. 2. But neither he nor his servants nor the people of the land listened to the words of the Lord that he spoke through the prophet Jeremiah.

Jer 40:16 But Gedaliah son of Ahikam said to Johanan son of Kareah, Do not do such a thing, for you are telling a lie about Ishmael. Again, the term is employed here in its simple sense and does not refer to prophecy.

Jer 43:2 Azariah son of Hoshaiah and Johanan son of Kareah and all the other insolent men said to Jeremiah, You are telling a lie. The Lord our God did not send you to say, Do not go to Egypt to settle there. It is a matter of a false accusation. The prophet is charged with being a liar through the expression The Lord did not send you: this eventuality confirms the equation not sent by Yahweh = false prophet even through the viewpoint of Jeremiahenemies.



Jer 51:17 Everyone is stupid and without knowledge; goldsmiths are all put to shame by their idols; for their images are false (), and there is no breath in them. The content of this verse is unequivocal about idolatrous cult.

A methodical study of the passages listed above leads to the following results:

- In just two passages the term is employed in a neutral sense, not linked to any ideological meaning: they are 37:14, where Jeremiah makes use of the word to defend himself against a slander, and 37:14, where serves to rebut the hint of a political conspiracy.

- In 17 cases prophets and prophecy are mentioned and described as de-ceitful: 5:31; 6:13; 8:10; 14:14; 20:6; 23:14; 23:25; 23:26, 32; 27:10, 14, 15, 16; 28:15; 29:9, 21, 31

- In the remaining passages we get a significant equation: a prophecy is false if stated by a prophet that is not sent by Yahweh, as can be seen in 14:14; 23:32; 27:15; 28:15; 29:9; 29:23, 31; 43:2.The concept expressed in the last point has its justification in Deut 18:20:

But any prophet who speaks in the name of other gods, or who presumes to speak in my name a word that I have not commanded the prophet to speak that prophet shall die. Deut 18:9-22 describes the dichotomy between the specialists of the sacred belonging to the Canaanite religion and those obeying Yahweh, In v. 20 the former are essentially equalized to prophets speaking in the name of Yahweh without any appoinment by him. On the basis of such an equation, the result is that Old Testament internal interlocution implies the charge of idolatry for those prophets that are not sent by Yahweh.

Considering this equation and the cases where reference to idolatry is flatly unequivocal, one can say that all the passages examined with the manifest exception of 37:14 and 40:16 concern the controversy about Ca-naanite cults.

4. Jeremiah, the term and usage of the root

A similar prominent result can be achieved from examination of the sub-stantive and the verbal use of the root for those recurrences not considered in the previous paragraph, i. e. the cases where the term is not present. As to , we must regard 1:5; 2:8, 26, 30; 4:9; 5:13; 7:25; 8:1; 13:13; 14:13, 15, 18; 18:18; 20:2; 23: 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37; 25:2; 25:4; 26: 5; 7, 8, 11, 16; 27:9, 14-15, 18; 28:1, 5, 6, 8; 9, 10, 11, 12, 17; 29:1, 8, 15, 19, 26; 29; 32:2; 32; 34:6; 35:15; 36:8, 26; 37:2, 3, 6, 13; 19; 38:9, 10, 14; 42:4; 43:6; 44:4; 45:1; 46:1, 13; 47:1; 49:34; 50:1; 51:59. These passages will also be examined through the same procedure as above:

Jer 1:5 Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you; I [scil. Yahweh] appointed you a prophet to the nations.



Cf. also vv. 6-7: Jeremiah is a true prophet because consecrated () and appointed () by Yahweh.

Jer 2:8 The priests did not say, Where is the Lord?. Those who handle the law did not know me; the rulers transgressed against me; the prophets prophesied by Baal, and went after things that do not profit. Prophets are linked to the cult of Baal.

Jer 2:26 As a thief is shamed when caught, so the house of Israel shall be shamed they, their kings, their officials, their priests, and their prophets. Cf. vv. 27-28: 27. who say to a tree, You are my father, and to a stone, You gave me birth. For they have turned their backs to me, and not their faces. But in the time of their trouble they say, Come and save us!. 28. But where are your gods that you made for yourself? Let them come, if they can save you, in your time of trouble; for you have as many gods as you have towns, O Judah: idolatrous context is plain.

Jer 2:30 In vain I have struck down your children; they accepted no correction. Your own sword devoured your prophets like a ravening lion. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 4:9 On that day, says the Lord, courage shall fail the king and the officials; the priests shall be appalled and the prophets astounded. Here prophets and chiefs of Israel are condemned, but cf. 4:1: If you return, O Israel, says the Lord, if you return to me, if you remove your abominations from my presence, and do not waver: it is a hint to foreign cults.

Jer 5:13 The prophets are nothing but wind, for the word is not in them. Thus shall it be done to them! Prophet are said to be implicated with Israels and Judahs denying Yahweh to follow other gods; cf. vv. 7: How can I pardon you? Your children have forsaken me, and have sworn by those who are no gods. When I fed them to the full, they committed adultery and trooped to the houses of prostitutes and 19: And when your people say, Why has the Lord our God done all these things to us? you shall say to them, As you have forsaken me and served foreign gods in your land, so you shall serve strangers in a land that is not yours.

Jer 7:25 From the day that your ancestors came out of the land of Egypt until this day, I have persistently sent all my servants the prophets to them, day after day. The whole of chapter 7 describes the true cult of Yahweh as opposed to the Canaanite one: this datum is plainly expressed in v. 9: Will you steal, murder, commit adultery, swear falsely, make offerings to Baal, and go after other gods that you have not known; cf. also vv. 6, 18, 31.

Jer 8:1 At that time, says the Lord, the bones of the kings of Judah, the bones of its officials, the bones of the priests, the bones of the prophets, and the bones of the inhabitants of Jerusalem shall be brought out of their tombs.



V. 2 follows with unequivocal words: And they shall be spread before the sun and the moon and all the host of heaven, which they have loved and served, which they have followed, and which they have inquired of and worshiped; and they shall not be gathered or buried; they shall be like dung on the surface of the ground; also, vv. 9 and 19 continue to condemn the denial of Yahweh in favour of other gods.

Jer 13:13 Then you shall say to them: Thus says the Lord: I am about to fill all the inhabitants of this land the kings who sit on Davids throne, the priests, the prophets, and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem with drunkenness. This verse refers to Jerusalems serving other gods, as stated in v. 10: This evil people, who refuse to hear my words, who stubbornly follow their own will and have gone after other gods to serve them and worship them, shall be like this loincloth, which is good for nothing; cf. also v. 25: This is your lot, the portion I have measured out to you, says the Lord, because you have forgotten me and trusted in lies.

Jer 14:13 Then I said: Ah, Lord God! Here are the prophets saying to them, You shall not see the sword, nor shall you have famine, but I will give you true peace in this place. Prophets not sent by Yahweh are recalled here; cf. Jer 14:14: And the Lord said to me: The prophets are prophesying lies in my name; I did not send them, nor did I command them or speak to them. They are prophesying to you a lying vision, worthless divination, and the deceit of their own minds; cf. also Jer 14:22 about foreign gods: Can any idols of the nations bring rain? Or can the heavens give showers? Is it not you, O Lord our God? We set our hope on you, for it is you who do all this.

Jer 14:15 Therefore thus says the Lord concerning the prophets who prophesy in my name though I did not send them, and who say, Sword and famine shall not come on this land: By sword and famine those prophets shall be consumed. Yahweh says he did not charge the prophets to speak in His name; cf. preced-ing item.

Jer 14:18 If I go out into the field, look those killed by the sword! And if I enter the city, look - those sick with famine! For both prophet and priest ply their trade throughout the land, and have no knowledge. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 18:18 Then they said, Come, let us make plots against Jeremiah - for in-struction shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from the prophet. Come, let us bring charges against him, and let us not heed any of his words. Prophets and chiefs conspire against Jeremiah saying their offices will not de-crease, but cf. Jer 18:15: But my people have forgotten me, they burn offerings to a delusion; they have stumbled in their ways, in the ancient roads, and have gone into bypaths, not the highway.



Jer 20:2 Then Pashhur struck the prophet Jeremiah, and put him in the stocks that were in the upper Benjamin Gate of the house of the Lord. The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 23:9 Concerning the prophets: My heart is crushed within me, all my bones shake; I have become like a drunkard, like one overcome by wine, because of the Lord and because of his holy words. In vv. 9-40, Yahweh lays stress on prophets unsent by Him and who are ser-ving foreign cults. Jerusalems prophets are even worse than those of Samariah: that is because they prophesied by Baal, as stated in v. 13. Furthermore, in vv. 27-27 there is an explicit condemnation of idolatry: 26. How long? Will the he-arts of the prophets ever turn back those who prophesy lies, and who prophesy the deceit of their own heart? 27. They plan to make my people forget my name by their dreams that they tell one another, just as their ancestors forgot my name for Baal.

Jer 23:11 Both prophet and priest are ungodly; even in my house I have found their wickedness, says the Lord. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 23:13 In the prophets of Samaria I saw a disgusting thing: they prophesied by Baal and led my people Israel astray. It is a condemnation of idolatry.

Jer 23:15 Therefore thus says the Lord of hosts concerning the prophets: I am going to make them eat wormwood, and give them poisoned water to drink; for from the prophets of Jerusalem ungodliness has spread throughout the land. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:16 Thus says the Lord of hosts: Do not listen to the words of the prophets who prophesy to you; they are deluding you. They speak visions of their own minds, not from the mouth of the Lord. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:21 I did not send the prophets, yet they ran; I did not speak to them, yet they prophesied. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:28 Let the prophet who has a dream tell the dream, but let the one who has my word speak my word faithfully. What has straw in common with whe-at?, says the Lord. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:30 See, therefore, I am against the prophets, says the Lord, who steal my words from one another. Cf. remarks on 23:9.



Jer 23:31 See, I am against the prophets, says the Lord, who use their own ton-gues and say, Says the Lord. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:33 When this people, or a prophet, or a priest asks you, What is the bur-den of the Lord? you shall say to them, You are the burden, and I will cast you off, says the Lord. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:34 And as for the prophet, priest, or the people who say, The burden of the Lord, I will punish them and their households. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 23:37 Thus you shall ask the prophet, What has the Lord answered you? or What has the Lord spoken?. Cf. remarks on 23:9.

Jer 25:2 which the prophet Jeremiah spoke to all the people of Judah and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem: The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 25:4 And though the Lord persistently sent you all his servants the prophets, you have neither listened nor inclined your ears to hear Yahweh has sent true prophets, but people have chosen to follow other gods; cf. vv. 6-7: 6. do not go after other gods to serve and worship them, and do not provoke me to anger with the work of your hands. Then I will do you no harm. 7. Yet you did not listen to me, says the Lord, and so you have provoked me to anger with the work of your hands to your own harm.

Jer 26:5 (4. You shall say to them: Thus says the LORD: If you will not listen to me, to walk in my law that I have set before you,) 5. and to heed the words of my servants the prophets whom I send to you urgently though you have not heeded. The category of prophets sent by Yahweh is applied to ancient prophets and is linked with observance of the Law of God, as can be seen in v. 4.

Jer 26:7 The priests and the prophets and all the people heard Jeremiah speaking these words in the house of the Lord. These prophets are negatively depicted.

Jer 26:8 And when Jeremiah had finished speaking all that the Lord had com-manded him to speak to all the people, then the priests and the prophets and all the people laid hold of him, saying, You shall die!. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 26:11 Then the priests and the prophets said to the officials and to all the peo-ple, This man deserves the sentence of death because he has prophesied against this city, as you have heard with your own ears. Cf. preceding item.



Jer 26:16 Then the officials and all the people said to the priests and the prophets, This man does not deserve the sentence of death, for he has spoken to us in the name of the Lord our God. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 27:9 You, therefore, must not listen to your prophets, your diviners, your dreamers, your soothsayers, or your sorcerers, who are saying to you, You shall not serve the king of Babylon. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 27:14-15 14. Do not listen to the words of the prophets who are telling you not to serve the king of Babylon, for they are prophesying a lie to you. 15. I have not sent them, says the Lord, but they are prophesying falsely in my name, with the result that I will drive you out and you will perish, you and the prophets who are prophesying to you. Prophets unsent by Yahweh.

Jer 27:18 If indeed they are prophets, and if the word of the Lord is with them, then let them intercede with the Lord of hosts, that the vessels left in the house of the Lord, in the house of the king of Judah, and in Jerusalem may not go to Babylon. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 28:1 In that same year, at the beginning of the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah, in the fifth month of the fourth year, the prophet Hananiah son of Azzur, from Gibeon, spoke to me in the house of the Lord, in the presence of the priests and all the people, saying, Cf. 28:15: Listen, Hananiah, the Lord has not sent you!.

Jer 28:5-6 5. Then the prophet Jeremiah spoke to the prophet Hananiah in the presence of the priests and all the people who were standing in the house of the Lord; 6. and the prophet Jeremiah said, Amen! May the Lord do so; may the Lord fulfill the words that you have prophesied, and bring back to this place from Babylon the vessels of the house of the Lord, and all the exiles. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 28:8 The prophets who preceded you and me from ancient times prophesied war, famine, and pestilence against many countries and great kingdoms. Reference to past prophets sent by Yahweh.

Jer 28:9-12 9. As for the prophet who prophesies peace, when the word of that prophet comes true, then it will be known that the Lord has truly sent the prophet. 10. Then the prophet Hananiah took the yoke from the neck of the prophet Jeremiah, and broke it. 11. And Hananiah spoke in the presence of all the people, saying, Thus says the Lord: This is how I will break the yoke of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon from the neck of all the nations within two years. At this, the prophet Jeremiah went his way. 12. Sometime after the prophet Ha-



naniah had broken the yoke from the neck of the prophet Jeremiah, the word of the Lord came to Jeremiah. Cf. 28:15: Listen, Hananiah, the Lord has not sent you!.

Jer 28:17 In that same year, in the seventh month, the prophet Hananiah died. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:1 These are the words of the letter that the prophet Jeremiah sent from Je-rusalem to the remaining elders among the exiles, and to the priests, the prophets, and all the people, whom Nebuchadnezzar had taken into exile from Jerusalem to Babylon. Cf. preceding item. Specifically, Jeremiah sides with Israelites exiled to Baby-lon and attacks those remaining in Judah after having listened to prophets not sent by Yahweh; cf. 29:8-9: 8. For thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: Do not let the prophets and the diviners who are among you deceive you, and do not listen to the dreams that they dream, 9. for it is a lie that they are prophesying to you in my name; I did not send them, says the Lord and 29: 23: because they have perpetrated outrage in Israel and have committed adultery with their neigh-bors wives, and have spoken in my name lying words that I did not command them; I am the one who knows and bears witness, says the Lord.

Jer 29:8 For thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: Do not let the prophets and the diviners who are among you deceive you, and do not listen to the dreams that they dream. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:15 Because you have said, The Lord has raised up prophets for us in Babylon. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:19 Because they did not heed my words, says the Lord, when I persistent-ly sent to you my servants the prophets, but they would not listen, says the Lord. Cf. preceding item, but in this context the past prophets sent by Yahweh are recalled.

29:26 The Lord himself has made you priest instead of the priest Jehoiada, so that there may be officers in the house of the Lord to control any madman who plays the prophet, to put him in the stocks and the collar. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:29 The priest Zephaniah read this letter in the hearing of the prophet Jeremiah. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 32:2 At that time the army of the king of Babylon was besieging Jerusalem, and the prophet Jeremiah was confined in the court of the guard that was in the palace of the king of Judah.



The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 32:32 Because of all the evil of the people of Israel and the people of Judah that they did to provoke me to anger they, their kings and their officials, their priests and their prophets, the citizens of Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Prophets and chiefs: in 32:33-35 they are linked with foreign cults.

Jer 34:6 Then the prophet Jeremiah spoke all these words to Zedekiah king of Judah, in Jerusalem. The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 35:15 I have sent to you all my servants the prophets, sending them persis-tently, saying, Turn now everyone of you from your evil way, and amend your doings, and do not go after other gods to serve them, and then you shall live in the land that I gave to you and your ancestors. But you did not incline your ear or obey me. Cf. 32:33-35: link with foreign cults.

Jer 36:8 And Baruch son of Neriah did all that the prophet Jeremiah ordered him about reading from the scroll the words of the Lord in the Lords house. The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 36:26 And the king commanded Jerahmeel the kings son and Seraiah son of Azriel and Shelemiah son of Abdeel to arrest the secretary Baruch and the prophet Jeremiah. But the Lord hid them. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:2 But neither he nor his servants nor the people of the land listened to the words of the Lord that he spoke through the prophet Jeremiah. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:3 King Zedekiah sent Jehucal son of Shelemiah and the priest Zephaniah son of Maaseiah to the prophet Jeremiah saying, Please pray for us to the Lord our God. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:6 Then the word of the Lord came to the prophet Jeremiah. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:13 When he reached the Benjamin Gate, a sentinel there named Irijah son of Shelemiah son of Hananiah arrested the prophet Jeremiah saying, You are deserting to the Chaldeans. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 37:19 Where are your prophets who prophesied to you, saying, The king of Babylon will not come against you and against this land?. Jeremiahs sarcasm against good-foretelling prophets.



Jer 38:9 My lord king, these men have acted wickedly in all they did to the prophet Jeremiah by throwing him into the cistern to die there of hunger, for there is no bread left in the city. The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 38:10 Then the king commanded Ebed-melech the Ethiopian, Take three men with you from here, and pull the prophet Jeremiah up from the cistern before he dies. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 38:14 King Zedekiah sent for the prophet Jeremiah and received him at the third entrance of the temple of the Lord. The king said to Jeremiah, I have some-thing to ask you; do not hide anything from me. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 42:2 (42:1 Then all the commanders of the forces, and Johanan son of Kareah and Azariah son of Hoshaiah, and all the people from the least to the greatest, ap-proached) the prophet Jeremiah and said, Be good enough to listen to our plea, and pray to the Lord your God for us for all this remnant. For there are only a few of us left out of many, as your eyes can see. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 42:4 The prophet Jeremiah said to them, Very well: I am going to pray to the Lord your God as you request, and whatever the Lord answers you I will tell you; I will keep nothing back from you. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 43:6 The men, the women, the children, the princesses, and everyone whom Nebuzaradan the captain of the guard had left with Gedaliah son of Ahikam son of Shaphan; also the prophet Jeremiah and Baruch son of Neriah. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 44:4 Yet I persistently sent to you all my servants the prophets, saying, I beg you not to do this abominable thing that I hate!. True prophets had foretold against idolatry: cf: 44:3, 5.

Jer 45:1 The word that the prophet Jeremiah spoke to Baruch son of Neriah, when he wrote these words in a scroll at the dictation of Jeremiah, in the fourth year of King Jehoiakim son of Josiah of Judah: The term is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 46:1 The word of the Lord that came to the prophet Jeremiah concerning the nations. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 46:13 The word that the Lord spoke to the prophet Jeremiah about the com-ing of King Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon to attack the land of Egypt:



Cf. preceding item.

Jer 47:1 The word of the Lord that came to the prophet Jeremiah concerning the Philistines, before Pharaoh attacked Gaza: Cf. preceding item.

Jer 49:34 The word of the Lord that came to the prophet Jeremiah concerning Elam, at the beginning of the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 50:1 The word that the Lord spoke concerning Babylon, concerning the land of the Chaldeans, by the prophet Jeremiah: Babylons idols are blamed; cf. 50:2: Declare among the nations and pro-claim, set up a banner and proclaim, do not conceal it, say: Babylon is taken, Bel is put to shame, Merodach is dismayed. Her images are put to shame, her idols are dismayed. and 50:38: A drought against her waters, that they may be dried up! For it is a land of images, and they go mad over idols.

Jer 51:59 The word that the prophet Jeremiah commanded Seraiah son of Neriah son of Mahseiah, when he went with King Zedekiah of Judah to Babylon, in the fourth year of his reign. Seraiah was the quartermaster. Babylon will be ruined because of its idols; cf. 51:52: Therefore the time is surely coming, says the Lord, when I will punish her idols, and through all her land the wounded shall groan.

This analysis confirms the statements presented in the previous paragraph: - A distinction is made between true and false prophets on the basis of the

categories sent / unsent by Yahweh: 1:5; 14:13, 15, 18; 23: 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37; 26:7, 8, 11, 16; 27:9, 14, 15, 18; 28:1, 5, 6, 9-12, 17; 29:1, 8, 15, 19, 26, 29; 37:19.

- The category of false prophets is linked with idolatrous cults practiced by the Israelites: 2:8, 26, 30; 4:9; 5:13; 8:1; 13:13; 18:18; 23: 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37; 32:32; 35:15.

- The category of true prophets is identified with prophets who preached had against idolatry: 7:25; 25:4; 26:5; 28:8; 44:4.

- Jeremiah is recognized as a true prophet where the term is ascribed to him: 20:2; 25:2; 32:2; 34:6; 36:8, 26; 37:2, 3, 6, 13; 38:9, 10, 14; 42:2, 4; 43:6; 45:1; 46:1, 13; 47:1; 49:34; 50:1; 51:59. As far as root is concerned, we must consider: 2:8; 11:21; 14:15, 16;

19:14; 20:1; 23:13, 16, 21; 25:13, 30; 26:9, 11, 12, 18, 20; 28:6, 8, 9; 29:9, 19, 26, 27; 32:3.

Jer 2:8 The priests did not say, Where is the Lord? Those who handle the law did not know me; the rulers transgressed against me; the prophets prophesied [niph.] by Baal, and went after things that do not profit. Prophets are linked to the cult of Baal.



Jer 11:21 Therefore thus says the Lord concerning the people of Anathoth, who seek your life, and say, You shall not prophesy [niph.] in the name of the Lord, or you will die by our hand. One must suppose that Anatoths inhabitants followed gods other than Yah-weh.

Jer 14:15 Therefore thus says the Lord concerning the prophets who prophesy [niph.] in my name though I did not send them, and who say, Sword and fam-ine shall not come on this land: By sword and famine those prophets shall be consumed. In v. 14:14 Yahweh says He did not charge the prophets.

Jer 14:16 And the people to whom they prophesy [niph.] shall be thrown out into the streets of Jerusalem, victims of famine and sword. There shall be no one to bury them - themselves, their wives, their sons, and their daughters. For I will pour out their wickedness upon them. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 19:14 When Jeremiah came from Topheth, where the Lord had sent him to prophesy [niph.], he stood in the court of the Lords house and said to all the people: The context concerns blaming Canaanite cults (the Tophet). The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 20:1 Now the priest Pashhur son of Immer, who was chief officer in the house of the Lord, heard Jeremiah prophesying [niph.] these things. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 23:13 In the prophets of Samaria I saw a disgusting thing: they prophesied [hitp.] by Baal and led my people Israel astray. In this chapter, Yahweh insists with regard to prophets not sent by Him.

Jer 23:16 Thus says the Lord of hosts: Do not listen to the words of the prophets who prophesy [niph.] to you; they are deluding you. They speak visions of their own minds, not from the mouth of the Lord. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 23:21 I did not send the prophets, yet they ran; I did not speak to them, yet they prophesied [niph.]. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 25:13 I will bring upon that land all the words that I have uttered against it, every-thing written in this book, which Jeremiah prophesied [niph.] against all the nations. The context concerns blaming Canaanite cults (the Tophet). The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 25:30 You, therefore, shall prophesy [niph.] against them all these words, and say to them: The Lord will roar from on high, and from his holy habitation utter



his voice; he will roar mightily against his fold, and shout, like those who tread grapes, against all the inhabitants of the earth. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 26:9 Why have you prophesied [niph.] in the name of the Lord, saying, This house shall be like Shiloh, and this city shall be desolate, without inhabitant? And all the people gathered around Jeremiah in the house of the Lord. Cf. vv. 1-6: the cities of Judah do not listen to Yahweh or the prophets sent by Him. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 26:11 Then the priests and the prophets said to the officials and to all the peo-ple, This man deserves the sentence of death because he has prophesied [niph.] against this city, as you have heard with your own ears. Cf. preceding item. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 26:12 Then Jeremiah spoke to all the officials and all the people, saying, It is the Lord who sent me to prophesy [niph.] against this house and this city all the words you have heard. Jeremiah is sent by Yahweh. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 26:18 Micah of Moresheth, who prophesied [niph.] during the days of King Hezekiah of Judah, said to all the people of Judah: Thus says the Lord of hosts, Zion shall be plowed as a field; Jerusalem shall become a heap of ruins, and the mountain of the house a wooded height. Micah is a prophet sent by Yahweh.

Jer 26:20 There was another man prophesying [hitp.] in the name of the Lord, Uriah son of Shemaiah from Kiriath-jearim. He prophesied [niph.] against this city and against this land in words exactly like those of Jeremiah. Uriah is a prophet sent by Yahweh.

Jer 28:6 and the prophet Jeremiah said, Amen! May the Lord do so; may the Lord fulfill the words that you have prophesied [niph.], and bring back to this place from Babylon the vessels of the house of the Lord, and all the exiles. Jeremiahs words concern prophets not sent by Yahweh who foretell optimis-tic lies: cf. 28:9.

Jer 28:8-9 8. The prophets who preceded you and me from ancient times proph-esied [niph.] war, famine, and pestilence against many countries and great king-doms. 9. As for the prophet who prophesies [niph.] peace, when the word of that prophet comes true, then it will be known that the Lord has truly sent the prophet. Cf. preceding item.

Jer 29:9 for it is a lie that they are prophesying [niph.] to you in my name; I did not send them, says the Lord. The context concerns prophets not sent by Yahweh.



Jer 29:26 The Lord himself has made you priest instead of the priest Jehoiada, so that there may be officers in the house of the Lord to control any madman who plays the prophet [hitp.], to put him in the stocks and the collar. The context concerns prophets of Canaanite cults.

Jer 29:27 So now why have you not rebuked Jeremiah of Anathoth who plays the prophet [hitp.] for you? In Semaiahs disdainful speech, the root is ascribed to Jeremiah in a slan-derous way.

Jer 32:3 (2. At that time the army of the king of Babylon was besieging Jerusa-lem, and the prophet Jeremiah was confined in the court of the guard that was in the palace of the king of Judah,) 3. where King Zedekiah of Judah had confined him. Zedekiah had said, Why do you prophesy [niph.] and say: Thus says the Lord: I am going to give this city into the hand of the king of Babylon, and he shall take it. The root is ascribed to Jeremiah.

Jer 37:19 Where are your prophets who prophesied [niph.] to you, saying, The king of Babylon will not come against you and against this land? Jeremiahs sarcasm against prophets implicitly not to be considered as sent by Yahweh.

This analysis confirms the statements presented in the previous paragraph: - A distinction is made between true and false prophets on the basis of the

categories sent / unsent by Yahweh: 14:15, 16; 23:13, 16, 21; 26:18, 20 (twice); 28:6, 8, 9; 29:9; 37:19.

- The category of false prophets is linked with idolatrous cults practiced by the Israelites: 2:8; 11:26; 29:26.

- Jeremiah is recognized as a true prophet, preaching against idolatry, where the term is ascribed to him: 19:14; 20:1; 2; 25:13, 30; 26:9, 11, 12; 29:27 (one must observe the root is here ascribed to Jeremiah by Semaiah in a slanderous way); 32:3.Besides, it is to be noted how the form hitpael of , to act as a prophet,22

has a congruous use in these occurrences. The subtleties in 26:20 and 29:27 should be pointed out in particular. In the former case, hitpael still brings up Uriahs activity in a generic way. Then, in the very same verse, this prophet is favourably described and his activity is, consistently tantamount to proper prophesying, i.e. hinnab (niph.). In 29:27 hitpael is ascribed to Jeremiah, but as a consequence of the slander pronounced against him by Semaiah.

22 Cfr. H.-P. Mller, , in G.J. Botterweck - H. Ringgren (eds.), Theologisches Wrter-buch zum Alten Testament, vol. V (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1986), coll. 140-163: 147.



5. Ezekiel: mendacity, ,

Also in the book of Ezekiel, the concept of mendacity is linked with con-texts where prophetism is the subject. Nevertheless, the term is used just once, in 13:22, whereas in all other recurrences is found: 13:6, 7, 8, 9, 19, 22; 21:34; 22:28.

Ezek 13:6 They have envisioned falsehood and lying () divination; they say, Says the Lord, when the Lord has not sent them, and yet they wait for the fulfillment of their word! False prophets, not sent by Yahweh, foretell a vision of peace for Israel cf. 13:16.Ezek 13:7 Have you not seen a false vision or uttered a lying () divination, when you have said, Says the Lord, even though I did not speak? Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:8 Therefore thus says the Lord God: Because you have uttered false-hood and envisioned lies (), I am against you, says the Lord God. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:9 My hand will be against the prophets who see false visions and utter lying () divinations; they shall not be in the council of my people, nor be en-rolled in the register of the house of Israel, nor shall they enter the land of Israel; and you shall know that I am the Lord God. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:19 You have profaned me among my people for handfuls of barley and for pieces of bread, putting to death persons who should not die and keeping alive persons who should not live, by your lies to my people, who () listen to lies. In this context, Ezekiel blames women who sew bands on all wrists, and make veils for the heads of persons of every height, in the hunt for human lives: v. 18; cf. also v. 20.

Ezek 13:22 Because you have disheartened the righteous falsely (), although I have not disheartened them, and you have encouraged the wicked not to turn from their wicked way and save their lives. This is the only occurrence of the term in the book of Ezekiel; the context is the same as the preceding item.

Ezek 21:34 Offering false visions for you, divining lies () for you, they place you over the necks of the vile, wicked ones those whose day has come, the time of final punishment. Oracle against the Ammonites.

Ezek 22:28 Its prophets have smeared whitewash on their behalf, seeing false vi-



sions and divining lies () for them, saying, Thus says the Lord God, when the Lord has not spoken. Jerusalems false prophets do not observe Yahwehs commandments: cf. v. 26.

The typologies of these recurrences can be traced as follows:- The prophet that is sent or unsent by Yahweh: 13:6, 7, 8, 9.- Idolatrous cults and prophets: 13:19, 22; 22:28.- Generic contexts: 21:34.

As can be seen, also in Ezekiel mendacity is strictly ascribed to prophets that Yahweh did not send and to people who practised foreign cults.

Use of and also show typologies in Ezekiel that are in some respects analogous to those pointed out in Jeremiah.

Recurrences of are: 13:2, 3, 4, 9, 16; 2:5; 7:26; 14:4, 7, 9, 10; 22:28; 33:33; 38:17.

Ezek 2:5 Whether they hear or refuse to hear (for they are a rebellious house), they shall know that there has been a prophet among them. Cf. 2:3: He said to me, Son of man, I am sending you to the people of Israel, to a nation of rebels who have rebelled against me; they and their ancestors have transgressed against me to this very day: the reference is to idolatrous cults; besides, Ezekiel is a true prophet because sent by Yahweh.

Ezek 7:26 Disaster comes upon disaster, rumor follows rumor; they shall keep seeking a vision from the prophet; instruction shall perish from the priest, and counsel from the elders. Cf. 7:20: From their beautiful ornament, in which they took pride, they made their abominable images, their detestable things; therefore I will make of it an unclean thing to them: the general context concerns blame for idolatrous cults.

Ezek 13:2 Son of man, prophesy against the prophets of Israel who are pro-phesying; say to those who prophesy out of their own imagination: Hear the word of the Lord!. Cf. 13:6: They have envisioned falsehood and lying divination; they say, Says the Lord, when the Lord has not sent them, and yet they wait for the fulfillment of their word!.

Ezek 13:3 Thus says the Lord God, Alas for the senseless prophets who follow their own spirit, and have seen nothing! Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:4 Your prophets have been like jackals among ruins, O Israel. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:9 My hand will be against the prophets who see false visions and utter lying divinations; they shall not be in the council of my people, nor be enrolled



in the register of the house of Israel, nor shall they enter the land of Israel; and you shall know that I am the Lord God. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:16 The prophets of Israel who prophesied concerning Jerusalem and saw visions of peace for it, when there was no peace, says the Lord God. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 14:4 Therefore speak to them, and say to them, Thus says the Lord God: Any of those of the house of Israel who take their idols into their hearts and place their iniquity as a stumbling block before them, and yet come to the prophet I the Lord will answer those who come with the multitude of their idols. Idols are referred to in vv. 3, 5, 6, 7 as well.

Ezek 14:7 For any of those of the house of Israel, or of the aliens who reside in Israel, who separate themselves from me, taking their idols into their hearts and placing their iniquity as a stumbling block before them, and yet come to a prophet to inquire of me by him, I the Lord will answer them myself. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 14:9 If a prophet is deceived and speaks a word, I, the Lord, have deceived that prophet, and I will stretch out my hand against him, and will destroy him from the midst of my people Israel. This prophet is an idolater, as can be inferred from the words of vv. 1-8, against idolatry: if God wants to ruin a prophet, He lets the prophet be seduced by idols; the sense is that God claims responsibility even for conversions from Yahwism to idolatry.

Ezek 14:10 And they shall bear their punishment the punishment of the inquirer and the punishment of the prophet shall be the same. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 22:28 Its prophets have smeared whitewash on their behalf, seeing false visions and divining lies for them, saying, Thus says the Lord God, when the Lord has not spoken. Prophets speak without relating Gods word; cf. v.26: Its priests have done violence to my teaching and have profaned my holy things; they have made no distinction between the holy and the common, neither have they taught the differ-ence between the unclean and the clean, and they have disregarded my sabbaths, so that I am profaned among them.

Ezek 33:33 When this comes and come it will! then they shall know that a prophet has been among them. When Israel will listen to Yahwehs words and put them into practice, it will also know a prophet has been among them: Ezekiel is described as a prophet sent by Yahweh, but not listened to by Israel.



Ezek 38:17 Thus says the Lord God: Are you he of whom I spoke in former days by my servants the prophets of Israel, who in those days prophesied for years that I would bring you against them? Reference to the prophets of ancient times (the context concerns Gog and Magog).

The following data can be deduced:- True and false prophets are distinguishable on the basis of the categories

sent / unsent by Yahweh: 13:2, 3, 4, 9, 16; 33:33.- False prophets linked with idolatrous cults: 2:5; 7:26; 14:4, 7, 9, 10;

14:10; 22:28.- Ancient true prophets who preached had against idolatry: 38:17.

An important datum is to be noted: the epithet is never ascribed to Ezekiel, who is called Son of Man ( ) instead. Nevertheless, Ezekiel is depicted as a true and sent by Yahweh prophet in 2:5 and 33:33 even though in an indirect way: shall know that a prophet has been among them.

The root recurs in 4:7; 6:2; 11:4, 13; 12:27; 13:2, 16, 17; 21:2, 7, 14, 19, 33; 25:2; 28:21; 29:2; 30:2; 34:2; 35:2; 36: 1, 3, 6; 37: 4,7, 9, 10, 12; 38:2, 14, 17; 39:1.

Ezek 4:7 You shall set your face toward the siege of Jerusalem, and with your arm bared you shall prophesy [niph.] against it. Incident of the clay tablet. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 6:2 Son of man, set your face toward the mountains of Israel, and prophesy [niph.] against them. Cf. vv. 3-9: the context concerns blame of idolatrous cults. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 11:4 Therefore prophesy against them; prophesy [niph.], o Son of man. Prophecy against officials of the sons of Israel (v. 11:1); cf. (v. 11:12) they have not kept Yahwehs ordinances, but acted according to the ordinances of the nations that are around them. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 11:13 Now, while I was prophesying [niph.], Pelatiah son of Benaiah died. Then I fell down on my face, cried with a loud voice, and said, Ah Lord God! will you make a full end of the remnant of Israel?. Cf. preceding item. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 12:27 Son of man, the house of Israel is saying, The vision that he sees is for many years ahead; he prophesies [niph.] for distant times. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 13:2 Son of man, prophesy [niph.] against the prophets of Israel who are prophesying [niph.]; say to those who prophesy out of their own imagination: Hear the word of the Lord!.



Cf. 13:6 They have envisioned falsehood and lying divination; they say, Says the Lord, when the Lord has not sent them, and yet they wait for the ful-fillment of their word!. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 13:16 The prophets of Israel who prophesied [niph.] concerning Jerusalem and saw visions of peace for it, when there was no peace, says the Lord God. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 13:17 As for you, Son of man, set your face against the daughters of your people, who prophesy out [hitp.] of their own imagination; prophesy against them. In this context, Ezekiel blames women who sew bands on all wrists, and make veils for the heads of persons of every height, in the hunt for human lives: v. 18; cf. also v. 20.

Ezek 21:2 Son of man, set your face toward the south, preach against the south, and prophesy. [niph.] against the forest land in the Negeb. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 21:7 Son of man, set your face toward Jerusalem and preach against the sanctuaries; prophesy [niph.] against the land of Israel. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 21:14 And you, Son of man, prophesy [niph.]; Strike hand to hand. Let the sword fall twice, thrice; it is a sword for killing. A sword for great slaughter - it surrounds them. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 21:19 Prophesy [niph.] therefore, Son of man; clap your hands and let the sword come down twice, yea thrice, the sword for those to be slain; it is the sword for the great slaughter, which encompasses them. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 21:33 And you, Son of man, prophesy [niph.], and say, Thus says the Lord God concerning the Ammonites, and concerning their reproach; say, A sword, a sword is drawn for the slaughter, it is polished to glitter and to flash like lightning Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 25:2 Son of man, set your face toward the Ammonites and prophesy [niph.] against them. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 28:21 Son of man, set your face toward Sidon, and prophesy [niph.] against it. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 29:2 Son of man, set your face against Pharaoh king of Egypt, and prophesy against him and against all Egypt. Cf. preceding item.



Ezek 30:2 Son of man, prophesy [niph.], and say, Thus says the Lord God: Wail, Alas for the day!. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 34:2 Son of man, prophesy [niph.] against the shepherds of Israel: prophesy, and say to them - to the shepherds: Thus says the Lord God: Ah, you shepherds of Israel who have been feeding yourselves! Should not shepherds feed the sheep? Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 35:2 Son of man, set your face against Mount Seir, and prophesy [niph.] against it. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 36:1 And you, Son of man, prophesy [niph.] to the mountains of Israel, and say: O mountains of Israel, hear the word of the Lord. Cf. v. 18: So I poured out my wrath upon them for the blood that they had shed upon the land, and for the idols with which they had defiled it: Ezekiel is requested to prophesy against idolatrous cults. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 36:3 therefore prophesy [niph.], and say: Thus says the Lord God: Because they made you desolate indeed, and crushed you from all sides, so that you be-came the possession of the rest of the nations, and you became an object of gos-sip and slander among the people. The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Ezek 36:6 Therefore prophesy [niph.] concerning the land of Israel, and say to the mountains and hills, to the watercourses and valleys, Thus says the Lord God: I am speaking in my jealous wrath, because you have suffered the insults of the nations. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 37:4 Then he said to me, Prophesy [niph.] to these bones, and say to them: O dry bones, hear the word of the Lord. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 37:7 So I prophesied [niph.] as I had been commanded; and as I prophesied [niph.], suddenly there was a noise, a rattling, and the bones came together, bone to its bone. Cf. preceding item; in v. 23 yet beholding to another prophecy: They shall never again defile themselves with their idols and their detestable things, or with any of their transgressions. I will save them from all the apostasies into which they have fallen, and will cleanse them. Then they shall be my people, and I will be their God.

Ezek 37:9 Then he said to me, Prophesy [niph.] to the breath, prophesy [niph.], mortal, and say to the breath: Thus says the Lord God: Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain, that they may live. Cf. preceding item.



Ezek 37:10 I prophesied [niph.] as he commanded me, and the breath came into them, and they lived, and stood on their feet, a vast multitude. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 37:12 Therefore prophesy [niph.], and say to them, Thus says the Lord God: I am going to open your graves, and bring you up from your graves, O my people; and I will bring you back to the land of Israel. Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 38:2 Mortal, set your face toward Gog, of the land of Magog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal. Prophesy [niph.] against him Cf. preceding item.

Ezek 38:17 Thus says the Lord God: Are you he of whom I spoke in former days by my servants the prophets of Israel, who in those days prophesied [niph.] for years that I would bring you against them? The root is ascribed to true prophets.

Ezek 39:1 And you, mortal, prophesy [niph.] against Gog, and say: Thus says the Lord God: I am against you, O Gog, chief prince of Meshech and Tubal! The root is ascribed to Ezekiel.

Here are the data that can be drawn from the above-listed occurrences:- The prophet that is sent / unsent by Yahweh:13:2, 16.- False prophets linked with idolatrous cults: 6:2; 13:17; 36:1; 37:7, 9, 10,

12.- True prophets of ancient times: 38:17.- The root is ascribed to Ezekiel: 4:7; 11:4, 13; 12:27; 21:2, 7, 14, 19,

33; 25:2; 28:21; 29:2; 30:2; 34:2; 35:2; 36:3, 6; 37:4; 38:2, 14; 39:1.Apart from the typologies we have been seen in previous lists, it must

be remarked there is no problem in ascribing the niphal form of to Eze-kiel. As the hitpael form is consistently used for a sort of false prophetesses (13:17), almost all the occurrences of niphal refer to Ezekiel. This datum underscores that the anti-prophetic controversy concerns a nominalistic is-sue, since the category appears to be disputed, not the proper act of prophesying following appoint by Yahweh.23 In such sense, the book of Ezekiel is exemplar:

- he never is never called , but ;- from the point of view of literary formularity he is shaped as a prophet;- his activity is described by the niphal form .

23 Cf. Auld, Prophets through the Looking Glass, p. 7; Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, p. 51, n. 17.



6. The ideological struggle

On the other hand, to identify in some way those responsible for the ruin of Israel, as well to give a reply to an essential historical question meant defining the very identity of the true Israel, the post-exilic community, the innocent blood, could thus recognize its true enemies.The great accuser was Jeremiah, or better, to be exact, the writer who at some unspecified time wrote many parts of the present book of Jeremiah in Babylon (the prophet who lived in Jerusalem and was then deported to Egypt certainly could not have used the large number of words of Baby-lonian origin which are to be found in his book).24

In this way Garbini defined the sense of anti-prophetic tirades in Jer-emiah and Ezekiel this latter (or whoever is writing for him) heightens the charge and does so even more explicitly25 in the context of a literary and ideological operation where the rules of blood-revenge were applied according to Deut 19:1-13 and 21:1-9. At the end of his research, Garbini showed how Israelites in exile were to be equated with the innocent blood shed by those responsible for having provoked the ruin of Israel,26 i.e. all the ruling class of Jerusalem: kings, priests, chiefs and so on. It is worthy of note how similar this opinion is to that of Wessels, when he affirms: Priests and prophets were branded as ungodly people. Verses [Jer 23:] 9-40 in particular show the false pretences under which some prophets operated. All of these contributed to the downfall of the monarchy, the destruction of the temple and the Babylonian exile.27

I welcome Garbinis proposal about the innocent blood but here, with regard to the passages of Jeremiah and Ezekiel listed and expounded above, I wish to re-consider the question of ascribing blame to Canaanite idolatrous usages with reference to the charges levelled at the prophets and the textual history of the use of the term .

In section 2. of this study I have recalled Zech 13:2-6 and its implications in the context of the anti-prophetic controversy. An Israelite is accused of being a prophet; he denies it and is then requested to justify the wounds he shows on his hands (v. 6). The context implies wounds are a distinguishing component of prophetic status and, as I have noted, also a component of an ecstatic prophetism that the Old Testament describes as corrupt Canaanite usages. Nevertheless, Zech 13:2-6 also shows the existence of these usages within Judaism, although at this point it is more exact to speak of persis-

24 Garbini, Il sangue, in Id., Storia e ideologia, p. 161 = Garbini, The Blood, in Id., History and Ideology, p. 115, where Ezek 22:26, 28 are reminded. As regards Babylonian words in Jeremiah, Garbini makes reference to M. Ellenbogen, Foreign Words in the Old Testament (London: Luzac, 1962).

25 Garbini, ibid.26 Garbini, ibid.27 Wessels, Prophets Versus Prophets, p. 745.



tence than existence. Actually, here we are in presence of such an awk-ward detail for post-exilic Judaism, just like the case of Ezekiel 20:23-26, where a rationalization was looked for in order to ascribe His peoples bad behaviour to a decision of Yahwehs:

23. Moreover I swore to them in the wilderness that I would scatter them among the nations and disperse them through the countries, 24. because they had not executed my ordinances, but had rejected my statutes and profaned my sabbaths, and their eyes were set on their ancestors idols. 25. Moreover I gave them statutes that were not good and ordinances by which they could not live. 26. I defiled them through their very gifts, in their offering up all their firstborn, in order that I might horrify them, so that they might know that I am the Lord.

In this passage, the mere mention of firstborn sacrifice and its definition as not good statute (cf. Lev 18:21; 20:2, 3, 4; Deut 18:10) shows that the sacrifice was practiced, and that Yahweh established it because of Israels sin. In other words, these verses in Ezekiel constitute an excusatio that gives away an accusatio.

Later prophetic books Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi define the dichot-omy between prophets of the past and prophets living in post-exilic period. Hebrew prophets sharing features with Canaanite prophets necessarily took a form that was consistent with post-exilic Judaism. 28 This form as can be imagined changed the figure of the pre-exilic prophet into a prophet who was an expert in Law (), statutes () and rules () as Mala-chi is when he speaks in 3:22.

As we go back to Zechariah, one can observe that the distinction between pre-exilic prophets and those we can define as legalist because of their connection with the Law is made explicit. The former are called proph-ets of the past ( opposing other prophets that ,(7:12 ;1:4 : are shown as subordinate to the Temple priest (7:3) and are not reviled any more.29 Furthermore, the significant passage of 13:2-6 belongs to the latest stratum of Zechariah: this is a further confirmation that this inner problem dragged on after the return from exile and later.

In those terms, a chapter like Deut 13 is also given a more definite mean-ing in verses 1-17, with prohibitions against listening to prophets (vv. 1-6), relatives (vv. 7-12) and any impious men preaching the following of foreign gods. The prohibition in itself would seem self-evident and unnecessary, but if we take into consideration that possible instigators are described as Israelites (v. 2: among you; v. 7: even if it is your brother, your fathers son or your mothers son, or your own son or daughter, or the wife you embrace, or your most intimate friend; vv.13-14: 13. If you hear it said about one of the towns that the Lord your God is giving you to live in, 14.

28 Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, pp. 56-60.29 Catastini, Profeti e tradizione, pp. 57-58.



that scoundrels from among you have gone out and led the inhabitants of the town astray), then an inner ideological battle between two leanings is implied. This whole chapter reflects an attitude that is congruent with the passage to post-exilic Judaism. Furthermore, as we know, a finished form of monotheism developed in this period in order to finally separate Judaism from other Canaanite cults.30

7. Evidence of the LXX tradition

As a consequence of an examination of the books of Isaiah and of the Twelve Prophets, I remarked how these books offer a widespread anti-pro-phetic attitude. This attitude is revealed as the cause of a first stage of textual corrections, followed by a later one, motivated by a new pro-prophetic at-titude that set out further textual manipulations of anti-prophetic passages. The first stage agreed with the ideology of condemnation of the Jerusalemite ruling class that led to the Babylonian exile: at this stage, prophets were largely linked with foreign cults.31 The second stage mirrors a revaluation of prophetism. This revaluation was asserted by the Pharisees towards the II century B.C.32 and it is particularly noticeable where the motifs of Temple reconstruction and of religious provisions, like the rules about pure and im-pure, are concerned.

The revaluation of prophetism gave rise to wide terminological editing through which specialists of the sacred, previously named seers (), were re-defined as , as can be seen in Isaiah, Amos, Habakkuk. The term frequently turns out to be a later addition to name some writing prophets at the incipit of the books (Habakkuk, Zechariah), and begins to mark a subdivision of prophets on the chronological basis of pre- and post-exilic eras.33 In this sense, the mentioned in Zech 1:14 are to

30 Cf. M. Smith, Palestinian Parties and Politics That Shaped the Old Testament (New York: SCM Press, 1971), pp. 97-98; G. Garbini, Origine e sviluppo dello yahvismo, in Id., Storia e ideologia, pp. 80-98 = G. Garbini, The Origin and Development of Yahwism, in Id., History and Ideology, pp. 52-65; T.L. Thompson, The Intellectual Matrix of Early Bibli-cal Narrative: Inclusive Monotheism in Persian Period Palestine, in D.V. Edelman (ed.), The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), pp. 107-126; A. Laato, History and Ideology in the Old Testament Prophetic Literature. A Semiotic Approach to the Reconstruction of the Proclamation of the Historical Prophets (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell Internat., 1996), pp. 209-247; M. Liverani, Oltre la Bibbia. Storia antica di Israele (Bari: Laterza, 2003), pp. 225-228 = M. Liverani, Israels History and the History of Israel (London: Equinox, 2005), pp. 204-208. Furthermore: M.S. Smith, The Origins of Biblic

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