where are the women women industrial ......figure 8.2 swot analysis of women in industrial design...
TRANSCRIPT
WHERE ARE THE WOMEN? WOMEN INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS FROM
UNIVERSITY TO WORKPLACE
Catherine Anne Lockhart BA(Design) SCA
GradCertHEd UTS
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Creative Industries Faculty
Queensland University of Technology
2016
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace i
Keywords
design career, design education, design profession, entrepreneurship, female
graduate, hurdles model, industrial design, women
ii Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace
Abstract
This thesis explores the experience of being a woman industrial designer, from her
circumstances and motivations to study industrial design (simply defined as the
creative activity of designing objects, processes or services), through graduation
from university and to professional life. It comprises an analysis of in-depth
interviews with 19 female graduates from the industrial design course at the
University of Technology Sydney (Australia), and a public exhibition of both their
work and their reflections on being female designers. Conceptually, this thesis draws
on a theoretical model developed specifically with designers; namely, Bruce and
Lewis’s (1990) model which identifies three hurdles: the completion of a design
degree, getting a design job and obtaining success. As this model was developed over
two decades ago, this thesis explores whether these (or any other) barriers were still
relevant for female Australian industrial designers. The central research question is:
how do Australian women experience their design education and career paths?
The first three papers focus on women’s experience of the first of Bruce and Lewis’s
hurdles: the completion of a design degree. Paper 1 (Chapter 4) documents why these
women chose to enrol in an industrial design degree, with all describing a strong
desire to design and ‘make things’ from early childhood. Typically, their parents
worked in design-orientated careers (as architects, builders and designers) and
supported their childhood aptitude for and interest in design. Industrial design was
often a serendipitous choice, with half identifying the university’s admission guide as
the main information source.
Papers 2 (Chapter 5) and 3 (Chapter 6) highlight how, overall, design education at
university was generally a positive experience. As the primary learning environment,
the design studio fostered skills and confidence in design thinking, creative problem
solving and communication. The workshop, for the making of models and
prototypes, was initially seen negatively as a foreign, gendered, noisy and dusty
environment, with assignments also often gendered and ‘easier’ for their male peers
(for example, designing car-jacks or power tools). The self-directed, major project in
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace iii
the final year of the degree was seen as a highlight, enabling the women to
demonstrate mastery of skills required to be a professional designer in a chosen
project area that often also provided valued industry networking opportunities.
Paper 4 (Chapter 7) focused focuses on the second and third hurdles: getting a design
job and becoming a success. Most of the women drew on networks and networking
to secure their first jobs, particularly through their final year self-directed major
project. Yet, like many graduates, entering the profession is where these female
graduates encountered the highest hurdle: although they graduated with portfolios
and skill levels equivalent to those of the men, these women felt that potential
employers scrutinised them more negatively and appeared to evaluate their work
differently. Unfortunately, just over half felt that the ‘glass ceiling’ remained in their
workplace, describing sexism, male gate-keeping and stereotypical perceptions of
their skills and abilities. They battled an underlying assumption that women are less
able to make and produce the models required by this three dimensional, traditionally
masculine design discipline: as one explained, ‘I think you have got to be quite
strong, because I found it's a massive boys' club.’` For many, the contemporary
workplace (with its inherent sexism and restrictive 9am to 5pm hours) did not meet
their lifestyle needs, particularly when they started families. In response, nearly half
(42%) embraced their creative passion and entrepreneurial spirit to start their own
design businesses - designing, manufacturing and marketing a diverse range of
products, from eyewear, jewellery and accessories, headphones and footwear to
furniture and lighting. Thus, this paper identifies a new additional fourth hurdle,
labeled: Redefining Success.
Although the data highlighted a range of experiences, overall, it supported Bruce and
Lewis’s (1990) three hurdle model; the critical addition of a fourth hurdle illustrates
how contemporary female designers are redefining what success means for them in
their workplaces. They are embracing entrepreneurship as a means of creating and
maintaining their passion for design, yet ensuring that their careers fit in with their
lifestyle preferences. Based on these findings, I identify and discuss the limitations
and implications of this research, for designers, educators, the profession and wider
society.
iv Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace
List of Publications
Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. (accepted 12/05/14). Destined to design? How and why Australian women choose to study industrial design. The International Journal of Art & Design Education, in press. Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. 2015. Studying industrial design: Exploring the experience of female students. Industrial Design Educators Network (3): 11 - 25. Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. 2015, 'Women's experience of industrial design education: what worked, what didn't and where to in the future', paper presented to the ACUADS Conference 2014: The future of the discipline, Melbourne Victoria, 2 - 3 October 2014. Lockhart, C. & Miller, E., ‘How do women designers succeed in the workplace? Getting in and getting on’ this paper is unpublished, currently it is under review.
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace v
Table of Contents
Keywords ................................................................................................................................... iAbstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Publications…………………………………………………………………………...iv
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………….vii
List of Tables…………………….…………………………………………………………viii
Statement of Original Authorship ............................................................................................. xAcknowledgements .................................................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 11.1 Background – women in design ....................................................................................... 21.2 Women in Industrial Design – identifying the hurdles .................................................... 4
1.2.1 The first hurdle: qualifications ............................................................................. 51.2.2 The second hurdle: getting the first job ................................................................ 51.2.3 The third hurdle: success, promotion and awards ................................................ 6
1.3 Research question and aims ............................................................................................. 61.3.1 Scope .................................................................................................................... 71.3.2 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................... 11Women .................................................................................................................................... 122.1 Gender theories: deficit theory, dominance theory, and difference theory .................... 152.2 The leaky pipeline .......................................................................................................... 162.3 Social-cognitive career theory (SCCT) .......................................................................... 172.4 Career path influences – society, family and teachers ................................................... 18Women in non-traditional disciplines ..................................................................................... 202.5 Medicine ........................................................................................................................ 212.6 Science and mathematics ............................................................................................... 222.7 Engineering .................................................................................................................... 242.8 Information technology .................................................................................................. 262.9 Architecture ................................................................................................................... 27Design ...................................................................................................................................... 302.10 History ........................................................................................................................... 302.11 Women in design .......................................................................................................... 312.12 Design in Australia ....................................................................................................... 342.13 Industrial design ............................................................................................................ 352.14 Industrial design in Australia ........................................................................................ 37
vi Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace
2.15 Industrial design education in Australian ..................................................................... 412.16 Creativity in design ...................................................................................................... 412.17 Entrepreneurship in Australia ....................................................................................... 432.18 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 3: Methodology .................................................................................... 493.1 Phenomenological approach ......................................................................................... 503.2 The case study as a research strategy ............................................................................ 513.3 Case study of female industrial design graduates ......................................................... 52
Chapter 4: Design as destiny ............................................................................. 67Destined to Design? How and why Australian women choose to study industrial design. ... 67
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 4 ........... 69
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design .............................................................. 90Studying industrial design: exploring the experience of female students .............................. 90
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 5 ........... 92
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education .................................................... 105Women’s experience of industrial design education: what worked, what didn’t and where to in the future ........................................................................................................................... 105
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 6 ......... 107
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace ........................................................ 119How do women industrial designers succeed in the workplace? Getting in and getting on 119
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 7 ......... 121
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion .............................................................. 149Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 169Appendix A .............................................................................................................. 189Appendix B .............................................................................................................. 195Appendix C .............................................................................................................. 196
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace vii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Four-hurdle model of influences affecting women ................................................. 8Figure 2.1 Research methods, publication and thesis structure ............................................. 12Figure 2.2 General causal model in STEM disciplines .......................................................... 14Figure 2.3 Social-cognitive career theory .............................................................................. 17Figure 2.4 Thematic map of Australian industrial design practice ........................................ 39Figure 3.1 Window of exhibition space ................................................................................. 59Figure 3.2 Exhibition space and opening night ...................................................................... 59
Figure 3.3 Exhibition catalogue ............................................................................................. 60Figure 3.4 Exhibited items ..................................................................................................... 61Figure 3.5 Exhibited items ..................................................................................................... 61Figure 4.1 Early influences for considering design as a career .............................................. 67Figure 5.1 Experience of studying industrial design .............................................................. 90Figure 6.1 Influence of design education ............................................................................. 105Figure 7.1 Elements for success in design ........................................................................... 119
Figure 8.1 Four-hurdle model of influences affecting women ............................................. 150Figure 8.2 SWOT analysis of women in industrial design .................................................. 165
viii Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Size of design businesses by discipline (2006/2011) ............................................ 38Table 2.2 Founder gender distributions from a firm-level perspective ................................. 45Table 3.1 UTS Industrial Design graduation 1990 - 2010 ..................................................... 53Table 3.2 Profiles of participants ........................................................................................... 54Table 4.1 Profiles of participants interviewed ....................................................................... 76Table 4.2 Predicting engagement in design - childhood aptitude and parents ...................... 79Table 4.3 Role of course information and 'practicality' in choosing industrial design .......... 82
Table 5.1 Navigating the design studio as a woman - design skills and the workshop ......... 97Table 6.1 Participants' socio-demographic profile .............................................................. 112Table 6.2 The industrial design course - perceived strengths and weaknesses ................... 114Table 7.1 Participants' socio-demographic profile .............................................................. 132Table 7.2 Breaking in - strategies for securing their first design job .................................. 134Table 7.3 Developing self-confidence as a designer - learning and growing in confidence 136
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace ix
x Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace
Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Date: 16 May 2016
Acknowledgements
QUT Verified Signature
Where are the women? Women industrial designers from university to workplace xi
I would like to acknowledge the following people who contributed in varying ways
throughout my PhD journey.
To Mr Wilson, my dearly missed brother-in-law who laid the foundations of design
early in my high school education. To my parents for the continued support and
belief in me.
I am sincerely grateful to my supervisor Associate Professor Evonne Miller who
from day one brought an energy, passion and clarity to the research process that has
been sustaining and inspiring. I would like to thank the panel members from QUT’s
faculties of Built, Environment and Engineering and Creative Industries who
provided constructive feedback at critical points of the research development.
To the women who participated in the research, I am indebted to you for sharing
your stories, participation in the exhibition along with the continued conversation
and interest in this research.
Colleagues in the Faculty of Design Architecture and Building at the University of
Technology Sydney have provided constant support and encouragement for which I
am truly appreciative. In particular I would like to thank Professor Desley Luscombe
and Professor Lawrence Wallen for providing me with the time and space needed to
bring this research to a conclusion.
Professional editor, Deborah Jenkin, provided copyediting and proofreading services,
according to the guidelines laid out in the university-endorsed national ‘Guidelines
for editing research theses’.
Finally thank you to my partner Barry for his unending support, especially when I
needed it most.
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Internationally, and in Australia, several high-profile women have recently focused
public attention on issues of gender representation and equity in the workplace. After
the Sony email hack in November 2014 revealed significant gender differences in
pay, Oscar-winning US actress Jennifer Lawrence spoke out about film industry
sexism and entrenched gender norms that she felt limited her ability to be a tough
negotiator1. In 2012, then Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard made her now
infamous Misogyny Speech2 (about hatred of and/or entrenched prejudices about
women) in response to alleged sexism from then opposition leader Tony Abbott. In
November 2015, as the first female jockey to win Australia’s Melbourne Cup,
Michelle Payne told her male jockey counterparts to ‘Get Stuffed’ in her victory
speech as she recalled some of the challenges she faced as a woman in a male-
dominated and often chauvinistic sport - in her own words, she said, ‘they think
women aren’t strong enough, but we just beat the world’3. Unfortunately, these
anecdotes illustrate how, despite increasing female participation and significant
advancements, women at the top of their respective fields (acting, politics, horse-
racing) still report experiencing both subtle and blatant sexism in their workplaces.
While female participation in the Australian workforce has steadily increased over
the past few decades (from 48 per cent in 1986 to 58 per cent in 2006 (ABS 2009)),
women remain significantly under-represented in some fields – especially the STEM
(science, technology, engineering and mathematics) disciplines (Farmer et al. 1995;
Fouad & Singh 2011; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose 2010). The most recent statistics from
the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (ABS 2012) highlight continuing gender
discrepancies, with more women working in the areas of health care and social
assistance industry (79% female), education and training (70% female) and retail
trade (55% female). Conversely, other industries - such as construction (88% male)
1 See: http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-34516084 2 See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misogyny_Speech 3 For more on Michelle Payne’s Melbourne Cup win, see: http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/spring-racing/michelle-payne-had-her-moment-yesterday-and-it-wasnt-winning-the-melbourne-cup/news-story/e6cd9e62d95922400ba1b4e4fbf5ea29
2 Chapter 1: Introduction
and manufacturing (74%) - are dominated by males (ABS 2012). There is little
gender equality in senior leadership levels of the workplace either, with women
representing only a quarter of politicians in Australia (25%) and less than a tenth of
business executives in the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX 500) in 2012
(Australian Human Rights Commission 2012). Women are graduating from business,
medicine and law courses in equal numbers as men (or greater), but this not reflected
in senior leadership positions. For example, over half of all law graduates in
Australia are female (61%), yet women hold fewer than a quarter of the most senior
positions in law firms (22%) and occupy just over a tenth of the seats on the Federal
Court of Australia (16%) (Australian Human Rights Commission 2012).
A significant body of academic literature has explored the potential reasons for these
continuing gender discrepancies, identifying a complex array of individual,
sociocultural and contextual (for example, cultural, social, psychological, economic
and political) factors (for example, see Ceci, Williams & Barnett, 2009). The ‘leaky
pipeline’ metaphor is often used to explain the differential sex-based loss or ‘leaking’
of women in the career trajectory, as at all stages of the pipeline (from secondary
school to university to a job) women ‘leak out’ from the field more than men
(Blickenstaff 2005). To date, however, research has tended to focus on women in
STEM fields, with very little research exploring the experience of women in design
fields. The gender mix of the student population in the industrial design courses in
Australia has been changing over the past ten years, with a notable increase in the
number of women graduating. However, to date, this gender change has not been
reflected in the profession. Anecdotal evidence suggests that very few women
designers are acknowledged or even evident in the country’s major award program,
the Australian International Design Awards. This gender discrepancy in the higher
levels of the profession thus raises the central research question guiding this thesis,
specifically: how do Australian women experience their industrial design
education and career paths?
1.1 BACKGROUND – WOMEN IN DESIGN
Although exact statistics on the number and proportion of women in design are
patchy and difficult to obtain, the available data generally demonstrates lower levels
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
of female participation, retention and success in industrial design. Notably, in recent
years, there have been significant advances in terms of female participation in design
at both the secondary school and undergraduate levels, where girls and women now
comprise approximately half of the student cohort. At secondary schools in NSW in
2014, 43% of the students undertaking the Design & Technology exam in the Higher
School Certificate (HSC) were female, and of the fifteen reported top places 73%
were awarded to girls (Board of studies teaching & educational standards 2014). In
2015, in relation to the HSC results, the Education Minister reported that ‘it is about
a 70/30 split in terms of girls who have topped courses as opposed to boys’ and
further that ‘we have girls topping what would be historically, but fortunately no
longer, male-dominated courses including subjects like agriculture.’ In the same
year, the president of the NSW Board of Studies noted that ‘in STEM males still
dominate, but the gap is closing and […] you cannot say there is a subject that is
inherently better suited to females or males.’4 At one Sydney university, for example,
a count of graduates shows that women comprised 15% of industrial design
graduates in 1990; in 2010, they made up 50%5. Yet women remain seriously under-
represented as practising designers in Australia and have been described as
‘invisible’ in the profession of industrial design (Bruce 1985, 150). Occupational
data indicates that in 1996 women constituted 18% of full-time professionals in the
fields of Design, Engineering, Science and Transport; by 2009, this grew by 4 per
cent to 22% (Bell 2009, 8). There are also gender discrepancies at the very highest
level of the field, with very few women designers acknowledged or even evident in
the country’s major award program, the Good Design Award (previously the
Australian International Design Awards6). Bruce (1985, 150) highlights two
immediate consequences of women’s invisibility in the industrial design field: that
women’s ‘tacit knowledge’ is not utilised; and that designs and markets are
underdeveloped in relation to the needs of women.
4 See http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/hsc-results-2015-girls-outperform-boys-in-traditionally-male-subjects-20151215-glnzhn.html
5 This is drawn from my analysis of recent graduates at UTS (see Table 3.1 in method chapter). 6 For example, in 2011 as an observer, my observational gender analysis counted that only 14 of 97 recipients of awards (teams and individuals) were made to women.
4 Chapter 1: Introduction
While statistics are difficult to obtain for the industrial design discipline, the
requirement for professional registration in Architecture means there is more
available data. This illustrates a significant increase in female participation over the
last few decades: in 2004, 14.3% of registered architects were women; by 2012, this
had increased to 21% (Matthewson 2013b, 9). A recent Australian research project
exploring equity and diversity in the Australian Architecture Profession (see the
Parlour initiative, http://archiparlour.org/) has drawn on an ethnographic study of the
architectural workplace, analysing data from surveys, the Australian Bureau of
Statistics and professional registration to raise awareness about women’s
participation, progression and representation in architecture, particularly their under-
representation in senior management. Many of these findings were summarised in
the September 2014 issue of Architecture Australia on gender equity in architecture,
with the researchers explaining that Australian ‘women enter the architecture schools
in nearly equal numbers to men, where they perform just as well and graduate in
comparable numbers’ (Stead 2014, 53). The issue, however, becomes more complex
upon graduation and entering the workforce where, positively, they generally feel
respected and report low levels of explicit discrimination although, negatively, a
large proportion experience high levels of stress and disillusionment that often lead
to their leaving the profession (Stead 2014). Throughout their careers women are
more likely than men to take multiple career breaks and to move in and out of private
practice; in addition, they are more likely to be employees than employers, less likely
to be in senior positions and likely to earn less (Clark 2014). This combination of
issues often results in women sidestepping the profession into aligned disciplines that
offer more flexibility.
1.2 WOMEN IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN – IDENTIFYING THE HURDLES
Given the lack of research focussing specifically on women in industrial design, this
thesis purposely selects and draws on a theoretical model grounded in design: Bruce
and Lewis’s three hurdle model. In 1990, Bruce and Lewis questioned the
consequences of low visibility and engagement of women in the industrial design
profession and posed a three-hurdle model of issues affecting aspiring women
designers. Comparing the careers of men and women in industrial design and graphic
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
design, they found very low numbers of women graduating from product or
industrial design courses (only 6 women, compared to 58 men 1984-1988), although
they did ‘graduate in other areas of three-dimensional design, such as furniture,
ceramics and interiors’ (Bruce & Lewis 1990, 114); the numbers of male and female
graduates in graphic design were almost equal (169 women, compared to 162 men
1984–1988). To explain this gender difference, Bruce and Lewis (1990, 117)
speculated that the greater number of women in graphic design was due to female
‘role models’ having a greater presence in that industry. In particular, they propose a
model of three hurdles that ‘a similarly talented man’ would not experience: hurdle
one is the completion of a design degree, hurdle two is getting a design job and
hurdle three is obtaining success in a design job.
1.2.1 The first hurdle: qualifications
That women receive university and college qualifications is now a societal norm, at
least in Western cultures. In Australia, over a third of 20-year-olds attend university
or other tertiary institutions (32.6% in 2006, 36.6% in 2011), with female students
outnumbering their male counterparts since 1987: in 2014, the sex ratio for higher
education students was 80 men per 100 women (Parr 2015). This compares to 1970,
where there were 269 men per 100 women (Department of Education Employment
and Workplace Relations 2014). However, women remain under-represented in the
STEM, architecture and building disciplines. While it is estimated that women now
comprise approximately half of Australian industrial design graduates, and it could
be said that they have passed the first hurdle of receiving the qualification, to date
little is known about their experience with studying a discipline that is traditionally
perceived as ‘dirty’, ‘industrial’ and ‘technical’ (Bruce 1985, 153).
1.2.2 The second hurdle: getting the first job
In 1990, Bruce and Lewis argued that the scarcity of women graduates made it hard
to assess how they fare in the workplace, where traditionally, industrial design is
seen as a ‘job for the lads’ (Bruce & Lewis, 1990, 118). Potentially, gender
stereotypes may still permeate the industry and the influence of the ‘old boy’
network may mean that a good portfolio may not be enough to secure the first job.
However, very little research has explored how designers (male or female) secure
their first jobs.
6 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.2.3 The third hurdle: success, promotion and awards
As noted anecdotally earlier, contemporary female industrial designers are not as
visible as they could be in national Australian awards. Within two design fields,
Bruce and Lewis (1990) compared industrial design to graphic design; women were
more visible in graphic design, winning more industry awards and heading up more
companies. In explaining this difference, they argued that the ways in which women
work, tending to be task-orientated rather than career orientated, works against them,
as does their lack of understanding of the politics of the company - often gained
through social interaction of drinking after work or playing sport with colleagues,
activities which may come more naturally to male than female employees. Indeed,
other literature suggests that due to the nature of the development of many creative
industries, having been established and shaped by men and often highly competitive
and requiring significant skill at self-promotion, it is difficult for women to break
into them and succeed (Windels & Wei-Na 2012).
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION AND AIMS
To date, there has been no published peer-reviewed research on the experience or
expectations of female industrial designers. Thus, this dissertation will fill this
knowledge gap. The fact that women designers are not well represented in the annual
national awards program raises questions about the motivations, experience and
achievements of young women graduates, whether industry has gendered perceptions
about appropriate work and if tertiary education needs to engage with industry to
address any barriers or misconceptions.
Using the hurdles model as a conceptual guideline, this research explores the
experience, reflections and career progression of female graduates from the Industrial
Design (ID) course at University of Technology Sydney (UTS). Specifically, the
research seeks to identify and understand the individual, situational, societal and
institutional characteristics that contribute to female ID graduates’ success or lack
thereof in their chosen profession. The central research question is: how do
Australian women experience their design education and career paths? There
are three main aims:
Chapter 1: Introduction 7
1. To explore the drivers and motivations of women who choose to engage in
Industrial Design.
2. To understand the aspirations, experiences and actual career paths taken by
women graduates from Industrial Design.
3. To identify possible actions to improve the experience of women in industrial
design, from education to practice and leadership
1.3.1 Scope
This research focuses on female graduates from one industrial design course from
one university in a major city (Sydney) in Australia. The researcher is an academic at
the university and previously worked in the industrial design profession. This course
was selected and studied for pragmatic, professional, geographic and resource
reasons. UTS is a practice-based university that has strong links to industry through
the use of practitioners for teaching, partnerships and links for research and their
involvement in strategic direction within faculties. The Industrial Design course
(commencing in 1979 and now called Integrated Product Design) maintains high
student demand and enrolment numbers; for example, the first year intake in 2015
was 115 students. Other Australian industrial design courses are also located in
universities in major cities, so this study should provide a context of experience that
would be applicable and relatable to other female graduate cohorts. This inquiry did
not look at the experiences of male graduates. However, with the changing nature of
the profession, an understanding of their perspectives and experiences is an
important task for future research.
1.3.2 Thesis Structure
As well as meeting the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) requirements
for a Thesis by Publication, the structure of this thesis captures the journey
undertaken by the participants and the researcher in order to fully comprehend the
experience of being a female industrial designer. As a Thesis by Publication, the
structure of the thesis is different to a traditional thesis; notably, there is no single
results chapter. Chapter 3 details the methodology, while Chapters 4-7 give the
findings of the research through four separate papers on specific issues (with their
8 Chapter 1: Introduction
own introduction, method, results and discussion sections). Chapter 8 then unites and
discusses the research findings together. A summary of the papers, and their
connection to the hurdles (including a new fourth hurdle: Redefining Success), is
visually illustrated in Figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1.1 Four-hurdle model of influences affecting women
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 2 is a comprehensive literature review on the subject area. This literature
review outlines the development, changes and challenges involved in being a female
industrial designer and highlights learning from research exploring the experiences
of women in other non-traditional careers (specifically STEM, medicine and the
creative arts).
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 3 summarises the methodological decisions, approaches, considerations and
processes. It outlines the rationale for a qualitative approach, the chosen case study
and details of the recruitment, research and analysis strategies.
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Chapter 4: Design as destiny
This paper analyses why women choose to study industrial design, exposing three
key themes: childhood aptitude and exposure; significant experiences and people;
and design as a serendipitous choice. The findings emphasise the importance of early
exposure to design as a potential career choice, highlighting the critical role played
by parents, teachers, professionals and social networks.
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Focussing on hurdle one (the completion of a design degree), this paper explores the
experience of women studying industrial design at university. The analysis identified
four key themes: navigating the design studio; learning through making; the design
workshop experience; and design skill development. In reflecting on their
undergraduate educational experiences, this cohort of female industrial design
graduates openly discussed the highlights and lowlights they experienced.
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
This paper explores how being a designer (and studying design at university) could
be a uniquely gendered experience; it notes how simple things might negatively
impact on women’s educational engagement and participation, with the workshop
environment perceived as intimidating and assessment items often focussed on
masculine topics (e.g. redesign a car jack or tool). The findings highlight what
pedagogical aspects best developed the skills base and confidence of these emerging
female designers.
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
Hurdle 2 (getting the first job) and Hurdle 3 (becoming a success) are the key themes
in this paper. The focus is on strategies for success in the workplace, with four key
themes identified: breaking into the industry; once in the door; gender hurdles; and
the move to entrepreneur. This paper identifies and conceptualises an important new
fourth hurdle (redefining success), which provides important insight into how the
male patterned and dominated industrial design field is pushing many of these
women out of the mainstream and into entrepreneurial activities (42% of this sample
are now self-employed, running their own design business).
10 Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
This chapter unites all of the findings. It draws together the research findings to
discuss the overall theoretical and practical implications for female industrial
designers, for families, for educators and employers, and for the wider community.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Across the design industry, it is widely accepted that there are fewer women
practising than men, especially at the most senior levels. To date, however, despite
consistent anecdotal reports suggesting that women are less visible than men in
design, there is a paucity of research explicitly exploring the participation, retention
and success of women in design. This thesis is designed to address this knowledge
gap, focussing specifically on the experiences of women designers in Australia.
Utilising the discipline of industrial design as a case study, this thesis explores the
barriers and facilitators to increasing the participation, prominence, visibility and
influence of women designers.
This thesis will need to touch upon many areas of literature, as there is no one single
body of information for this topic and there is only a small and slowly growing body
of literature around women in design. Fortunately, the use of the general term
‘design’ allows for the inclusion of a broad range of outcomes and processes, thus
providing a larger resource base and allowing an understanding of specific design
disciplines as well as the views of professional bodies that exist nationally and
internationally – Design Institute of Australia (DIA), International Council of
Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID), Australian International Design Awards
(AIDA), Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA), and Design Council UK.
This literature review is divided into two sections: women and design. The section on
women looks at relevant gender theories and literature addressing the theme of
women in non-traditional disciplines. The design section provides a historical and a
contemporary overview of the discipline. Figure 2.1 shows the relationship between
the main data collection strategies, the publications that have resulted and the thesis
structure.
12 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Figure 2.1 Research methods, publication and thesis structure
WOMEN
To begin to explain gender disparity in industrial design, the exploration of other
discipline areas where women are also in the minority provides basic insight into the
potential barriers, facilitators, and issues that may be applicable to women in
industrial design. It is important to understand why women do choose their career
paths, especially in areas that are dominated by men, their experiences and the
relevance for women in design. At this juncture, it is important to acknowledge
gender terminology, with sociologists and feminist theorists emphasizing the sex/
gender distinction: ‘sex’ focuses on the physical, biological features of human
females and males (e.g., chromosomes, sex organs, hormones etc), whereas ‘gender’
How do Australian females experience industrial design education?!What are the career paths of female industrial designers?!
Female perspective !based on experience!
Qualification!
First job!
Females in non-traditional!fields – models of experience!
Females in design,!opportunity!
Success!
Redefine success!
Gender disparity!theories !
Other discipline!Medicine!Architecture!Science & Maths!Engineering!Information Technology!
Australian context!
Des
tined
to d
esig
n? H
ow
and
why
Aus
tralia
n w
omen
ch
oose
to s
tudy
indu
stria
l de
sign
(p
aper
1)!
Stud
ying
indu
stria
l des
ign:
ex
plor
ing
the
expe
rienc
e of
fe
mal
e st
uden
ts
(pap
er2)!
Wom
en’s
expe
rienc
e of
in
dust
rial d
esig
n ed
ucat
ion:
w
hat w
orke
d, w
hat d
idn’
t an
d w
here
to in
the
futu
re
(pap
er3)!
How
do
wom
en in
dust
rial
desi
gner
s su
ccee
d in
the
wor
kpla
ce?
Get
ting
in a
nd
getti
ng o
n (
pape
r4)!
The exhibition!!!!The Forum!
Analysis - Discussion!
Conclusion - Recommendations!
RESEARCH METHOD!
PUBLICATIONS!
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
refers to gender socialisation - the social and cultural characteristics traditionally
expected from women and men (e.g., masculine and feminine roles, positions,
behaviors, identity etc). A further exploration of the sex/gender distinction is beyond
the scope of this thesis, which focuses on women in industrial design and, more
broadly, other non-traditional careers (Mikkola 2012).
The increased participation by women in the workforce over the last century has led
to the development of many theoretical models exploring the implications of
women’s participation in the workforce. To understand the imbalances across
professions, propositions of status, position, gender and stereotyping (Beatty 2006),
and implications of credentials in professions (Crompton 1987; Witz 2013). Early
engagement, after the Second World War, in the workforce for women was often
through part-time employment around family care obligations. Women tended to
have low levels of education or qualification resulting in low paid, low skilled and
status types of work such as secretarial. Even when employed in the same occupation
as men (e.g. teaching) they would have lower status and job advancement
opportunities (Crompton & Sanderson 1986). The types of work in the areas of white
collar and managerial have increased and the trend for difference in pay gap of the
genders is decreasing. Despite these significant changes gender differences still play
a role in career success. The belief of expectations of behaviour and abilities of
gender often shape roles and reinforce stereotypes (Beatty 2006). Women being
often stereotyped as emotional, nurturing and communal and men as assertive,
independent, competitive and analytical result that these traits are used to justify
position opportunities and unequal distribution throughout occupational structure
(Beatty 2006; Witz 2013).
Career success is being seen as a gendered experience with women’s own definitions
of success revolving around a sense of personal achievement, integrity and balance
compare to corporate criteria of men’s focus. Demonstrating that women’s careers
are embedded in women’s larger life contexts often focusing on integration of family
and career, being open to a more complicated and diverse career pattern (O'Neil,
Hopkins & Bilimoria 2008). Analysis of the career patterns and feelings of success
of women presented three career types for women: achievers, navigators and
accommodators. The achievers typically believe in personal responsibility for the
14 Chapter 2: Literature Review
direction and achievements of their career path. Navigators believe that others or
luck are responsible for career success. Adapters believe also that other and luck are
significant to their career paths while remaining flexible, moving in and out of
organisations in combination with non-work related priorities. The adapters tended to
be less satisfied with their career success than either the navigators or achievers
(O'Neil, Bilimoria & Saatcioglu 2004).
There are a number of models exploring the complexity of women working based in
other disciplines that are applicable when looking at women in industrial design.
Figure 2.2 illustrates, at a very general level, the type of issues that face women in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields (Ceci, Williams &
Barnett 2009). It highlights how the problem of under-representation of women in
these fields is multi-dimensional, encompassing a wide array of individual,
sociocultural and contextual (for example, cultural, social, psychological, economic
and political) factors. While the issues outlined in Figure 2.2 are based on STEM
fields, and not all of them may be relevant or applicable to women in design, the
model provides a good starting point for conceptualising this space.
Figure 2.2 General causal model in STEM disciplines
(Ceci, Williams & Barnett 2009)
Chapter 2: Literature Review 15
General theoretical and conceptual approaches to the issue of the under-
representation of women in most scientific and technical fields attribute this to
discrimination, differences in ability or choice (Rosenbloom et al. 2008), with an
array of theoretical and conceptual explanations postulated for such gender-
differentiated participation. The most well-known are: gender theories (deficit,
dominance, difference); the ‘leaky pipeline’ metaphor; and social-cognitive career
theory.
2.1 GENDER THEORIES: DEFICIT THEORY, DOMINANCE THEORY, AND DIFFERENCE THEORY
In exploring the role of gender, Goodwin (2008) argues that major gender theories
can be divided into three categories: deficit theory, dominance theory, and difference
theory. Deficit theory (which is widely rejected) implicitly or explicitly assumes a
‘deficit’ on the part of women, arguing that women lack the skills needed to
understand and succeed in these fields (Phipps 2008). Dominance theories focus on
relations of power between the genders, especially on how men exert power over
women. Difference theory argues that men and women constitute two separate
groups that are psychologically different (Goodwin 2008).
Gender theories are generally positioned within the context of feminist agendas,
which can be broadly defined as seeking to ensure the equal rights, opportunities, and
treatment of women (Lorber 2005). Although an in-depth analysis of the different
definitions, approaches and uses of feminist theories is beyond the scope of this
thesis (Beddoes & Borrego 2011), the feminist movement is responsible for the
significant shift over the past thirty years in the types of education and work
available to, and considered ‘appropriate’ for, women. However, this wider
availability of choice has not always translated to engagement or presence in a
discipline. As Pinker notes, ‘more women are studying engineering, physics, and
computer science than ever before, but they are not exactly falling over themselves to
enter those fields the way they have in medicine and law’ (Pinker 2008, 12). In
explaining why this might be, Pinker suggests that women’s interest and motivation
create different priorities when making their career choices. They are ‘interested in
working with people and living things, more men are interested in working with
16 Chapter 2: Literature Review
inanimate objects and physical processes’ (Pinker 2008, 85). As Kinzie (2007) notes
of women in science, despite nearly thirty years of attention and activism driven by a
feminist approach, the unfortunate reality is that women still remain under-
represented in STEM fields:
Are the doors to a major in science that were once closed to women now open? Had career opportunities expanded so that more women were entering and persisting in traditionally male-dominated fields? If women’s participation rates remain unchanged, what is the source of the problem? Had the expansion of educational equity and promise of women’s liberation reduced the hurdles and off-ramps for women on the science career track? (Kinzie 2007, 82)
2.2 THE ‘LEAKY PIPELINE’
The second explanation of the under-representation of women in certain industries is
the ‘leaky pipeline’ metaphor, which argues that there is a differential sex-based loss
or ‘leaking’ of women in the trajectory from secondary school to university to
employment. This pipeline leaks women at various stages: from initial subject choice
at school and university, to completion of a degree and subsequent career choice. At
all stages of the pipeline, women ‘leak out’ from the field more than men
(Blickenstaff 2005). Indeed, Cronin and Roger (1999) describe the absence of
women in STEM fields as both progressive (farther along the pipeline there are fewer
women) and persistent (despite interventions, the problem has not gone away). These
patterns of under-representation have also been described as horizontal segregation
(where women are concentrated in particular subjects) and vertical segregation
(where women are under-represented in more senior levels of organisations) (Glover
2002).
Unfortunately, although there has been an increase of women engaging in STEM
subject areas at university, this is not translating to the professions – especially at the
higher levels within the professions. For instance, in the UK, women have accounted
for half of biology graduates for the past 30 years, yet hold only 9% of full
professorships (Dewandre 2002). In Australia, higher education data (Bell 2009)
also illustrates low levels of female participation, retention and success in the
engineering and IT fields; for instance, occupational data indicates that in 1996
women constituted 18% of full-time professionals in the field of Design,
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Engineering, Science and Transport. By 2009, this grew by only 4 per cent to 22%.
Similarly, there is also less representation by women in senior and leadership levels:
women constitute only 7% of Fellows in the Academy of Science, 6 % of Fellows in
Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and 8.5% of Australian
Research Council Federation Fellows.
2.3 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY (SCCT)
Social-cognitive career theory (SCCT) (Lent et al. 1994) provides a useful
conceptual schema for understanding career-related choices and the role of internal
and external influences. As Figure 2.3 illustrates, SCCT argues that three social-
cognitive variables are critical in career development: self-efficacy (belief about
one’s own ability); outcome expectations (anticipated results from actions); and
goals (decisions made to achieve goals). As well as identifying critical individual-
person variables (for example, self-efficacy, career goals, interests), SCCT highlights
the role of both distal and proximal ‘extra-person’ social, environmental, and cultural
contextual factors that enhance or constrain career progress. Proximal factors shape
interests and self-cognitions (gender role socialisation; opportunities, exposure to
specific tasks/role models; emotional and financial support) whilst distal factors are
the structural barriers that influence critical career decisions and choices (for
example, discrimination; networking). In applying SCCT to understanding male and
female participation in STEM disciplines, three related constructs have been
incorporated into the framework: interest in STEM field; presence of social supports;
and presence of anticipated barriers (Lent et al. 2005). Figure 2.3 Social-cognitive career theory
(Lent et al. 2005)
18 Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.4 CAREER PATH INFLUENCES – SOCIETY, FAMILY AND TEACHERS
The under-representation of women in STEM fields has been a long-standing
concern of both educators and policymakers, who point to the wide array of factors
and influences to consider when investigating how a person chooses a particular
career path. Establishing the direction of a career path can be challenging,
particularly with a growing need to establish the direction earlier in life in order to
enable the correct foundational subjects to be engaged in at high school. A number of
factors have been identified that help to influence the choices being made by
adolescents, which include family expectations, peer pressure, familiarity with the
profession, grades and aptitude, self-concept, experience at school and university,
perceptions about job characteristics and pay, and opportunities. Of course, gender
affects these experiences.
At a general level, gender stereotyping continues throughout society in many ways
and is still evident in career options. From an early age, through socialisation,
children develop an understanding of how their society defines the roles of men and
women. This often reinforces a divide in the development of interests and activities,
and the subsequent categorisation of occupations as male or female (Gadassi & Gati
2009). Children become aware that certain jobs have been traditionally dominated by
women (colloquially termed ‘pink collar’ occupations, such as teacher, secretary,
administrator, sales assistant, child carer and beautician), while others have
traditionally been filled by men – the STEM and design professions. Over the last
three decades, the definitions have been broadened resulting in an opening of more
career options for women; however, the skills associated with ‘women’s work’ are
often under-rewarded and there are still clusters of occupations that are
predominantly populated by women and that continue to attract lower wages (Cohen
and Huffman 2003). Indeed, research shows a gender difference in work preferences,
with women placing greater importance on working with people, flexibility or
predictable working hours along with use of creativity; this is in contrast to men, who
value income first, along with enterprise and high level analytical and numerical
skills (Gati, Osipow & Givon 1995).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 19
Children and adolescents have been the focus of many studies, in which attitudes
towards and influences upon careers, particularly STEM professions, have been
evaluated. This research has shown that parents, dependant on their age, education
level, occupation and attitudes, often reinforce the societal norms in discussion of
career options with their children. The ways in which parents talk about different
career paths have a significant influence on the attitudes developed by adolescents
and can result in confidence to explore a specific vocation (Bregman & Killen 1999).
For example, Tenenbaum (2009) recently evaluated parent and child conversations
about career path options and found that parents influenced what subjects their child
chose through their perceptions of success possibilities in the area. The language
used by parents differed for daughters and sons, so that daughters generally received
more discouraging language usage for all disciplines. Even although both genders
reported equal actual academic achievements, parents displayed gender stereotypical
patterns of expectations of the boys being good at maths and science subjects and the
girls being better at English and language based subjects. In interpreting these
findings, (Tenenbaum 2009) suggested that parents behaved in this way in order to
socialise their children into appropriate gender roles. Teachers also play a key role in
the discussion of career options and expectations formed by students, along with
influencing decisions regarding the focus of higher education studies (Brown, Ortiz-
Nunez & Taylor 2011).
Investigation into children’s perceived level of competence in particular areas has
also been identified as influencing career path choices (Herbert and Stipek 2005;
Ginns, Stein & McRobbie 2003). These studies demonstrated that, from quite an
early stage of their education, girls started to rate their competencies in maths lower
than boys although their teachers rated them equally. Parents also supported the trend
of rating the girls’ competence lower. In considering literacy abilities, all groups
were more accurate in their assessment with the higher girls’ competency being
supported by teachers and parents.
Subject choices start to determine when men move towards maths and sciences and
women to education, arts and humanities. Interest plays a role in these choices with
women often more interested in artistic and social fields whereas men tend to be
20 Chapter 2: Literature Review
interested in the realistic, investigative and enterprising fields (Gadassi & Gati 2009,
904).
Clearly, a wide range of subtle and cumulative reasons have been suggested to
account for this persistent gender gap, with researchers exploring experiences at
home, in schools, universities, graduate education and workplace environments, and
the role and impact of societal values and norms. Fortunately, the number of studies
exploring women’s experiences has been steadily growing and enhances our
understanding of how women are treated, and how they engage and succeed (or not)
in these traditionally male professions. Understanding the experiences of women in
disciplines that are not directly related to design enables the identification of key
similarities and difference of experience, thus helping us identify whether there are
larger societal issues at play or if discipline specific issues might pertain too.
WOMEN IN NON-TRADITIONAL DISCIPLINES
By examining other discipline areas that are non-traditional for women or are male
dominated provides a deeper understanding of how the disciplines are gendered and
the types barriers that may be experienced by women (Sang, Dainty & Ison 2014;
Conor, Gill & Taylor 2015; Fiorentine & Cole 1992). Additionally exploring the
issues and motivations of women who do break in and find a place within these types
of discipline. Furthermore understanding the influences on their decisions to follow
this path and at what point in their education they made the choice (Smyth &
Darmody 2009; Hill, Corbett & St.Rose 2010; Ginns, Stein & McRobbie 2003).
There are many disciplines that could inform this section as the analysis of women in
the workplace grows, as a starting point the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
ANZSCO (2006) Australian & New Zealand classification of occupations was used
to narrow the options. Industrial design being aligned with technical commerce as a
designer plans things for construction, manufacture or production to a set of
requirements usually set by others to achieve commercial aims. ANZSCO (2006)
includes the occupations of design, engineering, science and transport professionals
includes architect, designers, planners, surveyors, fashion, industrial and jewellery
designers, graphic and web designers and interior designers (Robertson & Design
Institute of Australia 2013).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 21
2.5 MEDICINE
Over two decades ago, Fiorentine and Cole (1992) explored why fewer women were
becoming physicians in the United States. They considered a number of possible
barriers, including ‘structural barriers’ (due to discrimination limiting opportunities),
‘normative barriers’ (where a young woman may consider her aspiration for a high-
status career not appropriate due to the impact on future family and relationship
expectations) and ‘cognitive difference’ (where perhaps a woman does not see role
models or receive support from family or community, so does not have the
confidence to take on these roles).
Fiorentine and Cole concluded that the barriers are similar for male and female
students and that the major difference occurs in attitudes to the pursuit of a career:
women will balance the costs of achieving a high-end career differently and may
consider some elements too high and avoid them whereas ‘men are more likely to
pursue career success at “any cost”’ (Fiorentine & Cole 1992, 493). To what extent
this difference reflects individual choices or societal norms is unclear, but research
exploring the content of 312 letters of recommendation for medical faculty hired at a
large medical school in the United States has documented clear gender differences in
terms of the words utilised. Trix and Psenka (2003) found that letters for women
(compared to men) were shorter, were more likely to contain doubt raisers (24% vs.
12%), used gender terms more frequently (10% vs. 5%; ‘intelligent young lady’,
‘insightful woman’, etc), and used more stereotypical (compassionate vs
accomplished) and fewer standout (excellent, outstanding) adjectives. Such findings
highlight the ways in which implicit gender norms and biases (particularly
perceptions of stereotypically male versus female traits), and the subtlety of these
distortions, enable biases in career hiring and advancement decision-making
processes that may hinder women’s career progression.
Elston (2009) carried out an investigation into the position of women in the medical
profession, which was prompted by media reporting of an interview with Professor
Dame Carol Black that generated such newspaper headlines as: ‘“The medical time
bomb”, “Too many women doctors” and “Influx of women will harm medicine”’
(Elston 2009, 105). The question that Dame Carol had been considering was what
22 Chapter 2: Literature Review
would occur if the proportion of women to men changed in the profession and the
impact on the organisation and position in society. Elston, utilising literature
searching, analysis of statistical data and qualitative data sourced through discussion
with individuals and seminars, evaluated the impact on the medical profession of the
increased engagement of women from entry into education through to the differing
career paths. Elston (2009) demonstrated that although there had been a significant
increase in the number of women studying medicine, this was not at the expense of
male applicants. However, he concluded that the increase would have organisational
and economic implications.
In particular, Elston (2009) identified four key themes to frame the research: entry to
the profession; specialty preferences and choices; modes of working in medicine; and
advancement and leadership within medicine. In the UK in 2007 women made up
57% of both applicants and acceptances for medical schools, 40% of all doctors, 42%
of general practitioners and 28% of consultants in the National Health Service. The
medical profession offers diverse distinctive career paths, with Elston (2009)
reporting that specialty areas are attracting fewer women in part due to working
conditions. Specifically, the options around work and modes of working were
identified as significant to women where more women opt for part-time work or
flexible working hours and are more likely to take career breaks generally for the
reason of childrearing.
2.6 SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
A large body of literature has documented the experience of girls and women in
science and mathematics, illustrating that the attitudes and beliefs of teachers are
very significant in predicting girls’ engagement with these ‘non-traditional’ subjects.
Research documenting the classroom experience has found that teachers often
display, both consciously and unconsciously, gender-stereotyped attitudes and
expectations regarding girls’ performance. For instance, Warrington and Younger
(2000), utilising data from 20 schools in eastern England, found that traditional
approaches taken to the teaching of science subjects continues to frame them as
‘male’ subjects, with girls feeling alienated and believing their teachers have lower
expectations of them. In particular, girls reported that the behaviour of boys in class
Chapter 2: Literature Review 23
was disruptive, requiring the teachers’ full attention to manage, and thus negatively
affecting the girls’ ability to learn. In a study of girls and boys at Year 6, Ginns et al.
(2003) found they take different approaches to problem solving and design and that
these differences could be perceived as reflecting different capabilities and
opportunity for success. Whereas the boys focus on the technology and manufacture,
wanting to jump into making without needing a deep understanding of the context of
the problem, the girls take a different approach. They look at the problem
holistically, considering the aesthetic and the user and seeking deeper clarification
from the teacher throughout the design process. Ginns et al. (2003, 307) argued that
these differences in approach could be interpreted as a ‘lack of confidence and
ability’ in the girls, unlike the boys who worked more ‘independently’, which is
associated with higher ability. The combination of negative stereotypes, different
learning styles and the learning environment has significant influence on girls’
achievements and interest in science and maths. The immediate flow-on effect of
these patterns and assessments is that fewer women have the confidence to choose to
engage in the more technical or mathematically based courses (Herbert & Stipek
2005). Yet, if told they can expand their knowledge and understanding of maths
through experience, girls are more likely to be successful and continue to further
study (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose 2010).
Although there are now more similar numbers of girls and boys studying both maths
and science (the preparation subjects) in school, this is not transferring to higher
education and there is a further decline in women’s engagement in STEM fields on
completion of their degree. Focussing on science education, Kinzie (2007) argues
that we need to understand and identify the characteristics of girls and women who
choose and persist in non-traditional STEM careers and those who leave, as
understanding these critical decision points will facilitate the creation of appropriate
educational practices and policies. Kinzie (2007) found that math achievement,
science grades and beliefs about self in science and math were key predictors of
majoring in STEM fields, and defined four distinct pathways: ‘nevers’ (not interested
at twelfth grade in pursuing a science degree and did not major in STEM at
university); ‘departers’ (interested in science in twelfth grade but selected non-STEM
university major); ‘“joiners”’(did not declare an interest in science in twelfth grade
but later majored in STEM at university); and ‘persisters’ (interested in science in
24 Chapter 2: Literature Review
twelfth grade and majored in STEM at university). She argued that more research is
needed to understand where, how, when and why women disengage from STEM
professions, the specific mechanisms that could engage and reengage women with
the field and the circumstances and characteristics that might distinguish ‘departers’
from ‘persisters’.
Fox (2001) explored the hierarchical nature of the science profession in academia for
women. Fox notes that the number of women receiving doctoral degrees in science
has increased significantly over the past twenty years. As a result of this trend it was
thought that it was a ‘matter of time’ and the gender equity would right itself.
Unfortunately, this has not proven to be so. Fox considers that the organisational
structure of graduate education has a significant impact, combining ongoing issues
such as lack of role models, difficulties in returning to a fast moving field after career
breaks and challenges in integrating home and work life in a male-orientated
workplace. Even role models may not be enough; if women succeed by conforming
to the image of a stereotypical male scientist, then other women may find that
unachievable, unappealing or even actively off-putting (Blickenstaff 2005). Indeed,
although women obtain nearly 30% of the doctorates in chemistry in the United
States, the current reality is that ‘the further you go up the ladder of prestige and
seniority, the less encouraging are the numbers’ (Cavallaro, Hansen & Wenner 2007,
21). An extensive report for the National Science Foundation (USA) has also shown
that although there has been an increase in the number of women participating in
science and engineering, it is not at the same pace as men, particularly ‘at the upper
levels of these professions’ (Hill, Corbett & St.Rose 2010, 15).
2.7 ENGINEERING
Fouad and Singh have carried out a longitudinal study starting in 2009 for the
National Science Foundation in the USA; by the beginning of 2011 over 3,700
women had completed their survey. They initially approached 30 universities and
gained access to the female engineering alumni through email and postcards. Access
to alumni from other universities grew through media and colleagues. Their results
highlight that although there has been an increase in the number of women studying
engineering, this has not been at the same rate of increase as in other traditionally
male dominated fields (for example, law, veterinary science and medicine), and
Chapter 2: Literature Review 25
women are still under-represented at entry level engineering: almost 20% of
graduates are women, but only 11% of professional engineers are women (Fouad &
Singh 2011).
In explaining this discrepancy, Fouad and Singh (2011) found that the workplace
climate for engineering graduates was a significant influence in determining their
engagement in the industry. Women who left explained that it was mainly due to the
workplace conditions, pay and lack of opportunity to spend time with family,
explaining that they experienced very negative treatment and attitudes towards them
in their workplaces such as belittlement and patronising. Those who did not enter the
field after graduation perceived they would not like the conditions and were
concerned that the work environment would be inflexible or not supportive of
women, whilst another group admitted that they transferred their skills to other areas
or fields successfully. Women felt that staying in engineering required a combination
of factors, including organisational climate, key supportive people, value and
recognition (Fouad & Singh 2011). As Fouad and Singh explained, ‘there are
personal costs to choosing to leave a career for one which has trained long and hard
for. There is also a societal cost to losing the potential of, or the investment in, a
trained workforce’ (Fouad & Singh 2011, 11).
Schreuders, Mannon and Rutherford (2009) also considered the attitudes,
motivations and interest of 969 male and female engineering students through an on-
line survey, focussing on implications for recruitment and retention. They found that
motivations and interest can lead to differing choices of pathways, arguing that
‘women are more interested in dealing with people and men more with things’ and
that women do not see that engineering provides this opportunity, and thus reject it as
a career choice (Schreuders, Mannon & Rutherford 2009, 98). The ability to engage
and feel comfortable with using computers, tools and machines is seen as a
contributing factor to the pursuit of a career in engineering. Men rate their comfort
levels much higher than most women. When this is paired with a lack of self-
confidence in maths and science, these factors may be seen as one explanation for the
lower representation of women in engineering.
In fact, the theory of the ‘pipeline’ feeding women into further education in
engineering unprepared is now being questioned, as most students entering university
26 Chapter 2: Literature Review
have had similar levels of education in maths and science from high school and
women are actually slightly more likely than male students to complete an
engineering degree (Schreuders, Mannon & Rutherford 2009). Indeed, Ayre (2001)
has looked at women in engineering and their levels of satisfaction; she found that
although women do enter the field immediately on graduation they tend to leave after
a few years of experience.
2.8 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Rosenbloom et al. (2008) explored why the numbers of women in Information
Technology (IT) have not increased, focussing on issues of discrimination,
differences in abilities and choice through a survey of 567 IT and non-IT
professionals in the USA. They found that men were simply more interested in the IT
field and that priority and perceptions of job characteristics were different for men
and women, resulting in fewer women participating in the field.
Turner, Bernt and Pecora (2002) evaluated the career paths of women in IT, utilising
an informal listserve group designed for technical women in computing from 38
countries and an online survey. From the 275 responses, predominately located in the
USA, they explored the role of a range of possible influences including first
computer use, parents’ occupations, significant people, academic paths, external
influences and motivations. They found that the impact of the school environment is
significant, as many respondents were first introduced to computers in this
environment and identified high school teachers and careers counselors as having
significant influence on their choice of path (whether it was encouraging or
discouraging). Fathers having a technical job resulted in a positive influence on
women’s choice to follow an IT career. A variety of paths were used to move into
IT; only half of those surveyed had directly studied in the area at undergraduate
level, whereas others had studied related areas (such as engineering, math or science)
and a further group had gained entry through on the job experience (with support or
mentoring from someone in the field).
In the UK, focussing on one higher education institution, Clegg, Mayfield and
Trayhurn (1999) compared students’ experiences in IT courses and design courses in
order to identify the factors that might explain the consistent gender differences. The
Chapter 2: Literature Review 27
IT courses were consistently more popular with men and centred on business, with
an industry focus such as information management and information systems. The
design courses, consistently more popular with women, covered the areas of product
design, furniture, interior and graphic design. They argued that, due to a continuing
low level of female engagement in both of these discipline areas, they have been
‘resilient to equal opportunity initiatives’. Utilising this comparison of IT and design
disciplines, a clustering of women can be seen at the ‘soft’ end of the disciplines
while they are under-represented at the ‘hard’ end (Clegg, Mayfield & Trayhurn
1999, 44). Clegg, Mayfield and Trayhurn established that both areas involved a
significant level of highly gendered terms due to the technical competencies
required, which had an impact on the choice patterns of men and women. This was
typified by the use of a workshop with tools and machines, usually a central
workspace for product and industrial design courses, which creates a technical space
that is at the ‘hard’ end of design. Further, these spaces most often have male
technicians or supervisors and the women students described experiencing far greater
scrutiny to prove their abilities to use the space than the male students did. The male
students also felt that the men enjoyed the course more due to the ‘technical things’
and ‘that the women were more attracted to the soft furnishings and decoration’
(Clegg, Mayfield & Trayhurn 1999, 50).
2.9 ARCHITECTURE
There is a slowly growing body of research in some other design related disciplines,
such as architecture, that has begun to look at the engagement of women in the
profession. The patriarchal assumptions about women’s role and position in society
from before the nineteenth century play a significant role in women’s acceptance into
professions such as architecture. Until the end of the nineteenth century generally
upper class women demonstrated and contributed to the field through philanthropy
and an amateur interest. It was most often confined to the domestic environment with
a focus on decoration or the design of grottoes, these being considered appropriate
for female sensibilities. A church or chapel, especially if designed for a family
member was also considered suitable employment as it supported the position of
women’s supposedly superior moral and spiritual nature, and caring disposition.
28 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Women looking to gain financial independence through employment in the architect
offices in the late nineteenth century were given the low paid, boring and repetitive
task of plan tracing considered the equivalent of domestic embroidery requiring skill
in attention to detail and accuracy (Walker 1998). This designation of task and status
within the office continues today where women entering the profession report
receiving less pay than men doing the same job. Initial findings from the UK Women
in Architecture Survey (2012) highlight the concerns of women architects. Of the
over 500 female respondents to date, of whom nearly half (45%) were fully-qualified
architects, the majority (73%) claim to have experienced or witnessed sex
discrimination during their careers in architecture and 10% say they directly suffer
from discrimination at least once a week. Nearly half believe they would be paid
more if they were male (48%) and feel that men get paid more for doing the same job
(46%).
The small body of research suggests that this gender-differentiated experience is
evident in design education as well as in the workplace. Juries are frequently used for
assessment and feedback to design students, and this is also a common practice in
architecture. Studies evaluating this practice suggest that, depending on the gender
and race of the participant, student or juror, treatment can be different and deter
students’ continued engagement in the area. One example is that often women ‘in
small groups do not receive a fair hearing’ in a study carried out by Frederickson
(1993, 38), he verified this through observation of the juries across a number of
schools, where the women most often spoke for a shorter duration than male jurors:
‘the female students received more interruptions to their presentations than other
students and that their juries are briefer than average’ (Frederickson 1993, 41). The
women were also observed to be more docile during their juries at the schools where
there were no female faculty.
Caven (2006) utilised a career life history approach to explore the working patterns
of 37 women architects and investigate whether non-standard working arrangements
constrained their careers. Her participants felt that they had been able to follow a
career, but on certain terms, explaining how the time commitment required to
become an architect was a strong motivation to maintain a professional identity.
More recently, in an edited book and travelling exhibition, Brown (2011) has
Chapter 2: Literature Review 29
captured the perspectives and viewpoints of female designers (primarily architects)
in an attempt to raise awareness about how feminist methodologies influence design
and the built environment.
A recent Australian research project exploring equity and diversity in the Australian
architecture profession (see the Parlour initiative, http://archiparlour.org/) has drawn
on an ethnographic study of the architectural workplace, and analysed data from
surveys, the Australian Bureau of Statistics and professional registration to raise
awareness about women’s participation, progression and representation in
architecture, particularly their under-representation in senior management. Many of
these findings were summarised in the September 2014 issue of Architecture
Australia on gender equity in architecture, with the researchers explaining that
Australian ‘women enter the architecture schools in nearly equal numbers to men,
where they perform just as well and graduate in comparable numbers.’ (Stead 2014,
53). As with some other disciplines, it is difficult to identify the experience of
women and develop a clear understanding of their representation in the architecture
profession in Australia. Until recently membership of the Australian Institute of
Architects was not centralised, making it difficult to establish the gender distribution
across the profession; registration is also not required if working under someone who
is registered and is often seen as costly and providing little value. Analysis of data
for registered architects and members of the Institute of Architects and the number of
female university graduates both illustrate a low level of engagement in the
profession. Female graduates averaged 41% from 2000-2010, and women constitute
21% of registered architects across the country and 28% of Institute members
(Matthewson 2013b).
In two recent surveys of women and men, gendered trends have been identified in
which women are entering the profession but not staying beyond their thirties and
forties, resulting in few women in senior leadership roles and providing little
mentorship or career modelling for younger women. There was a notable salary
discrepancy, with the women earning less although many of the respondents were in
junior roles, and more women were working part-time, while still perceiving this to
be detrimental to their careers. Finally, the women reported less satisfaction with
their career progression and expressed greater uncertainty about remaining in the
30 Chapter 2: Literature Review
profession. Like other creative disciplines, the range of activities in which architects
engage is diverse and changing but the profession is not necessarily acknowledging
this which may further alienate women. The balancing of work and lifestyle is
becoming a universal challenge although for women in can be particularly acute
(Matthewson 2013a).
The results of the research carried out as part of the Australian Research Council
Linkage Project Equity and diversity in the Australian architecture profession:
women, work and leadership (2011-2014) are extensive and provide valuable
relatable context for women in industrial design in Australia. A set of
recommendations or guides to equitable practice has been published through Parlour
that was developed through this research (Clark et al. 2014). The guides identify
eleven workplace issues that may impede or slow women’s careers and provide
strategies to develop different, more equitable work practices. The issues covered
include pay equity, long hours culture, part-time work, flexibility, recruitment, career
progression, negotiation, career break, leadership, mentoring and registration.
DESIGN
2.10 HISTORY
The history of design can be considered from various positions. Fry (1988), for
example, has proposed ‘connoisseurship; canonisation; the object in space; the
common object (social history of design); design as culture; design and gender;
design as economy’ (Fry 1988, 21). One of the first key publications on the history of
design is Pioneers of Modern Design by Nikolaus Pevsner (1936) in which he takes a
teleological approach to considering the purpose of products, an approach Fry would
classify as ‘canonisation’. This is where the history focuses on what the individual
has produced and how that has worked within a movement. Pevsner (2005) is
frequently cited as having had a significant influence on how we understand the
development of modern design and identification of movements. A major flaw in this
influential text is its omission of any women and the contribution they have made to
the development of the styles or periods he addressed, from William Morris to
Walter Gropius. Is it appropriate to just insert women into the Pevsner male-
dominated format, which could have occurred in the revised and expanded edition of
Chapter 2: Literature Review 31
2005, or is there an opportunity to do it in a different way (Buckley 1986)? Gorman
notes the lost opportunity in her review of the exhibition and catalogue of Women
Designers in the USA, 1900-2000, curated by Pat Kirkham (Gorman 2001). Kirkham
took a very traditional art history format with a very broad definition of design that
included craft. The exhibition then focused on the individual and what they have
achieved, attempting to make them ‘heroes’ just as Pevsner did.
2.11 WOMEN IN DESIGN
To date, the history of design in the main has been told from a male perspective. Due
to prevailing social conditions and norms, women were excluded from engaging in or
contributing to the area of design before the 1860s. There was also little opportunity
for them to be involved in the purchase of items that may have been of use in their
home environment, with everything controlled by the men of their families (either
fathers, brothers or husbands). This attitude naturally extended to the design and
production of objects. During this period, women were allowed some creativity in
the area of decorative arts as they were considered appropriate or ‘particularly suited
to female talents’ (Anscombe 1984, 11), especially as this was an occupation or
activity that was limited in scope, strength requirements and passion.
The Victorian Era (1840 - 1900)
Women’s participation in the field of art and design started in the Victorian era,
when it was considered a suitable occupation for gentlewomen. The establishment of
a female school of design in 1882 in the United Kingdom had the objective to
provide ‘honourable and profitable employment’ for middle class women and to
improve ornamental design in manufacture’ (Bruce & Lewis 1990, 116). Yet, though
the women were trained, there was little opportunity for employment; some worked
from home or joined special workshops. They could not enter the furniture making or
design industry, wrought iron work or architecture due to them being dominated by
men: ‘Embroidery, lace-making, miniature painting, dressmaking and so on were the
proper domains for women’ (Bruce & Lewis 1990, 116).
32 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Arts and Crafts Movement (1850 - 1914)
The Arts and Crafts Movement, founded in the late nineteenth century, had a very
socialist focus in that it aimed ‘to redefine the role of art and craftsmanship, restore
dignity to labour, elevate and ennoble the artisan, create opportunities for women,
and implement social reform’ (Pevsner 2005, 32). Women embraced this emerging
movement as it ‘allowed them to be active, creative and professional’ (Anscombe
1984, 12). Notably, in America women had gained creative freedom earlier than in
England due to the different societal structure and the ability to establish ‘co-
operative venture’ (Anscombe 1984, 12).
Aesthetic Movement (1870 – 1900)
The Aesthetic movement extended the range of acceptable crafts for women to
include ‘china-painting, book binding, poker-work and metal work’ (Anscombe
1984, 28), thereby extending career opportunities for women. There were a number
of companies that followed the model of Morris and Co. with the types of products
on offer, aimed at the less wealthy, encouraging more women to engage in the
process.
Modern Movement (1880 -1940)
By the end of World War I, women had made significant inroads and were taking an
equal place with male designers as new design movements evolved. The foundations
of the Modern movement were laid down in the late 19th century and were built upon
post WWI with the belief that ‘good design served the needs of ordinary people, of
the workers’ (Anscombe 1984, 12). The Bauhaus was pivotal to the Modern
Movement bringing together applied arts, art and architecture for the achievement of
this inclusive philosophy. However, although women were being allowed to
participate in design and manufacture, there was still little acknowledgement of their
contribution. An example is the work of Eileen Grey who influenced Le Corbusier;
her work was displayed in poor locations at exhibitions or replaced, and even late in
her career experienced her work being attributed to male colleagues (Bruce & Lewis
1990, 116).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 33
After the Second World War, the British Government looked to design to assist in
the recovery of the manufacturing industry. In the 1950s, designers mainly worked as
in-house designers and there were few consultancies. This had changed by the 1970s,
especially around the area of retail, although still very few women were involved; if
they were it was in the areas of textile and fashion (Anscombe 1984, 14).
In an attempt to address the patriarchal view of the history of design, Anscombe
(1984) has written a number of essays on women in design in her book A woman's
touch: women in design from 1860 to the present day. Having established that
through the Arts and Crafts movement women were being allowed and encouraged
to produce works, she highlights the experience and work of William Morris and his
wife, Jenny. Jenny Morris was involved in the work of Morris and Co. with a focus
on embroidery. The company also employed women across the fields of tile
decorating, woodcarving and gesso painting. The work environment was that of an
extended family, where the women were supported in their pursuits, to the extent that
some who would normally have been considered social outcasts were employed.
This atmosphere, though supportive, did not encourage the women to ‘pursue careers
independent of the firm’ (Anscombe 1984, 22) and potentially much of their work
remains unattributed.
May Morris, their youngest daughter, worked devotedly for her father and the
company. Her creative focus was embroidery, where she became the manager of the
workshop, although she also turned her talents to wallpaper, booking binding and
jewellery. May worked with her father throughout his life and continued to manage
the company with the same passion and sense of design after his death. The Arts and
Crafts movement had established that women were capable of engaging in the
production of art works and that it was an acceptable career.
The invisibility of women throughout the history of design has also been attributed to
their lack of ambition or desire to work in a physically demanding environment,
although there are examples of women who demonstrated their drive to explore the
possibilities of design and manufacturing techniques as well as their understanding of
business and aesthetic sensibility (Anscombe 1984).
34 Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.12 DESIGN IN AUSTRALIA
In colonial Australia, the emergence of women designers is parallel in some respects
to that of women in Europe, where they existed in an amateur environment of genteel
accomplishments. An understanding of their contribution is slowly emerging through
the influence they had on their husbands and the development of colonial buildings
and their furnishing. For example Elizabeth Macquarie (1718-1835) played an active
role alongside her husband Governor Macquarie in the layout and development of
Sydney streets, parks and architecture (Barnard 1967; Kerr 1992). Inter-colonial
exhibitions in Melbourne and Sydney started after the Great Exhibition in 1951 in
London, where new ideas on design and industry were introduced to the public at
large (Edquist 2014). These exhibitions prompted women to begin to train and
practise as designers. They often engaged in art and craft based courses, many
travelling to Europe to receive their education. They brought back an understanding
and appreciation of the movements of Arts & Crafts and Art Nouveau that can been
seen in Australian furniture and graphic design in the late nineteenth century.
As the manufacturing base slowly grew throughout the beginnings of the twentieth
century, opportunities for industrial designers were being defined globally. The term
industrial design in the 1930s was defined ‘as a new movement that would draw
upon contemporary artists’ skill for visualisation and invention of useful forms for
manufactured goods’ (Bogle 1998, 11). It was also a time when organisations of
creatives came together to establish professionalism within their disciplines, the first
occurring in 1930 in architecture with the male-dominated national Royal Australian
Institute of Architects (RAIA) (Edquist 2014). Before the Second World War a
number of design related organisations were established, held exhibitions and wrote
manifestos. In 1935, the Women’s Industrial Arts Society was formed around
industrial and graphic design. The Society held an exhibition of the works of artists
and designers such as Hera Roberts, Phyllis Shillito, Jean Bellette, Thea Proctor,
Margaret Preston and others. In 1940, the Design and Industries Association (DIA)
was formed with its aim ‘to improve the design of all things Australians live with and
use’ (Bogle 1998, 113).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 35
The Australian Society of Designers for Industry (SDI) was formed around 1947 by a
group of men and women designers working across furniture, fabric, graphics and
industrial design. Members of this group wrote essays about the role of professional
designers in industry, and the need to establish professional standards and practices,
while others lectured and wrote about ‘Good Design’ (Bogle 1998, 115).
2.13 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
To start this investigation an understanding of the word design is required; there are
two directions from which it can be approached: the practitioner’s and the
academic’s. In a contemporary practitioner sense this can be quite problematic, as
practitioners will often develop their own understandings through practice and are
unable to articulate these to a wider community. In the wider community the word is
used in many different ways only helping to confuse a possible definition. It becomes
further complicated when sub-categories of design are added such as architectural
design, engineering, computer, product, industrial, graphic, interior design and new
emerging areas of service and user experience design (Heskett 2001). The
practitioners want more specific definitions so that the general population can more
readily recognise their occupation or skills and thereby enable them to gain more
work, although it is possible that this may draw more people to the industry resulting
in more competition for work (Robertson & Design Institute of Australia 2013a).
As industrial design is a relatively young discipline, especially in the context of the
history of art, craft or architecture, there is still much discussion by academics
around the development of the field and how it should be defined. There are two
approaches being taken with academics focusing on either design practice or design
history to contextualise their writing. One definition developed by Richard Buchanan
and Victor Margolin looks to embrace the broadest possible perspective:
Design is the conception and planning of the artificial, that broad domain of human made products which includes: material objects, visual and verbal communications, organized activities and services, and complex systems and environments for living, working, playing and learning. (Margolin 1995)
36 Chapter 2: Literature Review
This definition of design highlights the development of the term since Josiah
Wedgewood first used it in the late eighteenth century. His designers were artists
employed to add decoration to pottery products (Porter & Brewer 1993). More
recently, Boehnert (2014, 122) layers in the impact of increasing levels of
complexity that a designer encounters as the ‘globalised networks and technologies
become more sophisticated’.
In 2015 the global body representing industrial design, the International Council of
Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID), undertook a review of their definition of
industrial design and the implications for the future of the profession. This review
resulted in a change of the name of the organisation to World Design Organisation,
as it speaks to a wider community, acknowledging that the types of work performed
and the roles played by industrial designers have changed. Further, they developed a
new definition of industrial design:
Industrial design is a strategic problem-solving process applicable to products, systems, services and experiences which results in innovation, business success and a better quality of life. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that links innovation, technology, business, research and customers in harnessing creativity and visualisation to resolve problems as opportunities with the intent of making a better product, system, service, experience or business, and providing new value and competitive advantage. Industrial Design is aware of economic, social, environmental and ethical aspects of its outcome aimed at creating a better world. (ICSID 2015)
The Design Institute of Australia (DIA) also has a broad definition of design to
encompass all the disciplines that it represents, acknowledging that it is a word that is
used widely and misused across the community. In the first instance ‘it is applied to
any process where an outcome is being planned rather than relying on chance’
(Design Institute of Australia 2015a). Further definitions of the individual
professions are also provided with reference to the Australian Bureau of Statistics
occupation code ANZSCO (2006) occupation code 232312 for industrial design.
These definitions start simply with: ‘industrial designers develop and prepare
products for manufacture. They are particularly concerned with those aspects of
products that relate to human usage and behaviour and product appeal’ (Design
Institute of Australia 2015b).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 37
The profession of Industrial Design continues to have a relatively low profile in the
community in Australia. For example, in a national audit of business listings, the
DIA found that in the decade from 1996 to 2005, the number of Designers ‘Product
& Industrial’ remained relatively stable growing from 351 to 390 although it
decreased to 366 in 2011, whereas the number of Graphic Designers more than
doubled, from 2157 to 5939. Of course, although the total business listings pages do
not reflect either the numbers being educated within the discipline or those practising
within manufacturing companies, design consultancies and emerging service design
companies, they provide some insight into the challenges women face being visible
in a competitive industry.
2.14 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN IN AUSTRALIA
Understanding where design and industrial design fit in the professional sector is
difficult to establish. In Australia, through negotiation between the Australian Bureau
of Statistics (ABS) and the DIA, there has been a refinement of the profession codes
and definitions to allow for greater identification of the professions and the types of
work involved to facilitate more accurate collection of statistics for the design
professions. This action has moved design away from a classification with art which
will have potential impact on government policy and structure for design. This
reflects that design is usually undertaken in response to requirements of others who
want commercial benefit whereas art is related to cultural pursuits and entertainment
and is often viable only with community funding. At the time of the introduction of
the new profession code in 2006, the ABS reports that there were 2,660 people
identifying as Industrial designers with an increase to 2,931 in 2011 (Robertson &
Design Institute of Australia 2013b).
An overview of the design professions in Australia is drawn from the DIA’s annual
survey of fees and salaries. Where qualitative data is sought along with quantitative,
responders are posed a number of open-ended questions to gauge concerns and
support needed. There emerged four areas of concern for the professionals: the scale
of the tertiary education industry where there has been a significant increase in the
numbers being educated and graduating; the impact of technology and the associated
loss of different skills and processes; the growth of globalisation where off-shore
38 Chapter 2: Literature Review
manufacturing capacity, costs and transport are favoured at the expense of local
manufacturing; and finally changes in communication and the impact of new media.
In Australia, one in every 140 Australians has a design qualification based on the
2011 Census; this includes architects, interior designers and decorators, industrial
designers, graphic designers, web designers, textiles designers, fashion designers,
jewellery designers and landscape and urban designers (Robertson & Design Institute
of Australia 2013a, 5). Historically many of the design professions have a close
relationship and are often reliant on other industries; for example, industrial design
usually has a close connection with manufacturing industries and is preferably local
to their operations. This has changed in that many large manufacturers have built
factories in low cost locations off-shore, then due to the close nature of relationship
to industrial design they look to sourcing services local to the new factories, resulting
in less demand for industrial designers in Australia. The reduced demand for
professional industrial designers in Australia will further impact on recent graduates,
making it more difficult for them to gain either internships or new graduate positions,
a course of action that is usually required to contextualise their education and bring
them to industry standard.
Much of the design sector consists of micro-businesses in which there are one to
three designers, including the owner. This has grown in the last five years as
illustrated by the DIA graph shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Size of design businesses by discipline (2006/2011)
(Robertson & Design Institute of Australia 2013)
Chapter 2: Literature Review 39
Other views of the profession and how graduates are making their way is emerging
from in-depth interview based studies being carried out at other Australian
universities with graduates from industrial design. Trathen and Varadarajan (2013)
have developed two relevant models: 1) to map the knowledge and skills used by an
industrial designer; and 2) to explain career trajectories of industrial design
graduates. The thematic map (Figure 2.4) helps describe the depth of skills and
knowledge which contemporary industrial design graduates draw upon in their
various forms of practice (Trathen & Varadarajan 2013). It further highlights the
complex and diverse nature of the discipline providing graduates with many options.
Figure 2.4 Thematic map of Australian industrial design practice
(Trathen & Varadarajan 2013)
The themes described by the Map are:
• Communicator Theme: which includes design’s suite of communication tools such
as Computer Aided Design (CAD), sketching, visualisation and model making.
• Approach Thinking Theme: which includes design’s skills in problem
identification, problem solving and user centred design.
• Social Conscience Theme: which includes emerging design influences such as
environmental change practice and the desire to contribute to positive change.
40 Chapter 2: Literature Review
• Facilitator Theme: which includes design innovation, teamwork and
interdisciplinary communication.
• Mobility Theme: which includes external influences like the economy,
employment opportunities and office relationships, and internal influences like
passion, resilience and confidence.
• Identity Theme: which includes the components influencing a sense of identity
based on professional, personal and uniquely Australian elements.
To capture how the graduates utilise their skills after graduation, the second model of
Adopters, Adapters and Departers (Trathen and Varadarajan 2013) was developed.
The Adopter-Adapter-Departer (AAD) model illustrates three types of design
graduates:
• Adopters, who cope with the uncertainties inherent in the profession of industrial
design and maintain their connection to aspects of traditional industrial design.
• Adapters, who address the same professional uncertainties through a combination
of resilience and career diversification and respond by developing new ways of
practising.
• Departers, who find the ambiguities of the profession outweigh their desire to
stay and respond by moving to other employment, but who retain an ideological
connection to ‘design’.
Both of these models provide categorisation of insight into the experiences of
graduates of industrial design exposing that there is still a small demand for the
traditional skills with a focus on design for manufacture. Beyond these there is
greater need for graduates to be adaptable and able to apply their skills in novel
design situations that are still emerging. Finally, the models clarify that the skills
developed through the course of study are transferable to non-design roles and that
this needs to be made obvious to the student and recent graduate (Trathen &
Varadarajan 2015).
Chapter 2: Literature Review 41
2.15 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIAN
Around the country the technical colleges played an important role in the education
of the early designers. They were heavily influenced by the British system as
instructors either came from Britain or returned after being educated there. The focus
was on the development of design, the skills of fabrication and making; this
facilitated the propagation of many small studio workshops, a culture that continues
throughout the country (Bogle 1998).
Governmental reforms in education in the 1970s resulted in the transfer of
responsibility for education in design and art from the Technical and Further
Education (TAFE) sector to the advanced education sector. This resulted in the
creation of Sydney College of the Arts (SCA) in 1975 (Caban 1988). Further reform
in the mid-1980s facilitated merges of universities and colleges of advanced
education to produce large technical universities that now form the Australian
Technology Network (ATN) (Edquist 2014). The School of Design of SCA was
incorporated into the University of Technology Sydney in 1988 (UTS 2012). These
reforms, along with the abolition of university fees, had a significant impact on
women’s entry into design education (Edquist 2014) by making it more accessible.
Design has proven to be a popular option among secondary school students with
tertiary providers generally increasing the options, although for Industrial Design the
options have decreased; in 2001 there were 20 courses available but in 2013 the
number was down to 14 courses (Robertson & Design Institute of Australia 2013a,
9).
2.16 CREATIVITY IN DESIGN
To date, little research has explored gender differences in creativity. Although
creativity is increasingly being recognised as an essential characteristic for many
disciplines, the ability to develop a creative solution to a problem is critical to a
designer. Design creativity can be central in addressing social problems through
understanding the relationship of design and humanity (Nagai & Taura 2016). There
are many models of creativity emerging from research exposing how new ideas are
generated and how they can be applied in different contexts. One model explored by
42 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Sawyer (2015) breaks the process into five stages: preparation, incubation, ideation,
selection and execution. Although this linear process is not truly reflective of the
actual process as Sawyer (2015) argues it is more of a ‘zig zag’ where the creative
process unfolds and can lead to frequent failures in the development of innovations.
The development of creativity in the young is seen as foundational for future
development of individuals who can be innovative and adaptable to change, with
Mindham (2005) arguing that: ‘The marks made on the paper in the very early years
will have lifelong and profound consequences’. When considering the role of gender
and creativity, Stoltzfus et al. (2011) point to there being some evidence that
creativity in women may not be developed or have the same opportunity for
development as in men, due to societal influences. There is more encouragement of
women to develop more community and social skills that may further be supportive
of family and child rearing, whereas the highly creative have been identified as more
single-minded and unconventional. An interesting extension of the investigation of
gender and creativity is the further layering of gender roles. In the research carried
out by Stoltzfus et al., they concluded that male participants were more creative than
the female although the most creative of the males were those 'who strongly
identified with feminine gender role characteristics, with androgynous women
recording the next highest’ (2011, 245).
Creativity is central to the role of the professional designer to be successful they need
to bring a combination of art, aesthetics and craft and a sense of commercial reality.
Understanding the use of these terms exposes a distinctly masculine underpinning
and gendering of the profession. Design skills requiring physical aptitude are most
often coded as masculine such as model making and the use of a hammer. In the
language analysis of interviews with of staff in design firms based in the UK
highlighted that much of the language has been normalised as male. Design ‘teams’
are referred to as ‘the guys’, positions advertised with the boxing reference to
‘junior’ and ‘middleweight’, designers described as ‘he’(Reimer 2015).
A starting point for the development of their creativity for many girls and women is
through craft and art, often at an early age. A study carried out by Rezaei and
Zakariaie (2011) identified that although there is much research on the importance of
Chapter 2: Literature Review 43
the development of creativity in young children, little has considered the context of
handcraft and how it may enhance learners’ creativity. They argue that the best time
for the growth and development of creative thinking is elementary school, as children
are often flexible and keen to discover new things and learn new concepts at this age.
Rezaei and Zakariaie (2011) conclude that the use of handcraft has a significant
influence on a student’s originality, flexibility and elaboration and improved
creativity, explaining that ‘using handcraft making activities enhances their
imagination which in turn causes the growth of creativity and innovation among the
learners. Using handcraft making activities causes learners to think analytically and
make them study the natural events and things around deeply’ (Rezaei & Zakariaie
2011, 130). While it is assumed there is a direct pathway from art, craft and
creativity to design professions, little research has documented this process or
explored the impact of gender.
2.17 ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Research into entrepreneurship is well established, with the focus on women who
choose to engage in entrepreneurship continuing to grow (Henry, Foss & Ahl 2015;
Afandi & Kermani 2015), developing an understanding of their experience and the
gender difference of the businesses (Reichborn-Kjennerud & Svare 2014). Globally
there is significantly less engagement by women than by men in entrepreneurial
activities (Langowitz & Minniti 2007; Heilman & Chen 2003; Marlow 1997),
although once a person has decided they want to establish a new business there is no
gender difference in the likelihood of success (Afandi & Kermani 2015). Age,
income, employment status and education all influence women’s propensity to start a
new business, with knowing other entrepreneurs, alertness to opportunities, and self-
confidence in their skills positively influencing the likelihood of starting a business
(Langowitz & Minniti, 2007). Women often go into self-employment out of the
desire to maximize their power, autonomy and impact along with the opportunity to
create a better work and family balance (Heilman & Chen 2003; Hodges et al. 2015).
Although the balance may still be difficult to establish, the solution can often be the
employment of the right people to make a supportive team, although insufficient
funding can hamper this strategy (Hodges et al. 2015).
44 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Dalborg (2015) uses life cycle theories and business growth analysis to understand
how small businesses might grow and thrive and how long this may take. The
motivational factors of the owner have impact and the influence on growth have been
themed: survive, stability, create work, appreciation and personal development.
Dalborg (2015) concluded that women entrepreneurs possess high growth aspirations
although to achieve this they focus on creating the conditions based on both extrinsic
and intrinsic motivations. One major impact on growth, as a number of studies
(Hodges et al. 2015; Heilman & Chen 2003) have highlighted is that it is more
difficult for women to fund their businesses and obtain external financial support.
This results in restrictions on growth and the perceptions that they are
underperforming or they are opting out of certain types of growth. Although it does
often lead to resourcefulness and creativity, in doing more with less, marketing their
businesses through social media and word of mouth (Hodges et al. 2015). Other
research focusing on growth explores how strategies are gendered (Reichborn-
Kjennerud & Svare 2014) concluding that differences in entrepreneurship between
men and women stems from their mindsets. Men are more concerned with business
growth and women being satisfied and ‘staying small’.
The discipline specific knowledge and thinking in industrial design lends itself to
entrepreneurship especially where it is related to a three-dimensional object. In
Australia the profile of the typical entrepreneur is that they are of no specific age
group; many are university educated with differing experiences that benefit the start-
up with this education level often resulting in employment for others and higher
levels of profit for the company, although education does not increase the likelihood
of survival. Experience in other businesses does improve survival chances. Almost
half of Australian business founders work in teams, although the make-up of the
teams is not clearly definable making comparisons difficult. Overall, Australian
women are marginally under-represented as firm founders highlighted further by the
types of firms created as demonstrated in Table 2.2. ‘Female representation is
particularly low in the construction industry, while manufacturing is largely male-
dominated. Conversely, retailing, health, education and social services are largely
female-dominated industries’ (Clark et al. 2012, 19). The majority of women-only
start-ups aim to keep their firms small and manageable.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 45
Table 2.2 Founder gender distributions from a firm-level perspective
(Clark et al. 2012, 19)
2.18 CONCLUSION
To develop an understanding of the position and experiences of women in industrial
design, a broad approach was taken in this literature review. There is growing
research into women’s experiences of entering and working in non-traditional areas
to draw upon, although there is little that is specific to industrial design.
Understanding different gender theories provides awareness of the potential barriers
and reasons why women may not be visible in the profession. The general causal
model for STEM provides this starting point exposing issues of gatekeeper tests,
discrimination and priorities of life choices. The ‘leaky pipe’ is seen as one
metaphor suggesting that women at different stages drop out of the field from subject
choice, through a degree and career choice leaving few succeeding to senior levels.
Social-cognitive career theory identifies personal and external variables that enhance
or constrain career progress. Society, family and teachers play a significant role in
either reinforcing stereotypes or providing support and confidence to overcome or
dismiss them. This survey enabled the identification of key similarities and
differences of experience for women in design. Further closer examination of
women in other non-traditional disciplines exposed a number of shared issues across
the disciplines: working conditions where women opt for part-time or flexible
working hours and are more likely to take career breaks for childrearing often to the
detriment of career advancement; lower pay; gendered presentation and availability
of subjects in high school; and gendered work environments and sexism.
Female MixedMale
Prop
ortio
n of
sam
ple
Nascent firms Young firms0
5
10
45
25
15
20
40
30
35
46 Chapter 2: Literature Review
To contextualise women’s experience within design the historical survey highlighted
that the contribution of women to design has long been an unacknowledged part of
the records. Research into and exhibitions of women’s work is slowly placing them
in the records providing due recognition and mentor examples for up and coming
women designers. Formalisation of woman’s engagement in design came through
directed education in the Victorian era although there was little opportunity for them
to turn this education into employment. The design profession and education in
Australia has a relatively short history and there is little evidence of women’s
contribution. Engagement has increased over time to the position we are in today
where there are equal numbers of women being educated as men although how
women are turning their education into employment is not obvious as there is little
evidence of them in the peer reviewed environment of national design awards. This
is the knowledge gap that will be addressed by this research. It has particular
importance to recent women graduates who are looking to break into the profession
and also to the profession to facilitate changes in attitudes towards women.
48 Chapter 1:
Chapter 3: Methodology 49
Chapter 3: Methodology
This research utilises a qualitative phenomenological approach, which priorities
participants own words and voices in expressing and understanding their day-to-day, lived
experiences. It is important to emphasise that the aim of qualitative research is
illumination, impressions and understanding, not the numbers or causal prediction offered
by quantitative research. Although qualitative research is sometimes criticised for its
limited reliability and generalisability, it provides an in-depth understanding of the
phenomenon that would not be achieved using a quantitative approach through a random
survey or experiment. Qualitative research is particularly appropriate for obtaining in-
depth insight into issues and topics about which little knowledge exists, especially when a
primary research goal is to understand how social and cultural contexts affect processes,
decisions and events. There is often debate about numbers in qualitative research and how
many participants or interviewees is ‘enough’. The simple answer, as Liamputtong and
Ezzy (2005) argue, is that in qualitative research data saturation is much more important
than the actual sample size:
Many people become concerned about how many cases constitute a large enough
sample for qualitative research. The answer to this question is simple; when the
researcher is satisfied that the data are rich enough and cover enough of the
dimensions they are interested in, then the sample is large enough.
(Liamputtong & Ezzy 2005, p49)
In terms of the specific qualitative research methodology, semi-structured discussion
format individual in-depth interviews – best described as ‘conversation[s] with purpose’
that describe the experiences of the interviewees in the words of the individuals
(Minichiello 1990, 87) – were utilised. Individual in-depth interviews provide an
opportunity to explore, in detail, personal experiences and to gather vivid and detailed
descriptions. The individual interview is considered the major data collection method in
phenomenology, as it enables the building of a supportive environment where participants
can freely and authentically share their experiences with the researcher. Although the
researcher has an interview guide, and follows the same general question structure, a key
benefit of the semi-structured approach is that the researcher is not restricted by a rigid
questionnaire and has the freedom to explore and probe emergent topics.
50 Chapter 3: Methodology
Together, a phenomenological approach and a case study methodology shaped decisions
regarding participant selection, the use of data, the analysis process and the interpretation
of results. That said, it is important to acknowledge philosophical assumptions, world-
views and researchers’ beliefs and attitudes which are interconnected and influence how
researchers engage with, study, approach and understand the research. Basically, as
Creswell (2003) explains, these consist of a stance toward the nature of reality (ontology),
how the researcher knows what she/he knows (epistemology), the role of values in the
research (axiology), the language of research (rhetoric) and the methods used in the
process (methodology).
3.1 PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH
Grounded in the works of philosophers such as Kant, Hegel and Mach, phenomenological
research was formally defined by Edmund Husserl at the beginning of the twentieth-
century. As the founder or pioneer of phenomenology, Husserl theorised about how
knowledge came into being: he focused on understanding phenomena (that is, how people
perceived and thought about the world) and argued that what ‘needed to be examined was
the way people lived in the world, rather than the world being seen as a separate entity’
(Savin-Baden & Major 2013, 213). Husserl proposes the three key steps of
phenomenological reduction, description and search for the essences of experiences,
arguing for a process of systematic reflection, to determine the essential properties and
structures of experience. At its essence, phenomenology is most simply defined as how
individuals experience a particular phenomenon – it is their unique lived experiences.
Phenomenological researchers ‘bracket off’ the world and suspend judgment in order to
see the world fully and clearly, entering:
into the lived experience and perspective of the other person, to stand not only in their shoes but in their emotional body – to see the world with their eyes. This requires not only empathy for the other, but the ability to make an imaginative and intuitive leap into their world.
(Hawkins 1988, p63, cited in Butler-Kisber 2010, 52)
Phenomenology begins with the acknowledgement that there is a gap in our understanding
of a specific phenomenon, which has not been overtly described and explained.
Phenomenological researchers hope to gain an understanding of essential ‘truths’ of the
lived experience from the perspective of the individual, and focus on those experiences
Chapter 3: Methodology 51
that are often ignored in everyday life. This is an appropriate approach when the purpose
of the exercise is to understand the real life experience of the participants. Critically, it
involves ‘bracketing’ taken-for-granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving
(Neuman 1994; Baker 1999); in this context, therefore, any preconceptions regarding
women’s experiences of studying and working in design were ‘bracketed’. In explaining
how to ‘think phenomenologically’ and ‘be phenomenological’, I followed the approach of
Munhall (2012), who instructs researchers to develop a phenomenological mindset through
a range of flexible, parallel and iterative steps:
(1) immersing themselves in phenomenological theory and approaches,
specifically to ‘read, read, read about it’ (Munhall 2012, 122);
(2) articulating the phenomenological aim of the inquiry, particularly by
examining their own biases, expectations and assumptions;
(3) engaging in existential inquiry, expressions and processing (this stage is often
described as ‘dwelling’ by others and refers to the process of reflecting on the
participants’ experiences, through interviews, conversations, active listening
and writing);
(4) contextual processing, specifically presenting and reflecting on initial thoughts
through writing;
(5) analysis of interpretive interaction, highlighting the variety of individual
experience through rich and detailed descriptions;
(6) writing the phenomenological narrative, to better understand their world; and
(7) writing a narrative with meaning, critiquing and interpreting the implications
and recommendations for individuals, society, and social systems.
These analytical and interpretive processes can occur simultaneously, with Munhall
viewing phenomenology as ‘our hope for understanding in this world (2012, 120).
Critically, phenomenology enables individuals to share their day-to-day lived experiences,
in their own words and voices, to illuminate the previously misunderstood, unknown, or
discounted (Bogdan & Biklen 1992).
3.2 THE CASE STUDY AS A RESEARCH STRATEGY
The case study is a research strategy that focuses on a particular case (an individual, a
group or an organisation) and emphasises detailed contextual analysis of this specific
52 Chapter 3: Methodology
contemporary real-life case or cases. Case studies are commonly utilised across multiple
disciplines (for example, psychology, social science, nursing, business, design) when there
is a wish to better understand a complex social issue, event or object and multiple variables
and inter-relationships exist (Walshe et al. 2004; Stake 1995; Creswell 2009). Yin (2003)
famously defined the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary social phenomenon within its real-life context, explaining that ‘case studies
seem to be the preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are being posed, when
the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary
phenomenon within some real-life context’ (2003, 2, 5-10). Practically, in all case study
research, researchers must set spatial and temporal boundaries around the cases under
analysis (Creswell 1998), and be focused and explicit about the rationale and justification
for the selection of a case study approach, the research choices made and research
processes followed. In this research, each participant represents an individual case and
each case was analysed separately, before being analysed together.
3.3 CASE STUDY OF FEMALE INDUSTRIAL DESIGN GRADUATES
This research utilises a qualitative case study of female graduates from the Industrial
Design (ID) course at University of Technology Sydney (UTS) over a twenty-year period –
from 1990, when the course moved from a College of Advanced Education to a university,
to 2010. UTS has positioned itself as a contemporary and progressive university with a
global perspective. It is a practice-based university that has strong links to industry through
the use of practitioners for teaching, partnerships and links for research and their
involvement in strategic direction within faculties. The practice-orientated education aims
to produce graduates who are industry ready and highly employable. In 2011, over 35 700
students were enrolled at UTS in onshore and offshore courses. The total number of staff
(measured in Full Time Equivalents) at UTS in 2011 was 2 797. Course completions
totalled 9 724 in 2009; for those students whose last year of enrolment was 2009, most of
the completing students graduated in October 2009 and April-May 2010 ceremonies (UTS
2012). In 2012-2014, women represented 52-53 per cent of completions (UTS 2015).
UTS was selected because it is located in Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales,
Australia, and is a central industrial design-training hub. UTS is heir to one of the oldest
providers of education in Industrial Design in Australia, with the course first starting at
Chapter 3: Methodology 53
Randwick Technical College in the early 1960s, moving to Sydney College of the Arts
when that institution was created in 1975 and experiencing its latest transition to UTS in
1988. It has maintained strong student enrolment numbers and is one of the largest
industrial design courses in the country. Table 3.1 documents the number of male and
female industrial design Autumn graduates from UTS from 1990 to 2010, highlighting
how the proportion of women have increased from 15% in the first five years to 50% in
2010.
Table 3.1 UTS Industrial Design graduation 1990-2010 Source: UTS Graduation records
Participants
A total of 19 female industrial design graduates from the Industrial Design course at the
University of Technology, Sydney were interviewed face-to-face. At the time of interview
in 2011, graduates ranged in age from 21 to 37 years old; three were based in the United
Garduating Year Female Male Total
% Female per cohort
1990 0 12 12
1991 7 18 25
1992 3 22 25
1993 5 21 26
1994 2 18 20 15%
1995 9 21 30
1996 5 14 19
1997 4 17 21
1998 7 25 32
1999 5 24 29 22%
2000 4 21 25
2001 3 16 19
2002 8 18 26
2003 12 16 28
2004 17 29 46 42%
2005 20 30 50
2006 15 19 34
2007 22 24 46
2008 19 23 42
2009 10 22 32 42%
2010 26 26 52 50%
Autumn Graduation of Industrial Design
54 Chapter 3: Methodology
Kingdom, with the majority still living and working in Sydney. Table 3.2 below illustrates
the code number assigned to participants (thus ensuring their confidentiality), their current
employment and formal job title. The email invitation and information sent to participants
are in Appendix A.
Table 3.2 Profiles of Participants
Procedure
The study received ethical approval from the Queensland University of Technology
Human Ethics Committee (approval number: 1000000991) and standard good practice
ethical protocols were followed, with written consent obtained from each participant. All
participants were provided with an Information Sheet that outlined: the details of the study;
the benefits and risks associated with participating; that they could withdraw without
penalty at any time; and the measures undertaken to ensure that their anonymity was
protected.
Profile of Participants
CodeYear of
graduationCurrent type of employment Position title used
6 1995 self employed Designer
10 2002 self employed Designer
13 2002 self employed - stay at home Mum currently stay at home Mum
19 2002 self employed Designer
1 2003 self employed Industrial Designer
4 2003 on going contract Industrial designer + graphic designer
16 2004 contract + own projects Designer
18 2004 full time Footwear Designer
5 2005 full time Industrial Design + Account services
12 2005 full time Account Manager
17 2005 full time Ergonomist
2 2006 self employed Design director
9 2006 full time contract Exhibition Designer
8 2007 full time Industrial Designer
14 2007 full time Project Manager
3 2008 full time Events officer
7 2009 part time Designer
11 2010 internship Junior Designer
15 2010 full time - on maternity leave Industrial Designer
Chapter 3: Methodology 55
A non-probability snowball sampling approach was utilised to recruit participants, from an
email contact list collated from graduate publications, personal contacts and word of
mouth. After gaining ethical clearance, participants were emailed an invitation to
participate in an in-depth semi-structured face-to-face interview to discuss: their personal
motivations; experiences and reflections on their decision to study industrial design; and
their subsequent career experiences and choices. It is important to note that most
qualitative interview studies comprise around 5–25 participants (Kvale & Brinkmann
2009) with Mason (2002) suggesting that participants in a phenomenological study should
be determined by purposive sampling. Here, all female UTS Industrial design graduates
were potentially eligible, with 19 interviewed.
As an experienced female Industrial Designer and academic, I conducted and transcribed
all the interviews which took place in a convenient location for each participant (such as a
café close to their work, a work location or their home). Interviews ranged in length from
40 to 120 minutes. Interview questions were designed and developed to explore the
interviewees’ experience of studying industrial design and gaining employment, with
questions designed to foster wide-ranging discussion and reflective evaluation of life in
their current employment. Three pilot interviews were conducted with female designers to
refine and review the approach, structure, questions and style; the pilot was successful,
with positive feedback received on the questions and no major changes made.
The interview followed a semi-structured interview schedule that explored four key areas:
getting the qualification; getting the first job; becoming a success; and women in design
(see final questions in Appendix C). The first three question groupings were based on the
three-hurdle model developed by Bruce and Lewis (1990) to explain the factors
influencing career advancement for women, whilst the fourth area (women in design) was
added to facilitate discussion of the specific challenges associated with being a woman in
design and any advice participants would give to women about to enter the profession. The
questions were covered consistently in all the interviews; however, alteration and probing
was required in some areas and all questions were not necessarily asked, due to the level of
relevancy for more recent graduates with little industry experience. On completion of each
interview, I reflected on the interviews, any insights or key findings, writing brief one-to
two-page reflexive interview summaries.
56 Chapter 3: Methodology
Analysis
All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim into text for analysis,
ensuring that participants’ views, experiences and feelings were accurately represented in
their own words. To ensure anonymity, numbers were used instead of participants’ names
and specific identifying information was changed. The transcribed interviews resulted in
330 pages of analysable material (see sample transcription in Appendix C), which were
coded using a thematic approach to identify and categorise key categories, themes and
patterns within data. The identification of themes occurs through ‘careful reading and re-
reading of the data’ (Rice & Ezzy 1999, p 258), with four key iterative steps involved in
thematic data analysis: mechanics (data preparation and transcription); data immersion
(that is, reading and re-reading the transcripts and listening to audio-recordings);
generating initial codes and emergent patterns (initial pattern recognition within the data);
and searching for key themes and sub-themes.
Abstraction and naming of themes is a challenging process, which requires considerable
interaction and familiarity with the data to ensure that the categories and labels accurately
reflect participants’ words. Emerging themes become the categories for analysis; they are
reviewed, refined and named into main themes and sub-themes (Liamputtong & Ezzy
2005). The analysis was also informed by literature concerning women in design,
methodologies for interviews and case studies. To ensure interpretive rigor and that
participants’ views are accurately represented, multiple excerpts from the raw data using
the exact words of the participants are provided, with member-checking (by request,
participants could receive copies of their transcribed interviews to check, confirm or
change, providing additional insight and information; no one requested this) and peer
review incorporated into the research design. The peer-review process meant that one other
qualitative analysis expert (the principal supervisor) also participated in the coding and
analysis process. This approach helped ensure both researcher and peer validation of the
findings (Grbich 1999; Krefting 1990).
The reality is that qualitative data analysis is critically dependent on the researcher’s
interpretation; thus, I adopted several strategies to ensure methodological trustworthiness,
credibility and rigour (see Lincoln & Guba 1985). First, a thorough literature review
identified knowledge gaps, which informed the research approach and questions. Second,
to capture analytical processes and emerging categories, extensive notes and reflexive
Chapter 3: Methodology 57
memos were kept during interviewing, coding and analysis. This iterative and reflexive
process was designed to help ensure that the findings emerged from the views and
experiences of participants, rather than from any views or preferences of the researcher. In
that context, Stake (1995) argues that the researcher is responsible for conveying enough
‘thick’ detailed description of participants’ experiences that readers are able to easily judge
whether the findings ‘ring true’ (Shento 2004, 69). Thus, to facilitate that judgment, the
results sections purposely include multiple excerpts from the raw data, enabling readers to
judge for themselves the accuracy and representativeness of the analysis.
Third, although I was the lead researcher, self-awareness and analytical rigor were
facilitated through regular research meetings and critical discussion, reflection and
interpretation of data (and emerging findings) with my principal supervisor. At this
juncture, it is important to reflect on my roles as a researcher, educator and industrial
designer. Patton (1990) argues that the credibility of the researcher is critical in qualitative
research, as they are the major instrument of data collection and analysis. As a female
industrial designer, I have the privileged position of being an ‘insider’ to this research
domain. As Bonner and Tolhurst (2002) note, there are three key advantages of being an
insider: superior understanding of the group’s culture; ability to interact naturally with
members; and a previously established and stronger relational intimacy with the group. Of
course, each of these advantages may also be viewed as a disadvantage, with the insider’s
familiarity potentially leading to a loss of ‘objectivity’, erroneous assumptions and a false
‘illusion of sameness’ (Pitman 2002, 285). Here, I acknowledged that my personal
experiences influenced my topic choice; however, I reflexively and critically
acknowledged that my views and experiences may be both similar and different to those of
my participants and endeavored to maintain the distance required to understand the data.
Critically, as recommended by Pugh, Mitchell and Brooks (2000), the fact that my
principal supervisor is not a designer (her background is environmental psychology)
creates an insider/outsider research partnership that maximises the advantages of both
positions.
Fourth, to ensure confirmability, credibility and authenticity, participants were provided
with the opportunity to member-check their transcripts. No one accepted this offer, but
three years later, all were invited to participate in or attend (or both) an exhibition designed
to focus public attention on the issue of gender in design; over a third 37% accepted the
invitation to publicly share both their designs and reflections on what it meant to be a
58 Chapter 3: Methodology
female industrial designer in Australia (see Exhibition section below). The exhibition, and
associated forum, also provided an opportunity for peer scrutiny of the research project,
thus strengthening its credibility. Following these steps was designed to increase the rigour
and trustworthiness of the data collection, analysis and interpretation.
Finally, it is important to recognise the study’s limitations, which include the relatively
small sample size (n=19), gender (women only) and geographic limitations (one city and
one university in Australia), and the diversity in time when these women graduated from
their industrial design degree programs, from 1995 to 2010. I must also acknowledge the
potential impact of my own experiences and biases as a female industrial designer and
educator, and particularly as someone who had a preexisting relationship with participants.
While I fully disclosed the research procedures and purpose of my study to all, I had
friendly, professional relationships with many of the participants as I taught them when
they were studying industrial design at UTS. Additionally, as all were graduates of UTS
and most worked in the small design industry in Sydney, it is likely that they knew each
other personally and professionally. Thus, pseudonyms (specifically code numbers) were
used in an attempt to protect their confidentiality and anonymity. I did everything I could
to be aware of my potential biases as an ‘insider’ and set them aside; for example, the
analysis was conducted with my principal supervisor (an ‘outsider’) and purposely
included multiple quotes so readers could judge for themselves the accuracy of the
interpretation.
The exhibition: Where are the women?
In 2014, two years after the interviews, I curated an exhibition to focus public and industry
attention on the experiences and limited visibility of women in design. Titled Where are
the women? Women in Industrial Design (see Figure 3.1 below), the exhibition ran as part
of Sydney Design 2014, one of the few design festivals in the world produced and
managed by a Museum (Powerhouse Museum, in conjunction with the Chippendale
Creative Precinct and NG Art Gallery). The aim of Sydney Design (which started in 1997)
is to promote a critical understanding of the ways in which design impacts upon everyday
life and culture, with this exhibition highlighting the achievements of women in industrial
design. Opened on 21 August 2014 for three weeks, the opening night was well attended,
as was my curator’s floor forum a few days later. The WOMEN@UTS program in the
Chapter 3: Methodology 59
Equity & Diversity Unit at UTS provided sponsorship that supported production and
printing.
Figure 3.1 Window of exhibition space
Figure 3.2 Exhibition space and opening night
| 1
CATHY LOCKHARTWhere Are The Women? Women in Industrial Design 2014 | Carlton Project Space, Chippendale Sydney
The gender mix of the student population in the industrial design courses in Australia has been changing over the past ten years with a notable increase in the number of women graduating. However, to date this gender change has not been reflected in the profession – very few women designers are evident is the country’s major award programs. What are the career paths that the women are following if they are not falling within those identified by the profession?
In design, Bruce and Lewis (1990) developed a ‘three-hurdles’ model to explain the factors influencing career advancement for women: 1. getting the qualification; 2. getting the first job in design and 3. becoming a success. Product design is frequently described as ‘technical’, ‘dirty’ and ‘industrial’, with the implication that this profession is not suitable for women. (Bruce 1985) The exhibition explores the ‘third hurdle’. Its focus is on the interpretation of the human experience within a social context to challenge the often-perceived under-standing of industrial design as being a ‘ job for the lads’. This exhibition presented a selection of fourteen designers who have graduated in the period from 1995 - 2013 demonstrating the scope of their work and engagement in the field.
While women have been included in broad design exhibitions this however is the first exhibition specifically of women with an industrial design education in Australia, financially supported by Women @UTS and the School of Design. Further the exhibition uncovered the wide scope of work that women with indus-trial design education engage in with both commercial and speculative projects at various stages of their careers.
Detail of Where Are The Women Design Exhibition Front
60 Chapter 3: Methodology
Figure 3.3 Exhibition catalogue
The exhibition highlighted the actual works of women who had graduated from Industrial
Design at UTS, providing a greater understanding and appreciation of the diversity of their
work and how they came to design and continue to practice. The designers in this
exhibition were chosen for their depth and range of experience, from recent graduate to
fifteen plus years of experience, along with a diversity of products. Half of the participants
in the exhibition had participated in the interviews for the research in this thesis.
The works displayed an understanding of the diversity of technology, material and
manufacturing method from working with trash pickers in Indonesia, and glass blowers
and metal spinners in China through to laser cutting and etching locally and sustainably in
Sydney. Not all works in the exhibition were production ready, some being conceptual or
the result of thematic research. A number of pieces have won awards in design
competitions and forums, with some works exposing a transition or redefinition of practice
being undertaken by the designer.
Chapter 3: Methodology 61
Figure 3.4 Exhibited items
Figure 3.5 Exhibited items
Alongside the artefacts, wall banners and a catalogue were printed to profile each
designer, who wrote about their practice and passion for design. All designers answered
five questions: a short biography (including design philosophy); a description of the
62 Chapter 3: Methodology
works (including reflection on design process and production); a highlight of their
career so far; what was the most challenging aspect being a woman in design; and the
one piece of advice they would give a recent female design graduate. These ‘words of
advice’ were printed on individualised wall banners illustrating their work.
In summing up their advice to new graduates, the women in the exhibition agreed that the
degree ‘equips you with the diverse skills you need to be a successful designer, but it was
up to the individual to chart their own adventure’ (T). Their advice was to be open-minded
to opportunities, always follow their interests and passions, and remember that ‘you don’t
know everything, and that you don’t need to know everything. Accept that. Collaborate,
listen and build a network to grow with’ (B). There was a strong sense that their biggest
challenge remained gender stereotypes and the lack of women at senior levels in the field.
They explained the challenge of ‘walking into a factory or workshop and feeling as though
you have to prove your intelligence and knowledge before you’re taken seriously’ (K) and
of ‘breaking through the (real or imagined) stereotypical barrier that many women end up
designing the “soft” things like textiles, jewellery, home decor and kitchenware, but the
men design the “hard” things like parking meters, a toaster, roof racks, home gym
equipment, complex plastic parts’ (J).
Specific advice centered on being bold and taking risks, with the following quotes
typifying the recommendations: ‘jump in, experiment, listen, learn from your mistakes, and
dream big’ (B) and ‘fear of succeeding and failing is the most challenging emotion that one
needs to overcome as a designer. Once you overcome that fear the world is your oyster’
(S). Acknowledging that the field is still largely dominated by males (and that, in their
experience, the industry often prefers males for industrial designers), their advice to young
female graduates was to work hard, be persistent, find a mentor, and always ‘be confident
and learn to speak up for yourself and your ideas’ (D).
As part of this thesis, this exhibition served three core functions. First, it offered research
participants the opportunity to publicly attach their name (and work) to the issue: it
provided a public space for them to discuss and share their reflections on being a female
industrial designer in Sydney, Australia. It is notable that half of the interviewees chose to
participate, indicating their interest and commitment to addressing gender issues in the
field. Second, it helped to engage the wider public, educators and the design industry with
the works.
Chapter 3: Methodology 63
Third, the sharing of creative practice and public display through exhibition is appropriate
for this field, and has been utilised by the manufacturers and designers of products since
the Great Exhibition of 1851. To date, there have been a small number of themed or
focused exhibitions specifically on women in design. For example, in 2000, an exhibition
titled Women Designers in the USA, 1900-2000: Diversity and Difference was held to
celebrate ‘the multifaceted and largely under-recognized contributions of women designers
to American culture in the twentieth century’ (Kirkham 2000). A substantial catalogue was
produced with essays positioning and contextualising women’s contribution, and
examining their lived experiences throughout different design disciplines over the
nominated time. Preceding this in 1994 was the Goddess in the Details: Product design by
women exhibition, a smaller and more focused exhibition curated by the Association of
Women Industrial Designers (AWID), New York. This was a sample of the work by
women across many areas of industrial design, in the catalogue, calling upon the women’s
life experiences to discuss whether gender makes a difference to the design process
(Doering, Switzky & Welz 1994). In a very small way, this Australian exhibition
contributes to this tradition and helps raise awareness about the skills and experiences of
women designers.
Chapter 3: Methodology 65
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 67
Chapter 4: Design as destiny
DESTINED TO DESIGN? HOW AND WHY AUSTRALIAN WOMEN CHOOSE TO STUDY INDUSTRIAL DESIGN.
As Figure 4.1 illustrates, this chapter focuses on early life experiences, exploring if
and how these female designers showed an aptitude for or interest in design from
childhood and the role of significant others (parents, teachers, friends, role models
etc.). It directly addresses a key component of the first research question, specifically
the drivers and factors that motivate young women to consider industrial design as a
career.
Figure 4.1 Early influences for considering design as a career
It is important to acknowledge that, unlike some other professional areas such as
architecture or medicine which have long established histories of educating
professionals and tend to carry high status in the community, industrial design is a
relatively young discipline without a generally high public profile. A recent member
survey by the Design Institute of Australia (DIA) identified lack of public knowledge
as limiting job opportunities and the growth of the design industry (Robertson &
Design Institute of Australia 2013a). This research, exploring what motivates these
women to study design, highlights that many simply ‘fall into it’. Design is a
68 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
serendipitous choice that just resonated and makes sense given their childhood
aptitude for ‘making things’ and support from parents and other family members
who often also worked in design-related professions. For these industrial designers,
early exposure to craft and making things, along with strong parental support and
understanding of their daughters’ skills and abilities, inspired these young women to
embark on this discipline career path.
Thus, this first paper, Destined to design? How and why Australian women choose to
study industrial design, explores the influencing factors that lead these young women
to study industrial design. It provides some critical insight into why certain women
are attracted to, and succeed in, non-traditional disciplines, knowledge that is
essential for fostering and improving women’s participation in these areas.
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 69
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 4
The authors listed below have certified* that:
1. they meet the criteria for authorship in that they have participated in the conception, execution, or interpretation, of at least that part of the publication in their field of expertise;
2. they take public responsibility for their part of the publication, except for the responsible author who accepts overall responsibility for the publication;
3. there are no other authors of the publication according to the criteria; 4. potential conflicts of interest have been disclosed to (a) granting bodies, (b)
the editor or publisher of journals or other publications, and (c) the head of the responsible academic unit; and
5. they agree to the use of the publication in the student’s thesis and its publication on the QUT ePrints database consistent with any limitations set by publisher requirements.
In the case of chapter 4: Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. (accepted 12/05/14). Destined to design? How and why Australian women choose to study industrial design. The International Journal of Art & Design Education, in press. Contributor Statement of contribution* Catherine Lockhart Chief investigator, significant contribution to the
planning of the study, data collection and analysis, literature review and writing manuscript
Associate Professor Evonne Miller
Significant contribution to the planning of the study (as principal supervisor) data analysis and assisted with the preparation and evaluation of the manuscript
Principal Supervisor Confirmation I have sighted email or other correspondence for all Co-authors confirming their certifying authorship
Evonne Miller 25/11/15 Name Signature Date
70 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
Destined to Design? How and why Australian women choose to study
industrial design.
Cathy Lockhart & Evonne Miller
Abstract
Despite over three decades of legislation and initiatives designed to tackle the
traditional gender divide in the science, technology and design fields, only a quarter
of the registered architects in Australia are women. There are no statistics available
for other design disciplines, with little known about why women choose design as a
career path and who or what influences this decision. This qualitative research
addresses this knowledge gap, through semi-structured in-depth interviews
conducted with 19 Australian women who completed an industrial (product) design
degree. Thematic analysis revealed three key themes: childhood aptitude and
exposure; significant experiences and people; and design as a serendipitous choice.
The findings emphasise the importance of early exposure to design as a potential
career choice, highlighting the critical role played by parents, teachers, professionals
and social networks.
Keywords: industrial design, design education, women
Design (the adaptive creative process of creating an object or process) and design
thinking (adopting a creative approach to problem solving) have been identified as
providing the innovative interdisciplinary framework needed to tackle key twenty-
first century challenges, such as population ageing and climate change (Brown
2008). Yet, despite the current attention emphasising the value of design, one issue
remains under-studied: women are poorly represented in many design professions in
particular with industrial design remaining a male-dominated field. This qualitative
study seeks to address this knowledge gap, investigating why women choose design
as a career path and who or what influences this decision.
Although there is significant anecdotal reporting suggesting a gender disparity,
particularly in terms of women’s representation and visibility in high profile design
awards and senior leadership roles (Anthony 2001; Fowler & Wilson 2004), exact
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 71
statistics on women’s participation remain scarce, dated and fragmented. At
university, enrolment statistics show that women typically compromise
approximately a third to half of the design student population; upon graduation,
however, they appear to be much less visible in the profession, in terms of winning
local, state or national design awards and holding senior roles. This gender
distinction in terms of career progression and visibility is apparent through the
architecture professional accreditation process: the most recent statistics show that
women comprised 43 per cent of architecture students in Australia, yet registered
architects in each state varied from 12-18 per cent, with only one per cent of
directors at architectural firms (Whitman 2005).
Similar statistics have been documented in different countries, including the United
Kingdom where women comprised 38 per cent of students yet comprise only 13 per
cent of practising architects and 22 per cent of teaching staff (de Graft-Johnson,
Manley & Greed 2003). Whilst professional registration is not the only indicator of
career success (and is not a requirement for other design disciplines), it highlights a
gendered difference between educational training and career opportunities for female
designers. Statistics documenting female participation and leadership in other design
disciplines, such as industrial, interior, graphic, landscape architecture and fashion,
are virtually non-existent. Although the gender mix of the student population in
Industrial Design courses has changed significantly over the past ten years (with a
notable increase in the number of women enrolling and graduating), very few women
designers are acknowledged or even evident in major awards. Further, our
knowledge about the day-to-day experiences, motivations and perspectives of female
designers – from why they chose design as a career to their experiences at university
and in the workplace – remains limited.
Despite a significant body of research exploring gender differences in career
patterns, development and choices, very little empirical research has explored gender
issues in design. A handful of studies have explored gender differences in design at
the university level, highlighting how an understanding of the gender dynamics in the
educational setting is important. For example, over three decades ago, Frederickson
(1993) utilised video recordings of 112 juries and questionnaires to evaluate any
gender-differentiated experiences in three design schools in the USA. The focus was
72 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
on juries, which are frequently used for assessment and feedback to design students,
especially in architecture. Female students were interrupted significantly more often
during their presentations than their male colleagues (an experience that can
undermine confidence) and when the minority on the panel, women spoke less and
provided less feedback and discussion.
More recently, focussing on one higher education institution in the United Kingdom,
Clegg, Mayfield and Trayhurn (1999, 44) compared students experiences in IT and
design courses to identify the factors contributing to consistent gender differences.
They found women were clustered at the ‘soft’ end of the discipline (product,
furniture, interior and graphic design) and underrepresented at the ‘hard’ end
(information management and information systems), with continuing low level of
female engagement in both discipline areas illustrating ‘resilience to equal
opportunity initiatives’. Clegg et al. argued that both were highly gendered due to the
technical competencies required, which had an impact of the choice patterns of men
and women. This was typified by the use of a workshop (with tools and machines,
usually a central workspace for product and industrial design courses), which created
a technical space that is the ‘hard’ end of design. Further, these spaces most often
have male technician or supervisors, with the female students describing
experiencing far greater scrutiny to prove their abilities to use the space than the
male students do. The male students also felt that the men enjoyed the course more
due to the ‘technical things’ and ‘that the women were more attracted to the soft
furnishings and decoration’. To our knowledge, to date only one published paper has
explored designers (in this case architects) experience in the workplace. Fowler and
Wilson (2004) interviewed 72 architects ( 32 women and 40 men) about the culture
and their experience in the British architectural profession. The majority
acknowledged there was a masculine culture to the profession, whilst the women felt
that having children had negatively affected their career trajectory, as there was an
expectation of long hours and overtime.
Women in STEM
Our limited knowledge about the design experience is in stark contrast to the plethora
of research which has documented girls and women’s interest and experience in the
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 73
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, professions
and industries. This research provides some insights into the issues that might help
explain the gender disparity in design, with numerous researchers identifying an
array of psycho-social factors (including parental viewpoints, sex-role sterotypes and
societal norms, lack of career information and role models, concerns about life-work
balance) that discourage women from choosing a career in male-dominated STEM
fields (see Wang & Degol 2013 for a comprehensive review).
The main theoretical approaches for understanding gender differences in STEM
education and career choices is Eccles’ expectancy-value theory, which outlines the
multiple psychological and contextual factors at play (Eccles 1983; 2009). These
include cultural norms, social experiences, ability, competence beliefs and values
(Ceci, Williams & Barnett 2009; Eccles 2009; Wang, Eccles & Kenny 2003). Eccles
postulates that the STEM pathway starts with a series of choices commencing in
childhood and adolescence, arguing that the strongest motivational predictors of
educational and career choice are an individual’s competence-related beliefs and the
valuing of that achievement. She argues that these beliefs and achievement-related
choices (e.g., choosing to enrol in design at university) are linked to experiences in
family, school and peer contexts. Put simply, deciding what to study and choosing a
career is typically determined by identifying what we enjoy doing most; and what we
enjoy is typically determined by gendered experiences in early childhood, our beliefs
about our ability and task competence, and the views of parents, teachers and
significant others. Tenenbaum (2009), for example, has shown that child gender
influences parent-child conversations about science and career path options, with
parents often discouraging their children from pursuing gender non-traditional
subjects. STEM research has repeatedly demonstrated that the ways in which both
parents (Bregman & Killen 1999) and teachers (Brown, Ortiz-Nunez & Taylor 2011)
talk about different career paths has a significant influence on the career attitudes
options and expectations developed by adolescents, impacting on their confidence to
explore a specific vocation and decisions regarding what to study at university.
Unfortunately, despite significant and ongoing research and policy interest on this
topic, there remains an underrepresentation of women in the traditionally male-
dominated STEM fields at both university and in the workplace (Wang & Degol
2013).
74 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
Women in Creative Arts.
As design sits at the intersection of two fields (engineering and creative arts), it is
also important to explore how gender might impact women’s participation and
experience in humanities and arts-based disciplines. Although a large body of
research has repeatedly demonstrated the gendered nature of STEM fields (Wang &
Degol 2013), much less literature has explored gender inequality issues for women in
creative arts careers (which include performance, design, creative writing, music,
choreography, film, fine art, etc.). Unlike most STEM careers, most women working
in the creative arts fields frequently also face the added challenges of low pay, career
instability, absence of female role models and mentors in the arts and ‘a lack of
familial and social support for art as a “legitimate” career’ (Brooks & Daniluk 1998,
255).
The handfuls of studies focusing on women’s experience in the arts suggest that they
are underrepresented, in both production roles and decision-making positions. Fifteen
years ago, Brooks and Daniluk (1998) interviewed eight older women artists about
their careers. Their participants described the arts as a ‘man’s world’ and lives of
‘living on the edge’, explaining how their arts career was economically impractical
and unpredictable, non-linear and pioneering as they broke ‘from traditional familial,
social and gender roles to create unique life paths’ (1998, 254).
In a study of how gender impacted the career choices of art teachers, Zwim (2006)
found that women and men used different language and described very different
experiences. Women repeatedly noted their need for respect and empowerment and
the importance of role models and mentors. Conversely, the men did not mention
these issues at all, leading Zwim to conclude that ‘women’s artist identities were
works in progress, a struggle to achieve and never taken for granted’ (2006, 174).
This gender difference has been found in research exploring other arts professions as
well. Focussing on women’s experience in the mainstream popular music market,
Schmutz and Faupel (2010) analysed the factors that predicted success, defined as
whether female artists achieve consecrated status (listed in Rolling Stone’s ‘The 500
Greatest Albums of All Time’). They concluded that, in both direct and indirect ways
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 75
existing cultural frameworks about art and gender disadvantage ‘the amount and type
of legitimacy that female artists can accrue’ (2010, 685). This is consistent with
research investigating the experience of French professional artists (musicians, actors
and dancers; Coulangeon, Ravet & Roharik 2005), arts management (Herron et al.
1998) and gender inequality in the literary fields (Verboord 2012).
Women in Industrial Design
This research contributes to this body of knowledge, focussing specifically on the
motivations of women industrial designers. Industrial design focuses on the design of
products and is defined by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design
(ICSID 2012) as a ‘creative activity whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted
qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems in whole life cycles’.
Industrial design is a relatively new discipline, which means that our knowledge of
career motivations, rationales and perceptions (for both men and women) remains
extremely limited. To date, aside from a few internal university reports (e.g., see
Creating a Career in Design, University of Technology Sydney 2009), academic
peer-reviewed publications documenting why students choose industrial design, their
experience of the course and what happens when they graduate are non-existent. If
we are to grow the industry, and meet the forecasted demand for design-thinking, it
is essential to understand the experience of women in design education and practice,
and identify the key facilitators and barriers to participation. Thus, through an in-
depth qualitative approach, this paper explores why women choose industrial design
as a career path and who or what influences this decision.
Method
Given the limited literature on women in industrial design, a qualitative approach
was chosen due to its appropriateness for investigating unstudied populations and the
fact that a descriptive, exploratory approach would be grounded in ‘a research
methodology for understanding the lived experience of individuals’(Liamputtong &
Ezzy 2009, 5). This article focuses specifically on why female students choose
industrial design as a career path and to determine who or what influences this
decision.
76 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
Participants
The population for this study was female industrial design graduates from a large
Australian university, which has offered an Industrial Design degree since 1987 and
graduates approximately 50 students (40 per cent female) each academic year. The
Industrial Design course moved from a College of Advanced Education to a
University in 1987 in that time the total number of graduates has quadrupled. The
majority of the students are recruited through the use of tertiary entrance type scores,
which reflect summative academic ratings based on secondary education
performance in the Higher School Certificate. Some undergraduate courses have
carried out targeted recruitment campaigns to either influence the popularity of the
course or the gender mix such as the ‘women in engineering’ programs that run in
high school to highlight the diversity of opportunity. For this course, there has been
no specific targeting, although the gender mix of the student population in the course
has been changing over the past ten years, with a notable increase in the number of
women graduating.
A total of 19 female graduates participated, who graduated between1995-2010. Table
4.1 outlines socio-demographic information for the participants, who ranged in age
from 21 to 37 at the time of interview in 2011. The majority (74 per cent) were
currently practicing industrial designers.
Table 4.1 Profiles of participants interviewed
Profile of Participants
CodeYear of
graduationCurrent type of employment Position title used
6 1995 self employed Designer
10 2002 self employed Designer
13 2002 self employed - stay at home Mum currently stay at home Mum
19 2002 self employed Designer
1 2003 self employed Industrial Designer
4 2003 on going contract Industrial designer + graphic designer
16 2004 contract + own projects Designer
18 2004 full time Footwear Designer
5 2005 full time Industrial Design + Account services
12 2005 full time Account Manager
17 2005 full time Ergonomist
2 2006 self employed Design director
9 2006 full time contract Exhibition Designer
8 2007 full time Industrial Designer
14 2007 full time Project Manager
3 2008 full time Events officer
7 2009 part time Designer
11 2010 internship Junior Designer
15 2010 full time - on maternity leave Industrial Designer
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 77
Procedure
A non-probability snowball sampling approach was utilised to recruit participants,
with an email contact list collated from graduate publications, personal contacts and
word of mouth. After gaining ethical clearance, participants were emailed an
invitation to participate in an in-depth semi-structured face-to-face interview on their
personal motivations, experiences and reflections on their decision to study industrial
design and their subsequent career experiences and choices. The first author, an
experienced female Industrial Designer and academic, conducted the interviews,
which took place in a convenient location for participant (often a café close to their
work, a work location or their home). Interviews averaged 70 minutes in length,
ranging from 40 to 120 minutes. Interview questions, which were pilot tested with
three female graduates to ensure appropriateness, were designed and developed to
explore the interviewee’s motivations to study Industrial Design, their experience of
studying and gaining employment, with questions designed to foster wide-ranging
discussion and reflective evaluation of life in their current employment.
The interview followed a semi-structured interview schedule that explored four key
areas, the first of which is explored in this article: motivations and influence on the
choice of women to study industrial design at university. The questions were
followed consistently in the interviews, however some probing was required in areas
and not necessarily all questions were asked due to the level of relevancy to more
recent graduates with little industry experience.
Data Analysis
All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim into text for analysis,
ensuring that participants’ views, experiences and feelings were accurately
represented in their own words. To ensure anonymity, numbers are used instead of
participant’s names and specific identifying information has been changed. The
transcribed interviews resulted in 330 pages of analysable material, which were
coded using a thematic approach to identify and categorise key categories, themes
and patterns within data. The identification of themes occurs through becoming
familiar with the data through constant reading: ‘in reading, and rereading, the data,
they make sense of the data they have generated’ (Liamputtong & Ezzy 2009 277).
78 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
Four key iterative steps involved in thematic data analysis: mechanics (data
preparation and transcription), data immersion (i.e., reading and re-reading the
transcripts and listening to audio-recordings), generating initial codes and emergent
patterns (initial pattern recognition within the data) and searching for key themes and
sub-themes. Emerging themes become the categories for analysis; they are reviewed,
refined and named into main themes and sub-themes (Liamputtong & Ezzy 2005).
Results
In explaining their decision to study industrial design at university, and identifying
who or what influences this decision, female industrial designers frequently
acknowledged a strong personal desire to be creative, the role of family and
significant others, as well as serendipitous events or decisions. Thus, three key
themes were identified from the data: early exposure and interest in design
(childhood aptitude, family engagement); significant experiences and others (school,
peers, life) and serendipity (course promotional materials, practical or second choice
career)
Theme 1: Early exposure and interest in design - childhood aptitude and
family engagement
The first clear theme that emerged was that, from early childhood, creativity and
design had always been a central component of participant’s individual and family
identity. This was displayed at two distinct yet related levels: strong individual desire
to engage in design (i.e., art, craft, creating and building) activities from early
childhood and significant family engagement in design fields (both as work and as a
hobby).
Aptitude for and interest in, design from childhood
All participants described experiencing a strong and innate desire to design from
early childhood, explaining how they always wanted to work with their hands and be
creative. Participants recalled how, as young girls, they engaged in design and
creative activities as part of their early play and development, describing craft and
drawing and making things from an early age. There was a strong sense that, as a
young girl, aptitude for design starts with participating in craft activities and simply
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 79
creating and building things, from ‘gluing and sticking and watching how things are
made’ (#14) and ‘Leggo and building sandcastles or something like that, so I started
very early building things’ (#10). Most clearly identified craft – and the sense of joy
they felt when engaging in craft activities such as cutting, pasting and creating - as
the early vehicle for the development of their creativity and interest in design (see
Table 4.2 for further illustrative quotes).
Table 4.2 Predicting engagement in design – childhood aptitude and parents
Desire for design since childhood Family engagement in design
I guess I’ve always been creative. I don’t think - I can’t imagine a point of actually starting. I think it’s just always been part of what I do, what I like doing. (#1).
My family has always been involved in art. My parents can both draw, they don't, not for an occupation. So we have always been creative in that sense. (#14)
Probably as soon as I could cut, draw and paste. In kindergarten I always remember - you know, my favourite thing was to fold pieces of paper and stick them together and make little television sets with sort of people in them. So - I mean, it was just craft then but that's when design probably did start or I knew that I was quite creative and a visual person. (#9)
My father being a builder by trade, I was always around him, in the garage, playing with tools for the next day's job. I was the youngest of four. The next up from me was my brother. So we are very close and we were always making something. If it wasn't a billy-cart, it was renovating a boat. You know, as the years progressed, we were a little bit older and we were fibre-glassing. So I was always around that kind of thing. (#6)
Since I was a kid I was always drawing. I used to just draw on the back of my school books all the time. (#4)
But my mum was - like, she used to design kitchens and make them, so there was always things being made in my house. (#10)
I think that depends on what you mean by designing, but I’ve always done crafty kind of things right from – as soon as I could draw basically; whether it was collecting seashells and putting them together to make little animals or people or whatever, through to taking, you know, weekend courses to do jewelry-making or whatever it was. (#15)
I know I wanted to do something to do with design and both my parents were architects, so they both said, "Not architecture." (#19) My sister studied interior architecture and she said, "There's this course called industrial design. It is like art but it's more practical because you get to make products," and I thought that sounded really good. (#14)
80 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
Family engagement in design
The vast majority, over two thirds, described how their family valued and prioritised
design, art and creative activities. Participants explained how they were raised in
supportive non-gender-stereotyped households where interest in design, art and
building was actively supported and encouraged. Many described how their mother
or father was employed in a design occupation (typically architecture, building or
interior design), which meant that they were exposed to design activities, approaches
and thinking on a daily basis. As the quotes in Table 4.2 illustrate, the influence of
the parents occupation on their activities as they were growing up was significant
with participants frequently recalling how they were encouraged to assist a parent in
the creating, designing and building process.
Theme 2: Significant experiences and others - school, peers, life
Significant others – specifically school, peers and industry contacts – very clearly
form the second major area of influence. The three distinct categories that emerge are
discussed in turn below, with each playing a unique and influential role in motivating
and supporting these participants in their decision to study and work in industrial
design.
School – high school subject choice and teachers
First, participants identified high school subject choice and teachers as influencers in
setting them onto an industrial design career trajectory. As these young women
attended a range of different high schools across the country, not all subject areas
were available and they frequently did not have access to specific design and
technology subjects. Visual art appears to be a subject that is widely available and
the majority included it as a subject through the Higher School Certificate, with
design and technology and fashion and textiles also frequently mentioned as popular
and available study subjects. Only one participant (#15) completed high school
without considering design subjects as an option, which they attributed to the
traditional/private girls school they had attended where they pushed science and
maths as career options (although graphic design had been a subject choice
throughout her studies, it was not identified as a possible career path, potentially
because she was destined for ‘higher things’). Teachers were also identified by two
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 81
as helping them in finding a direction for their design talents: one described how her
art teacher, when she went to select university course preferences, encouraged her to
look at industrial design because she was quite good at sculpturing and this course
would give her practical knowledge which would help with getting a job later (as
opposed to studying fine arts; #9).
Peers – siblings and school friends
Experience and career choices of peers was also identified as extremely influential,
with approximately a third of participants recalling how their peers influenced their
decision to enroll in industrial design. One explained how she originally wanted to
do architecture but it just seemed too technical for her and how a friend from high
school mentioned he was going to study industrial design and she ‘got all my info
from him. And I just thought, yeah, I may as well give it a go’ (laughs; #12).
Similarly, another participant explained how her sister (who loved studying interior
architecture) recommended ‘this course called industrial design. It is like art but it's
more practical because you get to make products’ (#14).
Exposure to other experiences – study, work, life
Studying and working in a different areas and the level of dissatisfaction in that area
often lead to a re-evaluation of their career path. The subjects taken at high school
along with their results and interest played a significant role in the initial direction ‘I
chose engineering because I enjoyed maths and physics. I thought engineering was
going to be a good career path, but it ended up being not creative enough for me.’
(#1). Another who had studied environmental science for six years and was then
employed to develop environmental policies for the Federal and State government
felt that the real opportunity to make an impact on the environment was by the design
of better products ‘there’s really a need for well-designed, environmentally
sustainable products to give Government an option to legislate for best practice.’
(#15) She reflected upon her high school teacher’s comments regarding industrial
design and was then prompted to attend a number of university open days and an
introduction to industrial design course at a Melbourne university that cemented her
path to further study as a mature-aged student. Taking of a gap year (and travelling
82 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
through Italy) exposed one woman to the wider world of product design and ignited a
desire to work in this area on return to Australia.
Theme 3: A serendipitous choice
What emerged clearly from the interviews was that industrial design was often very
rarely a conscious or first career choice; although all desired a career which involved
design (combining art and three-dimensional thinking), the majority admitted that
when they first starting thinking about pursuing higher education in design they were
originally focused on a different area (e.g., architecture, graphics, fashion etc). Their
specific interest in commencing an industrial design degree was predominantly
triggered by exploring design career options (e.g., reading the Universities admission
guide) and as a gateway to another design career – fashion or architecture (as well as
the advice of peers and teachers, as documented in the previous theme).
Exploring design career options
Industrial design was not an immediately visible or obvious career choice for these
women, with one explaining how they ‘didn't even know really that the career really
existed until I started looking into different design avenues’ (#5). As Table 4.3
illustrates, over half identified the university’s admission guide as the main
information source for the basis of their course decision, with many viewing
industrial design as a ‘practical’ career choice that had more immediately obvious
career opportunities than other design courses.
Table 4.3 Role of course information and ‘practicality’ in choosing industrial design
Reliance on course information The practical choice
No, I don't think I even knew about industrial design until I looked into the UAC guide. It's not as if, like, you can do textiles at high school and you can do wood work, but you don't do industrial design or product design at school. I didn't even know really that the career really existed until I started looking into different design avenues. (#15)
It was practical and it was still design. It was sketching and drawing. I wanted something a little bit less, I guess pretentious, kind of thing. So then I thought practical. I like working with my hands and I think it suited what I wanted to do so I put that down and I got in. So it was good. (#5)
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 83
The [university] guide. The first thing I was considering was doing interior design but then I was reading through all the design courses, so industrial was first choice and that's what I wanted to do. (#11)
I went into industrial because it had a bigger scope. So you could go into packaging or you could go into industrial products or pretty much anything really. So I felt like it had more opportunities. Interior design may have been a bit too focused and I don't think there were as many job prospects as maybe in industrial. (#3)
I don’t know. I think I must have just ... I knew about graphic design and I think I just opened the UAC book or whatever it is and looked at all the things listed under design and looked at industrial design and thought well actually that’s pretty much what I am after (#17)
Industrial design I chose because at the time it was the most broad design degree that I could find and I wasn't quite sure exactly which direction I wanted to take. I decided for industrial because it seemed like it had more options and would give me a broader design education, something more hands-on as well, because I really like to be practical and 3D and stuff like that (#11)
Gateway to another design career
A minority of participants selected industrial design as a gateway course, with one
explaining that they originally wanted to do architecture but did not have the required
grades (#2). Not gaining a place in the course they most desired was a commonly
cited reason for enrolling, with most actually staying as they enjoyed the diversity of
the course: ‘so I actually wanted to do visual communication and I missed out on it
by one mark or something, so I said I will start with industrial design and move over.
And then suddenly decided that I didn't want to move anyway. I suppose I think I
was attracted more to the homewares element’ (#19).
Discussion
As a first study to explore what motivates women to study industrial design at
university, this research suggests that early exposure to creating and designing is
essential. Our findings highlight how family interest in design and childhood
exposure is a key factor in facilitating women’s own interest in studying design later
in life. Parental support, through implicit and explicit encouragement of design
84 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
activities appears to facilitate the development of self-belief, a sense of competence
and the motivation to engage in design activities (Tenenbaum 2009). The majority of
our participants reported how their parents were employed in a design occupation
(typically architecture, building or interior design), with all describing how, from
early childhood, creativity, craft activities and an interest in design was strongly
encouraged in their family. As well as a family background in design, participants
recalled the critical influence of significant others. Teachers, peers and design
professionals helped set them in an industrial design career trajectory, although it
was clear that industrial design was often not a first career choice, This research
suggests that the profile and career context of industrial design is often
misunderstood, resulting in participants describing how they were originally
focussed on another area of design and (through other’s recommendation and the
university’s admission guide) they ‘discovered’ industrial design.
These findings have multiple theoretical and practical implications. At a theoretical
level, the finding that early exposure to design and perceived social support (from
family, teachers and peers) is linked to later career decision-making is consistent
with previous studies exploring what motivates women to engage with the STEM
disciplines (e.g., Bell 2009; Hill, Corbett & St Rose 2010). Our findings are also
consistent with Eccles’ (1983; 2009) expectancy–value theory, which argues that
‘expectancies and values are assumed to directly influence performance, persistence,
and task choice’ (p118, Eccles & Wigfield 2002). Achievement behaviours (such as
studying design at university) are primarily linked to an individual’s expectations of
success (e.g., belief in their own ability or self-efficacy) and the perceived value or
importance of the behaviour. Here, as most women came from ‘design families’, they
knew (1) they had the ability to succeed at design activities and (2) being a ‘designer’
was of value. As other peoples’ attitudes and expectations of an individual are
critical in shaping their attitudes (Eccles & Wigfield 2002), future research is needed
to explore how women from 'non-design' families became interested in and studied
design at university.
Consistent with Eccles’ expectancy-value theory (2009), our study illustrates the
importance of such social influences: the voices and views of parents, teachers and
peers combine to tell people what they are good (or not good) at and thus help shape
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 85
an individual’s career-path beliefs, preferences and behaviours. Eccles (2009) argues
that, from early childhood, family, teachers and peers provide unique opportunities
for women to engage in STEM related activities, experiences and programs, thus
building positive competence beliefs, abilities and memories for the participants. Our
data suggests that a similar process occurs with the discipline of industrial design,
but is centred around developing and supporting skills in creativity, imagination and
craft in early childhood and later encouraging the selection of a non-traditional career
path.
At this juncture, we need to also acknowledge an interesting finding; the vast
majority of our participants reported that they were raised in ‘design’ families,
meaning that one of both parents held design-oriented employment (e.g.; architects,
builder, designer etc.). Research consistently shows that parents are extremely
influential in helping determine their child’s career aspirations, goals and plans (Li &
Kerpelman 2007); it is plausible, therefore, that they are more knowledgeable when
speaking about their own careers and/or supportive of their child exploring a design
pathway. Given that Brooks and Daniluk (1998) found their female artists often
described being obstructed in their career choice by the attitudes and behaviours of
family members, it is plausible that families with limited exposure and knowledge of
design careers might implicitly and/or explicitly discourage their daughters from
pursuing a design career path. As this is the first study to explore the motivations of
female design students, much more research is needed to address such questions.
At a practical level, the finding that ‘serendipity’ was often a key factor influencing
enrolment in industrial design is of concern. As previously noted, our participants
come from ‘design’ families; if even they are not aware of industrial design as a
potential career path, these findings have significant negative implications for the
marketing and communication strategies of industrial design courses. Our research
suggests that women tend to ‘fall’ into industrial design at university, without much
previous thought or consideration. This contrasts with the STEM approach, where
there is significant focus on fostering girls learning environment, achievement and
interest in science and maths, with this positive early exposure linked to a STEM
career path later in life. Interestingly, some literature suggests that those who excel in
mathematics are less likely to pursue STEM fields and instead trend toward
86 Chapter 4: Design as destiny
humanities and social sciences (Hill, Corbett & St Rose 2010); this could potentially
be an opportunity focus for industrial design, which is ideally positioned at the
intersection of STEM and Humanities.
Of course, the study limitations must be acknowledged. First, the findings are based
on one university in a large Australian city, covering women who graduated over a
14 year period (1995 to 2009) and were able to be contacted by a previous lecturer.
Second, this article focuses on a retrospective recall about what influences the initial
decision to study design at university; our future work will explore the experience of
studying at university and a workplace that is often very male-dominated. Third, as
we focussed only on women, we do not know if men might report similar
backgrounds and influencing factors. Although we believe such factors are unlikely
to significantly bias the results, future studies should address these issues and
endeavour to recruit a more diverse sample of women from multiple universities, as
well as comparing their experiences to their male counterparts.
Industry leaders, policy makers and educators have reason to be interested in and
concerned about these findings, which have clear implications about recruiting more
women into design disciplines, as well as design teaching and research. There is
growing acknowledgement of the importance to society and a countries economic
competitiveness to develop imaginative, creative, innovative thinkers (Boomer 1990;
Bell 2009). The challenge for design educators, of course, is how best to support all
families in encouraging creativity and design in early childhood, so that not only
girls raised in ‘design’ families consider design careers. Fortunately, the STEM
literature (e.g., Hill, Corbett & St. Rose 2010) provides some critical lessons on how
to engage girls in non-traditional careers, primarily exposure to female role models
and highlighting the lack of gender difference in performance in industrial design
subjects.
In conclusion, this study highlights the critical nature of early experiences and the
development of a ‘design identity’ in childhood on future behavioural and career
path choices. These women designers clearly identified early exposure to design
(parental support and family experiences) and the support of significant others
(school peers and industry contacts) as central to building their interest, motivation
Chapter 4: Design as destiny 87
and self-confidence in pursuing a design degree and career. Our hope is that by
providing some insights into the key facilitators that motivate women to study
industrial design, this research will help trigger a discussion about their unique
experiences and potential strategies to increase participation.
Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge and thank the women industrial
designers who volunteered their time to participate in this study, sharing their
motivations, experiences and reflections on their decision to study industrial design
and their subsequent career experiences and choices.
References
Anthony, Kathryn H. 2001. Designing for diversity : gender, race, and ethnicity in the architectural profession. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Bell, Sharon. 2009. Women in Science in Australia: Maximising productivity, diversity and innovation. Federation of Australian Scientific and Technological Societies. Boomer, G. 1990. 'Creativity in education : making things.' Australian Art Education 14 (2): 7-11. Bregman, George and Melanie Killen. 1999. 'Adolescents' and Young Adults' Reasoning About Career Choice and the Role of Parental Influence.' Journal of Research on Adolescence 9 (3): 253 - 275. Brooks, Geraldine S. and Judith C. Daniluk. 1998. 'Creative labors: The lives and careers of women artists. ' Career Development Quarterly 46 (3): 246-261. Brown, Tim. 2008. 'Design Thinking.' Harvard Business Review June. Brown, Sarah, Aurora Ortiz-Nunez and Karl Taylor. 2011. 'What will I be when I grow up? An analysis of childhood expectations and career outcomes. ' Economics of Education Review 30 (3): 493-506. Ceci, S. J., W. M. Williams and S. M. Barnett. 2009. 'Women's underrepresentation in science: sociocultural and biological considerations. ' Psychol Bull 135 (2): 218-61. Clegg, Sue, Wendy Mayfield and Deborah Trayhurn. 1999. 'Disciplinary Discourses: a case study of gender in information technology and design courses.' Gender & Education 11 (1): 43-55.
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Coulangeon, Philippe, Hyacinthe Ravet and Ionela Roharik. 2005. 'Gender differentiated effect of time in performing arts professions: Musicians, actors and dancers in contemporary France.' Poetics 33: 369-387. De Graft-Johnson, Ann, Sandra Manley and Clara Greed. 2003. Why do women leave architecture?. Royal Institute of British Architects. Eccles, J., Adler, T.F., Futterman, R., Goff, S.B., Kaczala, C.M., Meece, J.L., Midgley, C. 1983. 'Expectancies, values and academic behaviors.' In Achievement and achievement motives. Edited by J. Spence, 75–146. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Eccles, Jacquelynne. 2009. 'Who Am I and What Am I Going to Do With My Life? Personal and Collective Identities as Motivators of Action. ' Educational Psychologist 44 (2): 78-89. Accessed 2013/06/11. Eccles, Jacquelynne S. and Allan Wigfield. 2002. 'Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals. ' Annual Review of Psychology 53 (1): 109-132. Fowler, Bridget and Fiona Wilson. 2004. 'Women Architects and Their Discontents.' Sociology 38 (1): 101-119. Frederickson, Mark Paul. 1993. 'Gender and Racial Bias in Design Juries.' Journal of Architectural Education (1984-) 47 (1): 38-48. Herron, Donna G., Tamara S. Hubbard, Amy E. Kirner, Lynn Newcomb, Michelle Reiser-Memmer, Michael E. Robertson Ii, Matthew W. Smith, Leslie A. Tullio and Jennifer S. Young. 1998. 'The effect of gender on the career advancement of arts.' Journal of Arts Management, Law & Society 28 (1): 27. Hill, Catherine, Christianne Corbett and Andresse St.Rose. 2010. Why So Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Washington, DC: AAUW. http://www.aauw.org/learn/research/whysofew.cfm. ICSID. 2012. 'Definition of design.' http://www.icsid.org/about/about/articles31.htm. Liamputtong, Pranee and Douglas Ezzy. 2005. Qualitative research methods. 2nd ed. South Melbourne, Vic.; New York: Oxford University Press. Liamputtong, Pranee and Douglas Ezzy. 2009. Qualitative research methods. 3rd ed. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press. Robertson, David and Design Institute of Australia. 2013. Australian Design 2013 Issues & Concerns in the Design Professions. Edited by Design Institute of Australia. PN 034 (Issue B), Practice Notes Design - General. Melbourne: Design Institute of Australia. Schmutz, Vaughn and Alison Faupel. 2010. 'Gender and Cultural Consecration in Popular Music. ' Social Forces 89 (2): 685-707.
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Tenenbaum, Harriet R. 2009. '"You'd Be Good at That" : Gender Patterns in Parent-Child Talk about Courses.' Social Development 18 (2): 447-463. University of Technology Sydney, The Careers Service. 2009. Creating a Career in Design. Sydney: University of Technology Sydney. Verboord, Marc. 2012. 'Female bestsellers: A cross-national study of gender inequality and the popular-highbrow culture divide in fiction book production, 1960-2009.' European Journal of Communication 27 (4): 395-409. Wang, Ming-Te and Jessica Degol. 2013. 'Motivational pathways to STEM career choices: Using expectancy-value perspective to understand individual and gender differences in STEM fields.' Developmental Review 33 (4): 304-340. Wang, Ming-Te, Jacquelynne S. Eccles and Sarah Kenny. 2013. 'Not Lack of Ability but More Choice: Individual and Gender Differences in Choice of Careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics.' Psychological Science 24 (5): 770-775. Whitman, Paula. 2005. Going Places. The Career Progression of Women in the Architectual Profession. Findings of a national study examining the careers of women in the architectural profession in Australia. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. Zwirn, Susan Goetz. 2006. 'Artist or Art Teacher: The Role of Gender in Identity Formation and Career Choice.' Teaching Artist Journal 4 (3): 167-175.
90 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
STUDYING INDUSTRIAL DESIGN: EXPLORING THE EXPERIENCE OF FEMALE STUDENTS
As Figure 5.1 illustrates, this chapter focuses on industrial design education
experiences, exploring how these female designers navigated the design studio and
workshop environment and developed their design skills through problem solving
projects. It directly addresses a key component of the second research aim,
specifically the experience of gaining a design degree.
Figure 5.1 Experience of studying industrial design
It is important to understand that industrial design is a multifaceted discipline with
the designer required to develop solutions to problems and engage with many
professionals involved throughout the whole process of bringing a product to market.
Recently, the international body for industrial design, ICSID, redefined the discipline
in an attempt to encompass and reflect the increasingly complex nature of the
discipline: ‘Industrial design is a strategic problem-solving process applicable to
products, systems, services and experiences, which result in innovation, business
success and a better quality of life’ (ICSID 2015). This research, by exploring the
experience of women in design education, highlights how prepared they are to
embrace the demands of being professional designers. Design education is
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 91
experienced through a number of environments, with the design studio the primary
place for the development of understanding of the design process and problem
solving methodologies where the context of projects can impact engagement. The
workshop environment can be intimidating, noisy, dirty and often unexpected when
first enrolling in the degree. The making of objects is embedded in the degree so
these young women develop strategies to cope in this foreign space.
Thus, this second paper, Studying industrial design: Exploring the experience of
female students, investigates the design knowledge development of young women
who choose to study industrial design. It provides some critical insight into how
gendered projects and spaces (the workshop) can impact skills development and
engagement by women in the education process.
92 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 5
The authors listed below have certified* that:
1. they meet the criteria for authorship in that they have participated in the conception, execution, or interpretation, of at least that part of the publication in their field of expertise;
2. they take public responsibility for their part of the publication, except for the responsible author who accepts overall responsibility for the publication;
3. there are no other authors of the publication according to the criteria; 4. potential conflicts of interest have been disclosed to (a) granting bodies, (b)
the editor or publisher of journals or other publications, and (c) the head of the responsible academic unit, and
5. they agree to the use of the publication in the student’s thesis and its publication on the QUT ePrints database consistent with any limitations set by publisher requirements.
In the case of chapter 5: Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. 2015. Studying industrial design: Exploring the experience of female students. Industrial Design Educators Network (3): 11 - 25. Contributor Statement of contribution* Catherine Lockhart Chief investigator, significant contribution to the
planning of the study, data collection and analysis, literature review and writing manuscript
Associate Professor Evonne Miller
Significant contribution to the planning of the study (as principal supervisor) data analysis and assisted with the preparation and evaluation of the manuscript
Principal Supervisor Confirmation I have sighted email or other correspondence for all Co-authors confirming their certifying authorship
Evonne Miller 25/11/15 Name Signature Date
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 93
Studying industrial design: exploring the experience of female students
Cathy Lockhart & Evonne Miller
Introduction
Industrial design focuses on the design of products. The International Council of
Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID) defines it as a ‘creative activity whose aim is
to establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects, processes, services and their
systems in whole life cycles’. For those educating the next generation of industrial
designers, the challenge is to find the balance between the teaching of the traditional
foundational design skills and the new, emerging elements and technologies needed
to prepare students for the changing world. These changes are not only technology
focused but include a greater need for the understanding of human interaction
(Buchanan 1998). In Australia, most Industrial Design courses aim to develop design
‘all-rounders’ whose understanding and skills are developed across all roles,
including form giving, materials and production, commercial and user appropriate
designs. The learning environment is the design studio, providing a context and
teaching space for the exploration of the principles, practices and possibilities of
designing. For students to be prepared for the profession, they need to develop ways
to define and resolve different types of design problems that are often ill-defined and
based on real-world problems (Talbot 2007). To date, however, little research has
explored the learning environment for industrial designers. This research addresses
this knowledge gap, focussing on the experience of female students.
We focus on women because, despite a large body of literature documenting
female’s experience in other traditionally male-dominated fields – the STEM fields
of science, technology, engineering and mathematics - little is known about design.
Critically, this STEM research identifies a wide array of psychological, sociocultural,
contextual and biological factors that intertwine to reduce female participation in
STEM educational and career achievement pathways (Ceci, Williams & Barnett
2009; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose 2010; Wang, Eccles & Kenny 2013). To date, little
empirical research has investigated women’s experience in either design education or
94 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
the workforce, although significant anecdotal reporting suggests that women are
under-represented in senior leadership roles and at high profile design awards
(Anthony 2001; Fowler & Wilson 2004). In the UK, focussing on one higher
education institution, Clegg, Mayfield and Trayhurn (1999) compared low level of
female engagement in information technology and design courses. They found both
discipline areas had resisted equal opportunity initiatives, suggesting that the
technical competencies required in some design disciplines (specifically the use of a
workshop with tools and machines) led women to be under-represented in ‘hard
design’ areas (e.g., furniture and product design) and over-represented in ‘soft
design’ areas (e.g., fashion and jewellery).
To date, however, despite a few internal university reports (e.g., see Creating a
Career in Design, University of Technology Sydney 2009), academic peer-reviewed
publications documenting why students choose industrial design, their experience of
the course and what happens when they graduate are non-existent. If we are to grow
the industry, it is essential to understand the experience of women in design
education and practice, and identify the key facilitators and barriers to participation.
As is appropriate when knowledge is limited, this research utilised qualitative
methods to generate specific textual descriptions and unique insight into the
experience of nineteen women industrial designers who graduated from a large
Australian university in the past decade. We focus on (a) the impact of gender on
their undergraduate educational experiences and (b) the perceived strengths and
weakness of their industrial design curriculum.
Method
Participants
An exploratory qualitative research approach was utilised, given the very small body
of literature in this space. A phenomenological approach was adopted to better
understand their unique ‘lived experiences’ (Liamputtong & Ezzy 2009, 5), with
standard ethical protocols followed. At the time of interview (in 2011), the
participants ranged in age from 21 to 37, almost all had graduated in the last ten
years and the majority were practising industrial designers.
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 95
Procedure In keeping with our qualitative study design, we aimed not for statistical representativeness but rather for a diverse sample of industrial design graduates with knowledge or experience to provide in-depth insight into their educational experience. Non-probability purposive snowball sampling was utilised to identify
and recruit participants, with initial contact through an email list generated from
graduate publications, personal contacts and word of mouth. Potential participants
were emailed an invitation to participate in an in-depth semi-structured face-to-face
interview exploring their personal motivations, experiences and reflections on their
decision to study industrial design and their subsequent career experiences and
choices. Interview questions (pilot tested with three female graduates to ensure
appropriateness) explored their experience of studying industrial design and gaining
employment, based specifically on a three-hurdle model developed by Bruce and
Lewis (1990) to explain the factors influencing career advancement for women:
getting the qualification (hurdle 1), getting the first job (hurdle 2) and becoming a
success (hurdle 3). This paper focuses specifically on the first hurdle, getting the
qualification, and participants’ recollections of their undergraduate educational
experiences in industrial design. At this juncture, it is important to acknowledge the
role and limitations of qualitative research: it does not offer the numbers or causal
prediction of quantitative research, but is about illumination, understanding of issues
and in-depth analysis.
Data Analysis
To ensure participants’ views, experiences and feelings are accurately represented;
all interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed verbatim into text for
analysis. In order to ensure anonymity, any specific identifying information has been
changed and numbers replace participant’s names. Using a thematic approach, key
themes and patterns were identified in the data. The emerging themes become the
categories for analysis, which are reviewed, refined and named into main themes and
sub-themes through a constant iterative analysis process (Liamputtong & Ezzy
2005). Critically, the themes purposely include multiple excerpts from the raw data,
using the exact words of participants and enabling readers to evaluate our thematic
structures.
96 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Results
Focussing specifically on their experience studying industrial design at university,
the thematic analysis identified three key themes, which will be discussed in turn:
navigating the design studio, learning through making – the design workshop
experience, and design skill development. In reflecting on their undergraduate
educational experiences, this cohort of female industrial design graduates openly
discussed the highlights and lowlights they experienced with indicative quotes also
displayed in Table 5.1 below.
Theme 1: Navigating the design studio
The structure of the course completed by the participants could be regarded as
‘traditional’, where the design learning is predominately offered through the studio.
The studio is driven by project based learning, that facilitates the exploration of
problem solving methodologies and knowledge through the design and realisation of
an artefact (Wormald 2011; Talbot 2007). This realisation can take a variety of
forms, from digital form through to a physical working prototype, with the studio
providing the opportunity to propose different types of problems to students and
potentially catering to different learning styles through the nature of the problems or
projects proposed (Green 2005). In reflecting on their experience navigating the
design studio, the vast majority felt gender was not a major factor in their experience
of the course or how they were treated. However, there was a strong sense that
gendered life experiences and preferences did have some impact, specifically in
terms of the nature of assigned projects and how confident males were with technical
skills. A quarter described how they felt the course (and studio projects) were often
aligned to more masculine interests, such as the design of power tools and cars. They
felt this represented the traditionally male-orientated nature of the course, with one
explaining how ‘I remember thinking throughout the course this is such a masculine
project, I wish I could do something a bit more feminine’ (#3).
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 97
Table 5.1 Navigating the design studio as a woman – design skills and the workshop
Design Skill Development Workshop Experience I guess the technical aspects and some of the tutors that we got in for those subjects did seem to have that pre-conceived notion that, ‘Oh, they are a girl, they won't get it anyway’, but I don't think it was, you know, that bad or anything. But, yeah, there definitely was a sort of something .(#11) I think technical drawing and doing basic engineering and there were certain things that I think men are very good at and love detail and love accuracy and stuff like that, or other people - well, I don't. The projects that I was given, or we were given, I was just not interested in. You know, I wasn't interested in drills and stuff like that. So it was hard to motivate myself. That would probably be the biggest hurdle. And understand all the machinery, all the manufacturing. (#9) Projects that we did individually. So things where we're given a briefing, you're supposed to work on it from start to finish by yourself, not in groups or whatever because I still have to get to focus on every aspect of the process whereas if you're doing it in groups, I understand the importance of it but yes, working individually you get to focus on everything. (#3)
Actually when I did enrol, I wasn't expecting workshop. Only when we were doing orientation, Oh, my gosh, there seems to be a lot of machines in here. So I think that shook me and it kind of shook me a bit and that's when I created some sort of bias or some sort of negativity towards that but it changed. (#04) I think a lot of the boys are just more confident in the workshop. You know, if they were a little bit more familiar with the tools and things, they could just get on with the job, rather than having to ask someone or have you shown - I think that was one of might have great weaknesses, was the workshop and model-making. I think that that was probably a weakness in the course, too. (#13) I hated model making, I hated the workshop, I hated the mess, I hated the dirt, I hated the sound but it's an experience that I'm so happy that I had because now I know I should not be doing anything with machines. So it's a learning thing. (#3)
Theme 2: Learning through making - the workshop experience
Despite generally reporting no major issues affecting their participation in the studio
setting, interviewees explained that industrial design has an embedded workshop
culture where students are encouraged to develop their design skills through building
and testing models. The workshop was, at least initially, perceived as a much more
daunting and gendered environment. Interviewees reported feeling that this more
mechanical side of industrial design was often a very gendered experience, with
males just more immediately confident in the workshop, more familiar with the tools
and more able to do things straight-away, essentially because they had more previous
life experience with mechanical stuff. As one participant explained, the course was
not gendered, but different gendered life experience had an impact in the workshop:
Guys were doing this mechanical stuff all their life ... they have been fixing bikes and fixing up the car, they know what this parts do and they know what the basic mechanical terms are. The course itself didn't differentiate female or male, but the knowledge and the kind of
98 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
level of understanding that we knew as a female and a male, it was differentiated. (#8)
I think we were all treated the same. The females were in minority, but we - the females - also performed very well in our class. So I never felt, like, we were struggling or that I had to fight for our right to be there or anything. I did feel a little bit probably clumsy in the workshop, but that was maybe just a lack of experience. (#13)
Theme 3: Design skill development – ‘growing in confidence’
The third theme captures how there was a strong sense that males (at least initially)
had a better grasp of the three-dimensional aspects of design and were stronger in
specific technical skills (such as model-making); as one explained, ‘it always felt like
males just got it a bit better, like the 3D Solidworks side of it and the more technical
things’ (#11). Fortunately, the majority of interviewees described how they ‘grew in
confidence’ and developed their technical design skills throughout the course.
I used to cry after those engineering drawing classes I used to be in … I had no idea because I had just never been exposed to anything like that and I suppose I find it incredibly intimidating ... but then because of that I had such a bad time in that class I went home and I really studied so hard at it that I apparently got it and was so proud of myself. It was like ... it was those challenges that really made overcoming those hurdles really made the course, but it was more of a personal thing. I really grew over the time. (#18)
Interviewees had fond memories of the ‘hands-on’ design learning process, valuing
how the course frequently gave them the ‘creativity and given the freedom to
completely look at a project from conception, all the way to obviously design and
manufacturing or at least to think about that’ (#3). They described the significant
learning curve during their ‘major final year project’ - where they had to develop
their own independent project and were ‘on your own, to manage your time by
yourself’ (#12). It was during this process that most realised that they actually had an
aptitude and talent for industrial design, with major project the pinnacle of their
degree. It was extremely challenging and stimulating, and was where they had to
‘consider all facets of the design process and make sure that what you were
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 99
designing could actually work in reality. It was really rewarding to actually bring all
those pieces of knowledge together into one project’ (#15). On reflection, the just
over half felt final project choices were critical to shaping their future careers, with
one participant (who did her final year project on footwear) explaining:
A lot of people seemed to think it was exciting and got quite a bit of press from it which was good and then I realised that maybe I did have a little bit of talent, not in terms of shoes or industrial design but I knew what I wanted to do and that if I put my mind to it I could be successful with that and that’s when I thought ... I am still really proud of it ... I think that it also made me realise that with all my hard work and research, I did so, it was really, really good and actually Adidas has subsequently purchased it from me this year, so that was really, so I think I realise that I am good at that kind of research, to develop a product idea stage. (#18)
As a third were now running their own businesses, there was a strong sense that what
was missing from their course was not design skills but the training in the skills of
small business management and entrepreneurship, specifically how to set up and
manage a small business.
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first Australian study investigating women’s
experience of studying industrial design at university. These findings highlight the
critical role of the educational experience in developing the skills base and
confidence of female designers, enhancing our understanding of the factors that best
promote their sustained engagement with the field, as well as the limitations,
constraints and implications for higher education. Critically, these female industrial
design graduates have provided unique feedback about their positive and negative
experiences, with their feedback providing significant insight that may help inform
curriculum change.
The aim of industrial design higher education is the development of graduates who
are flexible, adaptable with developed problem solving and design thinking skills -
although these are not always recognised by the graduate (Ball 2002). The design
studio is used as the place to explore and develop these principles, practices and
possibilities of designing, through the setting of projects or design problems (Talbot
100 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
2007). In the early years of study/education, the context of the project may be quite
narrow, in order to encourage greater depth of understanding of particular issues.
Critically, however, this research highlights how a quarter of female students recalled
project choices as being quite gendered, which hindered their engagement with the
course. They described how a focus on masculine-orientated projects – such as car or
tool design - negatively impacted their study experience. Such findings remind
design teaching staff that it is important to ensure that the selected projects appeal to
all students – regardless of differences in gender, ethnicity or age. As Yang, You and
Chen (2005) argue, providing choice within the studio project is ideal as it allows the
student to self-direct their learning and there is greater opportunity for deeper
engagement and satisfaction.
The final year of the course is focussed on the development of a professional
awareness and aims to model the types of issues and projects that may be
encountered when working as a designer. The students are required to engage in
significant research as foundation to a well-resolved design problem. The final
project provides a demonstration of the knowledge and methods developed over the
course of their study (Green 2005). This final year project was identified by just over
half as being the project of greatest impact and of significance in starting their design
career. Most described how they greatly enjoyed this, noting how it shaped their
future career focus and helped ensure they were confident in their design skills.
Consistently with several other studies, however, these women designers felt that
they lacked confidence in the skills of business, specifically how to set up and
manage a small business (Ball 2002; Lewis & Bonollo 2002; Yang, You & Chen
2005). The reality is that – as there are relatively few design-specific jobs in
Australia – many design graduates will set up their own business at some stage in
their career; indeed, of this cohort, a third reported running their own design related
business at the time of interview. Thus, this research highlights a critical weakness of
the ID course curriculum, in that small business management skills (e.g., accounting,
marketing, management, entrepreneurship) have not traditionally been a major focus
of the course.
One recent Australian study of built environment and design students, focused on
understanding the transition-to-work phase of new graduates and identified similar
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 101
issues (Savage, Davis & Miller 2009). It evaluated this transition to work phase with
three major stakeholders: students, academics and industry professionals (i.e.,
employers), and found that both industry professionals and final year students agreed
that the university was not doing enough to ensure that graduates developed
appropriate lifelong learning skills that would allow them to pursue varied career
paths. Similarly, this research found that many of these female designers also felt ill-
prepared for the workforce on graduation. Whilst this feeling is quite common
amongst new graduates, it highlights an opportunity for higher education to reinforce
to students that their skills and abilities, are relevant in a work or professional
environment.
In conclusion, the limitations of this qualitative study must be acknowledged. First,
the sample size is relatively small and specialised, restricted to female graduates
from one Australian university over the past decade. Second, an industrial design
educator who taught these students carried out the interview, which may have
prohibited them from fully critiquing aspects of the course or university. Third, all
that were interviewed were working as designers and those who have changed
discipline area may not have responded due to the awkwardness of the change of
career direction. Despite these limitations, as very little research to date has explicitly
explored the industrial design educational experience (especially from the
perspective of women) this study makes a significant contribution to knowledge. Our
hope is that these findings will help inform industrial design educators, shape future
curriculum change and encourage further focus on the experience of women studying
design.
References
Anthony, Kathryn H. 2001. Designing for diversity: gender, race, and ethnicity in the architectural profession. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Ball, Linda. 2002. ‘Preparing graduates in art and design to meet the challenges of
working in the creative industries: a new model for work.’ Art, Design & Communication in Higher Education 1 (1): 10.
Bruce, Margaret and Jenny Lewis. 1990. ‘Women designers - is there a gender trap?’
Design Studies 11 (2): 114-120.
102 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Buchanan, Richard. 1998. ‘Education and Professional Practice in Design.’ Design Issues 14 (2): 63-66.
Ceci, S. J., W. M. Williams and S. M. Barnett. 2009. ‘Women's underrepresentation
in science: sociocultural and biological considerations.’ Psychol Bull 135 (2): 218-61.
Clegg, Sue, Wendy Mayfield and Deborah Trayhurn. 1999. ‘Disciplinary Discourses:
a case study of gender in information technology and design courses.’ Gender & Education 11 (1): 43-55.
Fowler, Bridget and Fiona Wilson. 2004. ‘Women Architects and Their Discontents.’
Sociology 38 (1): 101-119. Green, Lance N. 2005. ‘A study of the design studio in relation to the teaching of
industrial and product design.’ PhD thesis, Canberra. Hill, Catherine, Christianne Corbett and Andresse St.Rose. 2010. Why So Few?
Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Washington, DC: AAUW.
International Council of Societies of Industrial Design. 2015. ‘Definition of
Industrial Design.’ Accessed 4 Nov 2015. http://www.icsid.org/about/about/articles31.htm.
Lewis, W. P. and E. Bonollo. 2002. ‘An analysis of professional skills in design:
implications for education and research.’ Design Studies 23 (4): 385-406. Liamputtong, Pranee and Douglas Ezzy. 2005. Qualitative research methods. 2nd ed.
South Melbourne, Vic.; New York: Oxford University Press. Liamputtong, Pranee and Douglas Ezzy. 2009. Qualitative research methods. 3rd ed.
Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press. Savage, Susan M, Rebekah M Davis and Evonne Miller. 2009. ‘Exploring graduate
transition from university to workplace: employer, academic and graduate perspectives.’ Paper presented at the 34th AUBEA Annual Conference: Managing change - challenges in education and construction for the 21st century, Barossa Valley, South Australia. UniSA - AUBEA.
Talbot, Jonathan. 2007. ‘Collaborative and multidisciplinary designing:
contemporary challenges for design studion teaching.’ Paper presented at the Connected 2007 International conference on design education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
University of Technology Sydney, The Careers Service. 2009. Creating a Career in
Design. Sydney: University of Technology Sydney. Wang, Ming-Te, Jacquelynne S. Eccles and Sarah Kenny. 2013. ‘Not Lack of Ability
but More Choice: Individual and Gender Differences in Choice of Careers in
Chapter 5: Studying industrial design 103
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics.’ Psychological Science 24 (5): 770-775.
Wormald, Paul. 2011. ‘Positioning industrial design students to operate at the “fuzzy
front end”: investigating a new arena of university design education.’ International Journal of Technology & Design Education 21 (4): 425-447.
Yang, Ming-Ying, Manlai You and Fei-Chuan Chen. 2005. ‘Competencies and
qualifications for industrial design jobs: implications for design practice, education, and student career guidance.’ Design Studies 26 (2): 155-189.
104 Chapter 5: Studying industrial design
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 105
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN EDUCATION: WHAT WORKED, WHAT DIDN’T AND WHERE TO IN THE FUTURE
As Figure 6.1 illustrates, this chapter focuses on industrial design education,
reflecting on the experiences of female designers and evaluating what worked for
them and what didn’t. It continues to inform the second research aim, specifically the
experience of gaining a design degree and how well they are prepared for a career in
industrial design.
Figure 6.1 Influence of design education
To suitably prepare these young women for the design workforce it is important to
understand the workplace environment and industries’ expected capabilities. As the
graduates’ destination is unknown and the profession so diverse, the course aims to
produce new graduates who are creative, flexible, critical thinkers, and who have an
all-round understanding of materials and manufacturing techniques and design
communication skills of drawing, CAD and model making. However, this approach
can leave new graduates feeling ill-prepared for many positions, especially if they
have not undertaken any work experience during study to develop an understanding
of industry expectations. The final major design project, if specifically directed, can
106 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
assist the student in understanding these expectations and starting to build industry
networks. Further, due to the nature of the discipline, many find self-employment
appealing although they reflect that the course did not provide them with the basic
requirements of running a small business.
Thus, this third paper, Women’s experience of industrial design education: what
worked, what didn’t and where to in the future, investigates how the design
knowledge developed by these young women translates into employment and how
confident they are of their ability to work in the profession. It provides some critical
insight into the need for educators to be explicit about course graduate attributes and
how they are communicated to both graduates and employers.
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 107
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 6
The authors listed below have certified* that:
1. they meet the criteria for authorship in that they have participated in the conception, execution, or interpretation, of at least that part of the publication in their field of expertise;
2. they take public responsibility for their part of the publication, except for the responsible author who accepts overall responsibility for the publication;
3. there are no other authors of the publication according to the criteria; 4. potential conflicts of interest have been disclosed to (a) granting bodies, (b)
the editor or publisher of journals or other publications, and (c) the head of the responsible academic unit, and
5. they agree to the use of the publication in the student’s thesis and its publication on the QUT ePrints database consistent with any limitations set by publisher requirements.
In the case of chapter 6: Lockhart, C. & Miller, E. 2015, 'Women's experience of industrial design
education: what worked, what didn't and where to in the future', paper presented to the ACUADS Conference 2014: The future of the discipline, Melbourne Victoria, 2 - 3 October 2014.
Contributor Statement of contribution* Catherine Lockhart Chief investigator, significant contribution to the
planning of the study, data collection and analysis, literature review and writing manuscript
Associate Professor Evonne Miller
Significant contribution to the planning of the study (as principal supervisor) data analysis and assisted with the preparation and evaluation of the manuscript
Principal Supervisor Confirmation I have sighted email or other correspondence for all Co-authors confirming their certifying authorship
Evonne Miller 25/11/15 Name Signature Date
108 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN EDUCATION:
WHAT WORKED, WHAT DIDN’T AND WHERE TO IN THE FUTURE
Cathy Lockhart & Evonne Miller
Key words – Female design graduates, Design careers This paper addresses an acknowledged but seldom discussed concern: the
participation and representation (or not) of women in design courses and the wider
industry. Over the past decade, the proportion of women engaging in design tertiary
education has increased significantly, rising in an environment that has historically
been inundated with male students. For example, university enrolment statistics show
that women now typically compromise approximately a third to half of the design
student population. Yet despite these positive gains, women are not represented more
widely in the profession. In Australia, anecdotal evidence suggests that women
remain underrepresented in both senior leadership roles and in local, state or
distinguished national design awards (Anthony 2001; Fowler & Wilson 2004).
This gender distinction in terms of career progression and visibility is evident in the
architecture professional accreditation process: recent statistics show women
comprised 43% of architecture students in Australia, yet registered architects in each
state varied from 12-18%, with only one per cent of directors at architectural firms
(Whitman 2005). Similar statistics have been documented overseas, including the
United Kingdom where women comprise 38% of students yet comprise only 13% of
practising architects and 22% of teaching staff (De Graft-Johnson, Manley & Greed
2003). Whilst professional registration is not the only indicator of career success, and
is not a requirement for other design disciplines, it highlights a gendered difference
between educational training and career opportunities for female designers. The
unanswered question that remains is where are these women? Are they working in
other industries? Is our education system failing female designers? Is it the
workplace? Or is the underlying culture of design, building and manufacturing not
alluring or inviting to women? This paper begins to address these questions,
focussing on exploring the educational experience and perspectives of female
designers, utilising the discipline of industrial design as a case study.
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 109
Exploring the experience of studying industrial design at university
Industrial design is a relatively new discipline that focuses on the design of products,
best defined as a ‘creative activity whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted
qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems in whole life cycles’
(International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, (ICSID 2012). For industrial
design educators, designing the curriculum is a challenging task as they seek to
balance teaching traditional foundational design skills as well as the new/emerging
skills required for a twenty-first century workplace. This rapidly changing work
environment emphasises the importance of multidisciplinary ‘design thinking’, of
considering sustainability and climate change at all stages of the design processes, of
anticipating the impact of government policies, regulations and changing consumer
expectations, and of actively engaging with existing and emergent technologies (Ball
2002; Bridgstock 2013; Buchanan 1998; Savage, Davis & Miller 2009). The
education of a creative, flexible and effective designer is an important goal for being
‘work ready’ in this changing environment, yet research shows that students,
educators and the design profession may differ in what technical and social skills
they prioritise.
In a recent Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) funded project
exploring Professional Education in Built Environment and Design, Savage, Davis
and Miller (2009) explored what key design stakeholders (professionals, academics
and students) thought about current design education and identified any gaps
between academic and practice-based knowledge/experience and understanding. The
project included a range of built environment and design disciplines – including
industrial design, architecture, civil engineering and urban planning – who variously
participated in workshop (n=35), focus groups (n=22) and an online survey (n=148).
The focus group data showed that the three stakeholders - professionals, academics
and students (final year and recent graduates) held different views about the key
challenges facing the industry. Students emphasised the challenges of getting their
first job, as well as the importance of interpersonal social and communication skills.
Academics - the educators - focused on the negative impact of the global economic
crisis and how their role was to prepare graduates for life beyond university, by
building transferable skills such as critical thinking and lifelong learning. On the
110 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
other hand, professionals - the employers - focussed on the abilities (or not) of new
graduates and the need for them to be critical thinkers, aware of sustainability
imperatives and proficient in specific technological programs. In reflecting on the
critical transition-to-work from university phase, both professionals and students felt
educators were not doing enough to prepare students.
As the ways of defining business and industries change, understanding how and
where the designer fits – and what skills are most valuable - is a critically important
task for educators. In Australia, most industrial design courses aim to develop design
‘all-rounders’; this means that their understanding and skills are developed across all
roles including form giving, materials and production, commercial and user
appropriate designs. The key-learning environment, unique to design disciplines, is
the design studio that provides a safe place to explore the principles, practices and
possibilities of designing. The reality is that, to adequately prepare students for the
profession, they need experience resolving different types of design problems that
are frequently based on real-world problems and poorly defined (Talbot 2007). Yet,
to date, relatively little research has explored the design studio learning experience
for industrial designers. Interestingly, three decades ago, Frederickson (1993) utilised
video recordings of 112 juries (commonly used for assessment and feedback in
architecture) and a survey to evaluate any gender-differentiated experiences in three
design schools in the USA. He found female students were interrupted significantly
more often during their presentations than their male colleagues and thus felt less
confident to defend their designs to criticism; when on the jury, female members
spoke less and provided less feedback and discussion when they were in the minority
on the panel.
While it is unlikely that such strongly gendered findings would be present in
contemporary design studios, the reality is that no research has explored this
question. Despite a large body of literature documenting how psychological,
sociocultural, contextual and biological factors intertwine to reduce female
participation in the traditionally male-dominated STEM (science, technology,
engineering and mathematics) (Ceci, Williams & Barnett 2009; Hill, Corbett &
St.Rose 2010; Wang, Eccles & Kenny 2013) fields, only a handful of studies have
investigated the experience of women in design. Over a decade ago, Clegg, Mayfield
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 111
and Trayhurn (1999) investigated reasons for low level of female engagement in
information technology and design courses at one UK university. Despite multiple
equal opportunity initiatives, women remained underrepresented; Clegg et al. argued
that potentially the technical competencies required in design disciplines led women
to be over-represented in ‘soft design’ areas (e.g., fashion and jewellery) and under-
represented in ‘hard design’ areas that required the use of a workshop with tools and
machines (e.g., furniture and product design).
Aside from a few internal university reports (e.g., see Creating a Career in Design,
University of Technology Sydney 2009), academic peer-reviewed publications
documenting students’ experience of studying design at university remain non-
existent. If we are to grow the industry, we must better understand the experience of
design education (and practice), and identify the key facilitators and barriers to
women’s participation. Given this knowledge gap, this paper – drawing on in-depth
qualitative interviews with nineteen female industrial designers who completed their
degree at one Australian university - has two key aims. The first aim is to identify
what these students perceived as the highlights and lowlights of their educational
experience, specifically focussing on their experience in the design studio, with
assessments and fellow-students and identifying their recommendations for change.
An important focus is to identify any gendered aspects of their educational
experience. The second aim is to investigate how well (or not) these students felt
their design education prepared them for the workplace and identify any evidence-
based recommendations to help design educators with the process of future
curriculum change.
Method
Design and Sample
As literature exploring the experiences of women in industrial design is virtually
non-existent, an exploratory qualitative research approach was adopted. We used a
phenomenological approach, so as to better understand the unique ‘lived
experiences’ of women in industrial design (Liamputtong & Ezzy 2009, 5). Ethical
approval was received from the university, with best practice ethical protocols
followed. Socio-demographic characteristics of the nineteen participants are depicted
112 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
in Table 6.1. Almost all (n=18) had graduated in the last ten years (when the course
was approximately 41% female) and most (74%) were currently practicing industrial
designers. At the time of interview, in 2011, they ranged in age from 21 to 37 years. Table 6.1 Participants’ socio-demographic profile
Procedure
A non-probability purposive snowball sampling approach was utilised to identify and
recruit participants. Utilising graduate publications, personal contacts and word of
mouth, potential participants were emailed an invitation to participate in an in-depth
semi-structured face-to-face interview about their decision to study industrial design,
experience at university and in the workplace. Interview questions (pilot tested with
three female graduates to ensure appropriateness) were based around a three-hurdle
model developed by Bruce and Lewis (1990) to explain the factors influencing career
advancement for women: getting the qualification (hurdle 1), getting the first job
(hurdle 2) and becoming a success (hurdle 3). This paper focuses specifically on
participants’ recollections of their undergraduate educational experiences in
industrial design (the first hurdle - getting the qualification).
All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim into text, with
numbers replacing participant’s names and specific identifying information changed
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 113
to maintain anonymity. A thematic approach was utilised to analyse the data, with
key themes and patterns identified in the data through an iterative process of reading
and re-reading the transcripts to identify common and contrasting themes
(Liamputtong & Ezzy 2005). This paper focuses specifically on one dimension of the
data, their evaluation of the strengths and weakness of their industrial design
educational experience (for other analyses of this dataset, see (Lockhart & Miller
2014, 2015a).
Results
The analysis revealed that being a designer, and studying design at university, could
be a gendered experience. Participants openly discussed the highlights and lowlights
of their educational experience, emphasising the importance of developing
professional capabilities beyond the basic design skillset (for example,
entrepreneurship and skills in small business management). Although they felt
gender was not a major factor in their experience, they recalled how simple things
could negatively impact on their educational engagement and participation. For
example, describing how assessment items often-focussed on masculine topics (e.g.,
redesign a car related product or tool) and the workshop environment was
intimidating at first. As one explained, ‘I remember thinking throughout the course
this is such a masculine project, I wish I could do something a bit more feminine’
(#3).
Course evaluation – strengths and weakness of the industrial design curriculum
As the quotes in Table 6.2 illustrate, they typically praised the breadth of the course
(covering the wide range of skills needed to be a practising industrial designer), the
focus on planning and group work (which encouraged creativity through
collaboration), and the importance of the ability to select and focus on a specific
major project in their final year.
I think it delivered what it could. It gave you the skills to do research, to approach people, to find out about materials. It at least taught you which questions you need to ask, at least at the base level. I think design is such a complex industry, that there is so much on the job learning, a design course couldn’t possibly teach you everything you needed to know. And it’s quite industry specific too, depending on where you end up. (#15)
114 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
The complexity of the discipline requires students to understand issues varying from
mechanics; material science, manufacturing and marketing are often treated more
discreetly throughout the course to allow the students a greater depth of
understanding. The importance of the major project in the final year is highlighted as
the opportunity to bring together all these elements and to demonstrate their
knowledge developed over the course. This can be haphazard and is dependent on
the student’s own choice of topic of research and their ability to develop a design
brief that provides the opportunity for the demonstration of their knowledge.
Criticisms of the course centred on being employable and ‘work-ready”, with several
identifying a need for more training in marketing, management, budgeting and
running a small business as that is what many designers have to do given the
relatively small design job market in Australia.
Table 6.2 The industrial design course – perceived strengths and weakness
Strengths Weaknesses Probably how broad it was, in that I felt like I got a really broad set of skills, both computer skills and 3D skills and model making, sketching and all that sort of stuff. I really like all the hands-on aspect. I really enjoyed model making. (#11) I liked the project work. I thought it was - yeah, I thought it was really good, working on assignments rather than exams. Like, the group work was really good and that was probably one of the, I guess, highlights (#12) I really like the hands-on nature of design and I think maybe that was something I was missing in my former career. (#15) I think it was generally the learning of the mindset. I remember when we did the orientation week, they said, ‘By the time you finish this course, every door handle you door, every light switch you flick, every job you pick up, you will think “I know how that was made, how much it cost, where it was made, who made it, blah, blah, blah,”’and I thought, ‘surely not,’ but it's true. (#06) I think I learnt planning because the first couple years of the course I found that if you
Negatives? I probably could have helped doing a bit more work experience, I think. I found when I got my first job I was chucked in the deep end and it's - I mean, you always learn on the job but maybe just a bit more. (#12) I feel like I came out of uni not ready or not prepared for a job. I think that was probably the most negative thing; that I came out on top of the world and feeling like I was ready to get into things, but I wasn't - I didn't have the skills to get a graduate job. (#13) Negative? I think in hindsight I would have liked to learn more about running your own business. There's only a few consultancies around and obviously because of the demand in the market only those few survive, however many graduates start up their own business. Rather than working for someone, if you have more tools to work for yourself and know how to do that kind of stuff. (#4) I think now there's more opportunities to do work placement as well because we didn't really have that. So if there's more opportunities to do that, that would be good. Sort of get your foot in the door as well. I
Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education 115
have to print something or a model made or anything can go wrong in that process and a million things can and will go wrong, the printer you will have the wrong file type or your model won’t dry in time and so I learnt kind of to really pre-plan everything and put in false deadlines before the actual deadlines, so that’s probably a pretty important lesson. (#17) I think the most important thing was learning to work with other peers in my group and listen to all their opinions and that sort of stuff and how they approached their problems and how we could sit down together and actually discuss different points of view on how to solve a problem. (#18)
think that would be better. (#2) I find that time constraints are very airy-fairy and budgeting to them is something they've never considered. When we say this is a project, you have creative control but this must be done in this amount of time to this budget, they're like well, what's that, what does that mean? So I don't think they're prepared for a real job. (#3) Oh, good question (laughs). I think - oh, I mean, I would like to say I wish there was more work experience, but then you can't learn what you learn in a workplace. That's the thing. I mean, I think it taught you the basic skills for you to build upon as you started work, yeah. (#12)
Discussion
This paper investigates the educational experience and perspectives of female
designers, who comprise nearly a half of the industrial design student population at
university, yet remain underrepresented in leadership roles in practice. Fortunately,
most did not think gender was a major factor in their experience of the course or how
they were treated, although there was a sense that gendered life experiences and
preferences had an impact (for example, making males more confident with technical
skills and in the workshop). This research illustrates how that the course does
provide students with a good ‘all-round’ foundation in the development of design
thinking and methodologies illustrated by the various creative career paths taken.
The emphasis on design process and conscious problem solving methodologies in the
studio context helped foster this process although perhaps not identified explicitly by
the students. An interesting finding was that these female designers did not fully
appreciate how their choice of final project was shaping the direction of their future
careers. Green and Bonollo (Green & Bonollo 2003) have proposed the taking of a
more systematic approach to the identification and development of this project would
ensure a more consistent outcome and deeper understanding.
The physical making of objects in a workshop environment, although initially
intimidating provided many with the understanding of making objects and the
confidence to eventually transfer those skills to the production of their own designs
116 Chapter 6: Reflecting on design education
under their own name and take them to the market. Consistently with several other
studies, however, these women designers felt that they lacked confidence in the skills
of business, specifically how to set up and manage a small business (Ball 2002;
Lewis & Bonollo 2002; Yang, You & Chen 2005). Upon graduation many also
reflected on how they felt underprepared for the demands of the ‘real world’ and had
trouble identifying how to transfer their skills to this new context. This highlights
how the student needs help to develop the understanding, attributes and qualities
needed to initiate their career. Confidence in their work-ready skills can be assisted
through the inclusion of industry linked live projects, work experience from early
stages of the course and exhibitions of their work included in the curriculum (Ball
2002; Bridgstock 2013; Haukka 2011).
Curriculum developers need to be aware of the changes to design industry work
environments and expectations by working with industry to be able to better prepare
graduates although the pace of change may make it difficult to be addressed due to
course cycles and scale of change. Through closer links with industry employers the
often-negative perceptions of recent graduates skills can further be changed (Yang,
You & Chen 2005; Wormald 2011; Haukka 2011). The incorporation of new
thinking and methods is perhaps larger than one discipline and at one university this
is being offered as an adjunct degree and treated in a multi-disciplinary manner such
as a Bachelor of Creative Intelligence and Innovation. Clearer pathways in electives
may further diversify the education and how it could be utilised to develop a business
focus understanding the high number of graduates within design and the creative
industries that do enter self-employment at some time in their careers (Ball 2002).
In conclusion, this study highlights the positive experiences of skill development in
the design studio may require explicit discussion with students of their competencies
and how they can develop a sustainable design career.
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experience of female students.' Industrial Design Educators Network 3: 11 - 25.
Savage, Susan M., Rebekah M. Davis and Evonne Miller. 2009 'Exploring graduate
transition from university to workplace: employer, academic and graduate perspectives.' paper presented to the 34th AUBEA Annual Conference: Managing change - challenges in education and construction for the 21st century. Barossa Valley, South Australia.
Talbot, Jonathan. 2007. 'Collaborative and multidisciplinary designing:
contemporary challenges for design studion teaching.', paper presented to the Connected 2007 International conference on design education. University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
University of Technology Sydney,The Careers Service. 2009. Creating a career in
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but More Choice: Individual and Gender Differences in Choice of Careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics.' Psychological Science 24 (5): 770-775.
Whitman, Paula. 2005. Going Places. The Career Progression of Women in the
Architectual Profession. Findings of a national study examining the careers of women in the architectural profession in Australia. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology.
Wormald, Paul. 2011. 'Positioning industrial design students to operate at the "fuzzy
front end": investigating a new arena of university design education.' International Journal of Technology & Design Education 21 (4): 425-47.
Yang, Ming-Ying, ManlaiYou and Fei-Chuan Chen. 2005. 'Competencies and
qualifications for industrial design jobs: implications for design practice, education, and student career guidance.' Design Studies 26 (2): 155-89.
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 119
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
HOW DO WOMEN INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS SUCCEED IN THE WORKPLACE? GETTING IN AND GETTING ON
The previous papers have focused on women’s experience of hurdle one (the
completion of a design degree), with this final paper exploring hurdles two and three:
getting a design job and becoming a success (see Figure 7.1 below).
Figure 7.1 Elements for success in design
These female designers recalled how securing their first job after graduating
university was challenging, with the majority drawing on their networks and
networking (particularly those developed through their final year self-directed major
project). There was a sense that, in comparison to their male counterparts, potential
employers scrutinised these women more negatively and appear to evaluate their
work differently. Once in the workplace, half perceived there was a ‘glass ceiling’ in
their workplace, describing sexism, male gate-keeping and stereotypical perceptions
of their skills and abilities. As one explained, ‘I think you have got to be quite
strong, because I found it's a massive boys' club.’
120 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
Many of these women found that the norms, standards and expectations of the
contemporary workplace did not match their lifestyle expectations or desire for
flexible hours (especially those who had families). Nearly half (42%) embraced their
entrepreneurial spirit and creative passion and to start their own design businesses -
designing, manufacturing and marketing a diverse range of products, including
jewellery, accessories, eyewear, headphones, footwear, furniture and lighting. These
women were redefining success, outside the contemporary workplace. Thus, this
paper identifies a new additional fourth hurdle, named: Redefining Success.
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 121
Statement of contribution of co-authors for thesis by published paper in Ch 7
The authors listed below have certified* that:
1. they meet the criteria for authorship in that they have participated in the conception, execution, or interpretation, of at least that part of the publication in their field of expertise;
2. they take public responsibility for their part of the publication, except for the responsible author who accepts overall responsibility for the publication;
3. there are no other authors of the publication according to the criteria; 4. potential conflicts of interest have been disclosed to (a) granting bodies, (b)
the editor or publisher of journals or other publications, and (c) the head of the responsible academic unit, and
5. they agree to the use of the publication in the student’s thesis and its publication on the QUT ePrints database consistent with any limitations set by publisher requirements.
In the case of chapter 7: as per QUT guidelines this paper is unpublished, it is under review having been submitted to Design Studies, The Interdisciplinary Journal of Design Research. Lockhart, C. & Miller, E., ‘How do women designers succeed in the workplace? Getting in and getting on’ Contributor Statement of contribution* Catherine Lockhart Chief investigator, significant contribution to the
planning of the study, data collection and analysis, literature review and writing manuscript
Associate Professor Evonne Miller
Significant contribution to the planning of the study (as principal supervisor) data analysis and assisted with the preparation and evaluation of the manuscript
Principal Supervisor Confirmation I have sighted email or other correspondence for all Co-authors confirming their certifying authorship
Evonne Miller 25/11/15 Name Signature Date
QUT Verified Signature
122 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
How do women industrial designers succeed in the workplace?
Getting in and getting on
Cathy Lockhart & Evonne Miller
Abstract
In Australia, despite comprising half of the design student population, women remain
under-represented in the design world and rarely hold senior leadership roles or win
high profile design awards. This qualitative research, focussing on the workplace
experience of nineteen female industrial designers, explores how these women
achieve success and the facilitators and barriers. Overall, success was defined as
happiness, work-life balance and enjoyment and engagement with the design
process; impact was also important, with one defining success as seeing a stranger
using a product she had designed. Most found the industry to be male dominated and
(1) struggled to secure their first job, (2) explaining the challenge of learning specific
software programs and then (3) developing the confidence and courage to actively
contribute design ideas. A variety of different strategies was utilised to secure their
first job, contacts, mentors and role models later empowering over half to develop
their own design start-ups. The decision to become an entrepreneur was a conscious
choice, enabling these women to follow their design passion with more flexible,
parenting-friendly hours. As one of the first studies to explore women designers’
experiences in the workplace, this qualitative research provides some nuanced
insights into how these women navigated entrenched gender stereotypes and
traditionally masculine workplace norms. The findings suggest the need for more
radical approaches to facilitating women’s recruitment, retention, and progression so
they can rise to the highest levels of the Australian design world.
Key words: industrial design, gender, career, career development planning, success
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 123
Despite comprising half of the design student population at university, women
remain under-represented in the design world and rarely hold senior leadership roles
or win high profile local, state or national design awards (Fowler & Wilson 2012;
Anthony 2001; Roan & Stead 2012). This gender inequality in career progression
and visibility is illustrated very clearly in the architecture professional accreditation
process: women comprise almost half (44%) of architecture students in Australia, yet
only one per cent are directors at architectural firms and less than a fifth (ranging
from 16-25% in each state) are actually registered architects (Matthewson 2012).
Similar statistics are reported internationally, in both the United States (45% of
degrees, 25% of working architects; US Department of Labor, 2008) and Spain (57%
of first year architecture students, 29% professional membership; Sanchez de
Madariaga 2010). In the last decade, despite an approximately equal gender
distribution among graduates from design disciplines, there remains an under-
representation of women actually working in the field. This disparity raises an
obvious question, specifically addressed by this research: what happens to these
bright young women when they leave university and try to enter the design
workforce? Where are they in the workforce and why they not represented and
especially at the higher echelons of the profession? This qualitative research explores
these questions, focussing on the experience of female industrial designers in
Australia.
Women in Design
Design is best defined as the adaptive creative process encompassing the material
world in all its complexity: objects, material culture, embodied practices, ways of
thinking and interconnected systems (Adams Stein 2014). To date, little empirical
research has investigated women’s experience in either design education or the
workforce, although significant anecdotal reporting suggests that women are under-
represented in senior leadership roles and at high profile design awards (Anthony
2001; Fowler & Wilson 2004; Fowler & Wilson 2012). As there is no published
research relating directly to the focus area of this research, women in
industrial/product design, looking to other design discipline areas (where women are
also in the minority) provides some initial insight into the potential issues and
barriers for female industrial designers.
124 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
A handful of studies have begun to look at the engagement of women in the
architecture profession, which is renowned for supporting a highly male-dominated
work environment and gendered professional culture. This small body of emergent
research identifies the aggressive, competitive and masculine work environment as
alienating women from the practice of architecture, explaining how most universities
report that more women than men have graduated in architecture, yet these graduates
are not present in the profession (Roan & Stead 2012; Sanchez de Madariaga 2010;
Department of Labor 2008; Whitman 2005). Initial findings from the UK Women in
Architecture Survey (Waite & Corvin 2012) highlights the concerns of women
architects. The majority of respondents, 73% of over 500, claimed to have
experienced or witnessed sex discrimination during their career in architecture and
ten per cent reported they directly suffer from discrimination at least weekly. Nearly
half believed they would be paid more if they were male (48%) and that men get paid
more for doing the same job (46%).
This emergent body of research has identified that gender barriers exist both within
architecture firms and also in the wider working environment of clients, construction
sites and workforce. In the first comparative cross-national study of architects in
three European countries (the UK, Spain and France), Caven, Navarro-Astor and
Diop (2012) interviewed 66 women architects. Overall, there was a sense of
‘resigned accommodation’ amongst these female architects, who described how they
had little knowledge or understanding of the masculine work environment prior to
entering it. University education left them ill equipped for site-based work, and they
developed strategies such as the use of humour and emphasising their ‘otherness’ to
build their professional standing and highlight the value of their different skills
(specifically, better communication, complaining less and creating fewer problems).
There was a sense that these positive attributes hindered their advancement as they
‘just get on with the job’. Caven et al. noted the impact of different political, social
and economic systems, with Spanish women reporting more overt discrimination,
and UK and French women adopting more ‘usurpatory’ strategies, such as utilising
their difference and minority status.
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 125
Indeed, in a qualitative study of Spanish architects, Sánchez de Madariaga (2010)
concluded that structural practices within the field restrict women’s participation; she
explained that women often opt out of the profession as they choose to prioritise
personal and family life over long and stressful hours in a very aggressive and male-
dominated environment. Given the social and personal costs for such an uncertain
payoff, some women decide that the sacrifice is not worth it. Sánchez de Madariaga
argues that there is a need for an alternative model that restructures the standards and
norms within the architecture profession to allow ‘a woman to be assertive and
ambitious without her being labelled as an evil or hysterical bitch’ (2010, 215). Also
in Spain, Navarro-Astor and Caven conducted in-depth biographical interviews with
38 architects (20 men and 18 women) to explore and better understand their working
lives. Like architects everywhere, ‘Spanish architects obtain intrinsic rewards from
the creative aspects of their work. Stress factors are also common and relate to time
pressures, long work hours and work-life balance’ (2012, 585). Notably, although not
explicitly exploring gender issues, they found that women architects would
spontaneously described how their male employers supported traditional gender roles
and were ‘discriminatory and paternalistic’ (2012, 583).
Utilising a career life history approach, Caven (2006) investigated the working
patterns of 37 British women architects. She found that the time commitment (five
plus years at university) required to become an architect was a strong motivation for
them to maintain a professional identity, with her participants explaining that non-
standard forms of working, increased autonomy, and flexibility were useful ways to
help maintain women architects in the profession. Yet research in the closely-related
field of construction has described the workplace climate as inhospitable,
competitive and conflict-ridden for women, who commonly reported experiencing
sexual harassment and discrimination because they felt colleagues and clients do not
take female construction managers seriously (Gale 1994; Graham & Hotchkiss
2003). Nearly a decade ago, De Graft-Johnson, Manley and Greed (2005) explicitly
explored why women left architecture through an expert advisory group, a web-
based questionnaire and interviews with eleven women who had left. Their research
did not identify one definitive reason motivating women to leave the profession, but
rather pointed to a range of factors including low pay, limited promotion
opportunities and the masculine workplace culture. Architecture was described as
126 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
having a very macho work environment typified by discriminatory and sexist
behaviour, especially after taking maternity leave when women were seen as ‘not
committed to architecture’ (2005, 1037). Sexist language and culture dominated,
with some women describing how client entertainment often included visits to strip
clubs. Women also described being side-lined professionally, as they were not given
the opportunity to develop technical skills or work on-site and negotiate directly with
contractors.
Women in non-traditional careers
Although there is relatively little research relating directly to the experience of
women in design disciplines, we can also draw from the significant body of literature
that has explored gender differences in science, technology, engineering and
mathematics (STEM) career-path choices (Ceci, Williams & Barnett 2009; Wang &
Degol 2013). Research identifies a wide array of sociocultural, psychological,
contextual and biological factors that intertwine to reduce female participation in
STEM educational and career achievement pathways. Essentially, this literature
explains how the STEM pathway starts with a series of choices commencing in
childhood and adolescence, as views about possible future careers (and differences in
subject and career choices) are influenced through socialisation and the implicit and
explicit views of parents, teachers, friends and the wider world (for example,
experiences, media, role models etc). In explaining why girls and women are under-
represented, research has shown that it is beliefs and attitudes (not any innate
differences in ability or aptitude for maths or science) that are driving the gender
difference (Else-Quest, Hyde & Linn 2010).
Several theoretical approaches have identified the importance of psychological and
social/cultural determinants in shaping attitudes such as social-cognitive career
theory (Lent et al. 1994), or expectancy–value theory (Eccles 2009). Social-cognitive
career theory (SCCT; Lent et al. 1994) argues that three individual, social cognitive
variables are critical in career development: self-efficacy (belief about own ability),
outcome expectations (anticipated results from actions) and goals (decisions made to
achieve goals). SCCT also highlights the importance of interest in the field, social
support and anticipated barriers, explaining how proximal (individual barriers, such
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 127
as gender role socialisation, exposure to tasks and role models, limited emotional or
financial support) and distal (structural barriers, such as discrimination and
networking) factors combine to either facilitate or impede career progress.
Similarly, Eccles’ (2009; Eccles et al. 1983) expectancy–value theory postulates that
gender differences in education and career choices are shaped by attitudes towards
expectations of success (that is, competence-related beliefs and self-efficacy) and the
valuing of that achievement (that is, task value). In this context, achievement
behaviours (for example, studying or working in STEM or design) are predicted by
whether an individual believes she can succeed in the course or career and whether
that achievement is valued. Although there is no research on design pathways, recent
statistics in the STEM fields suggest that similar numbers of girls and boys are now
studying the preparation subjects of maths and science in school and at university.
Unfortunately, this is not translating to the professions and, in particular, to senior
leadership levels. In the UK, for instance, women have accounted for half of biology
graduates for the past 30 years, yet hold only nine per cent of full professorships
(Dewandre 2002).
Women in creative arts
As design is positioned across two very different fields (engineering and creative
arts), it is important to explore if and how gender might impact the experience of
women in creative arts careers, such as performance, design, creative writing, music,
film, choreography and art, as well as in STEM fields. Although only a handful of
studies have explored gender inequality issues for women in creative arts, the
findings have generally been very similar to those investigating the experience of
women in STEM fields. Women are under-represented in both production and
decision-making roles, with existing cultural frameworks about art and gender
disadvantaging women in both direct and indirect ways (Schmutz & Faupel 2010).
Creative arts careers differ markedly from STEM careers in that they challenge
dominant cultural standards of career success, typically offering a lifetime of career
instability, competition and low pay (Brooks & Daniluk 1998). Thus, it is interesting
to note that the limited research on women in creative arts careers often identifies
128 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
two unique factors not often detected within the STEM literature: (1) a strong, all-
encompassing passion to pursue their (artistic) career and (2) significant opposition
from family and friends for embarking on an artistically-inclined career path that is
(typically) difficult to succeed in, unpredictable and poorly paid. Brooks and Daniluk
found that older female artists described ‘living on the edge’, with their narratives
emphasising that the arts milieu was a man’s world and identifying the ‘lack of
familial and social support for art as a legitimate career' (1998, 255). They described
the emotional and practical realities women face as a result of having chosen an
artistic career and defining themselves as artists, explaining how their ‘creative
identity development was a long, difficult and non-linear process, often involving
intense feelings of illegitimacy, self-doubt, guilt, and resentment’ (1998, 256). This
process is quite unique to creative arts careers, and not something that would
typically resonate with women in STEM fields. Interestingly, some research suggests
that this struggle to validate self-identify as an artist might be a uniquely gendered
experience. In a study of art teachers, Zwirn (2006) found that women repeatedly
spoke of the need for respect, empowerment, role models and mentors; conversely,
men never mentioned these issues, leading Zwirn to conclude that ‘women’s artist
identities were works in progress, a struggle to achieve and never taken for granted’
(2006, 174).
In their recent research exploring the experience of 21 female creatives (art directors,
copywriters, and creative directors) working in advertising, Windels and Lee found
that the industry was still very much a deeply rooted boys’ club ‘built around male
norms, with systems in place to privilege male perspectives’ (2012, 510) and where
women’s ‘voices, perspectives, and work were devalued’ (2012, 511). Essentially,
the participants felt it was easier for men to get to the top, as the creative department
had a strong masculine paradigm that restricted women’s ability to grow their
careers. At a social level, these American women saw junior-level men socialise and
form relationships with senior-level males; they felt they could not form the same
bond, partly due to gender differences and partly because friendships between
younger women and senior men can be seen as inappropriate. Other STEM research
has also found that women working in male-dominated environments report similar
organisational culture challenges limit their informal professional networking, which
in turn further disconnects women from access to information, support and power
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 129
(Roan & Rooney 2006; Mehra, Kilduff & Brass 1998; Xu & Martin 2011). At a
professional level, these female creatives also described being disadvantaged by
gender-stereotypes and being pigeon-holed into working on less prestigious ‘female’
assignments throughout their careers; one explained how they never worked on
projects about beer but always on ones about tampons, and these projects were
seldom ‘buzz-worthy’ or represented in national awards (Windels & Wei-Na 2012).
Limited access to senior peers and good projects made it very difficult for women to
succeed in creative advertising; indeed, Mallia (2009) argues that empirical and
anecdotal evidence suggests that most women leave after 7-15 years in the field and
never make it to senior leadership roles. In interviews with eighteen American
women in mid- to upper-level creative positions, Mallia (2009) found that many felt
that the punishing highly competitive, high-pressure schedule of advertising and the
masculine creative culture were driving women out of the field, as they struggled to
balance demands of motherhood with the long hours and commitment required by
the creative process that is ‘uniquely personally consuming: day and night and body
and soul’. These women explained how the intense ‘style and pace and people and
politics’ of corporate culture and processes in creative advertising was incompatible
with a work/life balance. The few who stayed were astute in organisational politics,
did not have children or had a ‘house-husband’, and were ‘much more tenacious,
aggressive personalities who relished competing with the men’; for most, however,
creative success was ‘so difficult that many women chose to leave rather than face an
untenable fight’ (Mallia 2009).
An alternative work path – entrepreneurship
In response to workplace challenges, and the often fragile and unreliable work
patterns associated with creative careers, increasing numbers of women are starting
their own small businesses. An entrepreneur can be considered to be someone who
has initiated a business, is actively involved in managing it and owns at least 50% of
the firm (Heilman & Chen 2003). Entrepreneurs engage in the new, which can take
the form of a business, product or service, they use creativity to identify a new niche
or need or a solution and useful product (Ames & Runco 2005). The entrepreneur
requires motivation, confidence and intelligence to seek the new market. Advantages
130 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
of becoming an entrepreneur are believed to be the provision of individuals with
challenge and the opportunity to control their work environment along with the
potential for direct financial return (Heilman & Chen 2003). Globally there is
significantly less engagement by women than by men in entrepreneurial activities
(Langowitz & Minniti 2007), although once a person has decided they want to
establish a new business there is no gender difference in the likelihood of success
(Afandi & Kermani 2015). Age, income, employment status and education all
influence women’s propensity to start a new business, with knowing other
entrepreneurs, alertness to opportunities, and self-confidence in their skills positively
influencing the likelihood of starting a business (Langowitz & Minniti, 2007). The
women in our study are highly educated and self-employment has come after time as
an employee during which they developed confidence in key skills and experiences
that have enabled them to start their own business. A survey recently conducted by
Startup Muster in Australia showed that only a small percentage of the total startups
are started by women although there has been a slow increase; in 2011 it was 16%
growing to 19% in 2013 (Perks 2015; Startup Muster 2014).
Women and the industrial design profession in Australia
Given the limited research exploring the experiences of female designers, this study
focuses specifically on how female industrial designers fare in the workplace.
Industrial design is the design of products, defined by the International Council of
Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID) as a ‘creative activity whose aim is to
establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems
in whole life cycles’. Industrial design often operates in a parallel way to the creative
industries where there are networked clusters of small-to-medium enterprises, sole-
traders and micro-businesses (Ashton 2015; Bridgstock 2011a) where the work is
often freelance or short-term contracts due to the fluidity and movement within these
types of businesses. The Design Institute of Australia (DIA) reports that the number
of industrial design businesses has been static at 350 since the early 2000s based on a
count in the Yellow Pages directory. The DIA regularly carries out a salary survey
across the design sector, reporting that the self-employed designer’s salary dropped
in 2013 with a significant drop being experienced by industrial designers (Robertson
& Design Institute of Australia 2014a). The Institute’s survey information collection
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 131
does not include the recording of gender so that specific numbers of women in the
industry are not obtainable. The transition into industry could be seen to involve
three interlinked stages: preparation, actual transition and outcomes in the labour
market. It is not necessarily a linear path, as qualifications alone do not guarantee
immediate entry into the workforce (Haukka 2011; Haukka et al. 2009). To date,
there has been no published research investigating the experience of female industrial
designers in the workplace. This research, an in-depth qualitative case study of 19
Australian female industrial designers, explicitly addresses this knowledge gap and
focuses on their workplace experience – both as employees and as entrepreneurs, as
almost half (42%) have started their own small design business.
Method
Given the very small body of literature exploring the experiences of women in
design, an exploratory qualitative research approach was utilised due to its
appropriateness for investigating unstudied populations and issues. To better
understand the unique individual ‘lived experiences’ of women in industrial design,
we adopted a phenomenological approach where the researcher identifies the essence
of human experience (Creswell 2009; Liamputtong & Ezzy 2009). This article
focuses specifically on one aspect of the data, these women’s experiences in the
workplace and motivations and experiences in starting their own business.
Participants
This interview study was conducted with women who had graduated from an
industrial design course at one Australian univeristy, and at the time of interview in
2011 they ranged in age from 21 to 37 years and had graduated between one and
sixteen years ago. The majority (74%) were currently practising industrial designers,
and reported working in a number of industries, from in-house design work at a
major appliance company through to designing, producing and bringing to market
their own products. Table 7.1 outlines the specific socio-demographic information,
including current employment, position title and year of graduation.
132 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
Table 7.1 Participants’ socio-demographic profile
Procedure
All participants responded to a broadcast email to female graduates of the course
inviting them to participate in the research. Data collection in the form of in-depth
interviews was conducted by the first author (an experienced female Industrial
Designer and academic) in a central convenient location. The Bruce and Lewis
(1990) three-hurdle model was used to explain the factors that influence career
advancement of women in design: getting the qualification (hurdle 1); getting the
first job (hurdle 2); and becoming a success (hurdle 3) guided interview question
development. The questions were evaluated and re-worked to draw out the lived
experiences of the participants more deeply, with the digitally recorded interviews
transcribed into text for analysis. The data was then read and re-read to identify key
words articulated by the participants, first individually and then as a group to
establish patterns of meaning (Liamputtong 2009; Creswell 2003). A combination of
manual techniques of writing notes in the margin and using highlighting pens and a
popular word processing program were used to assist in the management and
analysis of the over 100 pages of data into tables and columns for pattern
identification and coding of themes and subthemes (La Pelle 2004). This coding
process was repeated to the point of data saturation, where no new themes emerged.
We include multiple exact quotes to (1) help readers judge for themselves the
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 133
accuracy of our analysis, and (2) help create a comprehensive picture of women
designers’ experiences in the workplace.
Results
Focussing specifically on women industrial designers’ experience in the workforce,
the thematic analysis identified four key themes, which will be discussed in turn:
breaking into the industry; once in the door; gender hurdles; and the move to
entrepreneur.
Theme 1: Breaking in – ‘I went to a lot of interviews, lots and lots of
interviews’
As the quotes in Table 7.2 illustrate, successfully breaking into the discipline after
graduation required a number of different strategies and the conscious adoption of
proactive career management behaviours, specifically: networks and networking;
traditional and non-traditional pathways; and design competitions and internships.
Networks and networking were critical, with over half of the participants (63%)
recalling that they actively engaged in networking to gain their first design job and
that university academics and their final year self-directed major project enabled
them to get that first job. For example, these projects provided the opportunity to
begin to initiate appropriate network contacts that grew into work placements and
full-time positions. Others also acknowledged that wider family and friend networks
helped link them to relevant others who could provide work opportunities.
Approximately a third of the participants (37%) reported following a more traditional
path to find their first job, describing using employment websites but needing to be
proactive in following up and cold calling. A minority reported consciously utilising
non-traditional pathways as stepping-stones to their preferred career. For example,
one took a job as a receptionist in a retail design-based company, which allowed her
to remain connected to the industry and to build her network. A fifth (21%) described
consciously engaging in career planning activities designed to facilitate their ability
to get a job, such as internships and entering design-related competitions to build
their portfolio and industry standing. One won a competition where the prize was an
internship and, while undertaking the internship, actively sought means to turn it into
134 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
a fulltime position, asking the CEO ‘What do I have to do to get a job here?’ He told
her she needed to learn a specific software program, so she recalled going ‘in on the
weekends and working out how to use the program. Not very well, but enough to
fool the CEO (laughs)’ (#10). Another described how she balanced paid part-time
non-design work and volunteering with designers explaining how:
You work yourself to bits for a period of time but somehow it’s quite useful I think but you can’t do it for a long amount of time, you get quite worn out but I did find it quite useful as I have some quite good … you get an insight into how they work and think and I think that is really quite useful for. (#16)
Table 7.2 Breaking in - strategies for securing their first design job
Networks & Networking Design Strategies - competitions & internships
Non-traditional path - sidestepping
I had spoken to her in one of my industrial design assignments. I called up all these people and I remember speaking to her. I called her up and said, ‘Hi I interviewed you a few years ago and I’m really interested and would love to come and work for you’. It started off as work experience for a bit and it ended up being a position which was good and she was tough as, but it was really, really great and once you are on her great side she is the most invaluable mentor you could ever have she’s fantastic. (#18)
My plan had been in third year to tee up some work experience, because the biggest obstacle to getting a job is work experience. The irony being if you don’t have any, they won’t hire you. So it’s like okay, even if I have to volunteer that’s fine, if that’s going to get me what I need. And I figured for me the best way to do that was to enter a whole bunch of design competitions – and I was fortunate in doing furniture, there was quite a lot going on that year – and exhibit, anything I could. (#15)
So I got this receptionist position at a Furniture retailer. At least it is something design-related and got into something 9 to 5. As long as you are in the industry, it's like an ear to the ground, there's no point having a job that is not in the industry and just looking. (#14)
A friend of mine who was doing Industrial Design at another university and his Dad owned the company, he needed somebody to just do graphics and CAD stuff, I got the job designing backpacks and I more or less did that the whole way through the degree part-
No but if you put the work in … get your foot in the door basically as I started off doing an internship with a guy doing furniture and he knew the people at another company and then when you start it seems like quite a small circle when you have some
First proper job was in production management in a point of sale company. So I sort of managed their factory sales, their product sales and then a lot optional manufacturing, China, Hong Kong. So not designing as such but
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 135
time. (#17) names it’s easier to get other jobs and but that first little pluggin away was really hard and it’s not easy to get a job, no. (#16)
more problem solving and troubleshooting, that sort of stuff. (#02)
I think you probably forwarded an email and I applied for that; or did they contact me? I can't remember. They were just starting up, they didn't have an office or anything … and the interview was downstairs at uni, outside the workshop. But that was the first job. (#09)
The design director had done a lecture during our course. That was the consultancy that I wanted to work for. Then when we won this work experience, it all fell into place. During uni I had been working at a jewellery and accessories company and I quit my job there to do this six-week work experience. (#10)
I wanted to start earning money straight away so then I just applied for the easiest related thing that I could go for, which was the graphic artist position. Having the art background as well helped, so that was the first job. (#04)
Theme 2: In the door – ‘basically, just understanding the workforce’
Key challenges for these women in the first years in the workplace centred around
the development of a professional career identity, with over half describing how they
wanted validation of their career choice and years of study, and strongly desired the
label ‘designer’ on their business card. As the industrial design course offered a
broad scope of experience, like most recent graduates, these design graduates
described needing to build both their confidence and product-industry specific skills.
As one explained: ‘You come out of uni - there's no problem doing the pretty picture.
Trying to make it work really well and cheaply is difficult. So, when you're in the
industry a while, you learn the things and they become standard’ (#05). There were
two key sub-themes: developing self-confidence as a designer (specifically learning
the discipline and language of the work); and embracing travel.
First, as the quotes in Table 7.3 illustrate, having secured their first jobs, these
women then described an ongoing process of building confidence in their own design
skills (particularly in different computer programs) and growing their understanding
of the whole process of getting a piece of design to market in practice, from design to
production and marketing. Industrial designers recalled the challenge of ‘learning the
discipline of work’ (#13) and unique workplace protocols – as one explained, it was
about ‘trying to fit in and learn at the same time as doing your job’ (#14). Second,
136 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
travel features prominently in the career of a designer, as the place of manufacture in
Australia has moved from being ‘down the road’ to predominantly in Asia. A critical
part of a designer’s work is communicating with manufacturers, checking methods
and materials and production techniques; this is often best achieved face to face,
especially when establishing new relationships. These women recalled how, in the
early stages of their career traveling, they were usually in a junior role and supported
by a senior colleague. As women travelling to China and Korea, they experienced
differing levels of respect for their position as a designer: ‘I know in one place we
went to, they made the women go out of the room while the men did the business and
then the women could come back in, It was just … so degrading, [but] that’s the way
they do it’ (#02). Communication was often a significant challenge, with many of
these women describing how they would utilise their design skills of drawing to
facilitate understanding. Another, who was travelling alone a lot, described how she
learned Mandarin to build up her confidence and found these language skills also
helped in ‘getting good relationships, getting good pricing and stuff’ (#02).
Table 7.3 Developing self-confidence as a designer – learning and growing in confidence
Learning the business Building confidence I learnt a lot of skills that helped me more in having a business of design, which is good; seeing how a whole company operates from human resources to accounts and also being exposed constantly to a full product cycle and dealing with suppliers and things like that. (#19)
I guess having the confidence and the courage to speak up and contribute your ideas in amongst a team of established professional designers. Believing enough in yourself that your thoughts are equally valid and worthwhile to all those other people who’ve been there however many years. (#15)
My key challenges were, well, getting a job in the first place and then I think learning to work, I think was a bit of a challenge, because I had spent so long in my 20s studying that I didn't have a lot of work experience. (#13)
I think getting up to speed with a lot of that industry specific knowledge. So whether that’s project specific terminology, competence in whatever programs they’re using. (#15)
Learning not to step on toes, really. Trying to fit in and learn at the same time as doing your job. Because I ask a lot of questions but with a small company, there is not always time for the questions to be answered. (#14)
Another challenge is when you work on a project … trying to do those projects in a time frame, for the client. So you've got all these jobs - all these different jobs that you have to do and you have to manage your time and get five different projects’ concepts out. You want three or four concepts for all the different jobs and you've by the end of the week to get all that done. (#05)
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 137
Theme 3: Gender hurdles – ‘guys will never get that’
Just over half of these designers (52%) described experiencing gender based issues
and stereotypes in their workplaces, specifically: gendered behaviours, including
sexism; male gate-keeping, where different standards are applied to women; and
stereotypical perceptions of their skills and abilities. As one explained, the glass
ceiling was there.
It sounds like you are kind of complaining about it or - but it does exist. It's a bit of a glass ceiling and it is quite low in industrial design. I think, also, women have a different approach to design. I also think that women haven't been in the industry as long either, so it's a new growth, a new thing. So, yeah, very much a glass ceiling. I mean, it's fairly obvious, I think, but at the same time - not spoken about so much, like it doesn't exist. (#07)
Only a handful of women described overt ongoing sexism, with one recalling a
workplace where the owner and most of the staff were male. The few women
designers employed were in accounts and finance, and had to actively flirt with the
owner to do some design-related activity. She recalled how her own opportunities
were significantly limited, as she was the only one who didn't flirt with him: ‘he
liked the girls to banter to him and I didn't. So he didn't like me. He thought I was
“weird” … They played the game, they flirted with him and they got on well. You
know, flirtation is harmless but not when it has to be a part of your job’ (#13). More
commonly, these women recalled male gate-keeping, driven by the underlying
assumption that women are less able to make and produce the models required by
this three dimensional, traditionally masculine design discipline. Women felt they
had to ‘try harder’ and outperform their male colleagues, with women of child-
bearing age subjected to scrutiny regarding their plan for having children. One
recalled how the whole culture of her first job in design consultancy was completely
male dominated and ‘there was no chance for me being a designer there’ (#13). In
contrast, a number also described using their gender and ‘otherness’ to their
advantage, charming suppliers and manufacturers:
I think also in some ways it's been beneficial for us being women because - like, with suppliers and things, they find that quite refreshing. They are generally male dominated and they see these two friendly, youngish girls coming in and they are like, ‘Oh, we will make a sample for you for free’. So I think in some ways we have played that card to our advantage a bit. (#19)
138 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
Finally, in terms of stereotypes, a number of women described how they perceived
men to be more confident in their work, more willing to take more risks in both the
workshop environment or product development and in promotion of themselves, and
stereotypically more suited to this three dimensional manufacturing based profession.
These women described developing strategies to overcome this, becoming strong: ‘I
think you have got to be quite strong because I found it's a massive boys' club. When
I was starting, with the suppliers especially, if they saw any kind of weakness and
they saw that you are a girl, they sort of - they try and walk all over you’ (#12). This
confidence, or ego, in men was further seen to be a reason for the difference in pay,
with their male colleagues perceived to be more experienced at negotiation and
willing to push for it. In contrast, they felt if a woman is assertive she is seen as
‘pushy’ or ‘full of herself’ (#04).
I think men are better at communicating themselves, creating the glamour. Maybe the men are more down to earth, but I don’t know. I can speak for me. I know I’m very modest. I find it very difficult to talk myself up. Yes. I think naturally I will step back and let my male business partner be the front person. (#01) I think as well, there is a difference between the way, what I have found in my experience, the way women are treated and guys are treated as a designer. (#05)
Theme 4: The entrepreneurs ‘… if I don't do it myself, I will never do it’
Just under half of this group (42%) decided to back their own abilities and embrace
their entrepreneurial spirit, creating their own businesses where they design,
manufacture and supply their own products. Products produced by this group range
from eyewear, jewellery and accessories, headphones and footwear to furniture and
lighting. All these entrepreneurs described a passion to create something of their
own, expressing delight and satisfaction when they received positive feedback from a
user or saw their product in use. As one noted, ‘I have to give it another go otherwise
this voice won’t go away’ (#01). Rarely did they step directly from university into
their own enterprise, with almost all describing an initial experience working for
others in order to develop their knowledge, skill base, contacts and confidence.
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 139
Further, the majority identified the importance of a mentor or role model, often an
employer or family member who assisted in aspects of their new business:
Somebody that did help me a lot was one of my friend’s dads who does have a lot of products made in China. He was great in terms of negotiating the price and telling me all about shipping information and what all the terms were, customs and getting through all that. (#01)
As one noted, she had known from her second year at university that she want to start
her own business (a design consultancy) but knew that she first needed ‘some solid
work experience before then, both to learn on the job, make contacts, network, all
that kind of thing’ (#15). The major motivations for entrepreneurship stemmed from
dissatisfaction, either with the types of work, levels of creativity and work life
balance, as one described.
The demands of working for someone else and constant travelling impinged on my desired lifestyle. I just decided that I’d rather be spending all that time on something that I want to do and work for myself. I like to be my own boss … Focus on the production of small products that will hopefully provide a return. (#02)
Discussion
This in-depth qualitative study has provided considerable insight into the experience
of Australian female industrial designers in the workplace, identifying the perceived
key facilitators and barriers to succeeding in their chosen careers. First, consistent
with a large body of research, these women designers described how the transition
from university to workplace is often a time of change and uncertainty for an
individual, with the defining of career goals, finding a job and understanding what is
expected proving to be challenges (De Vos, De Clippeleer & Dewilde 2009).
Proactively planning for this transition and networking, specifically developing and
maintaining relationships with relevant others who may be able to provide career
advice or employment advocacy or opportunity at this early stage, was critical for
‘getting that first start’ and early career success (Eby, Butts & Lockwood 2003;
Bridgstock 2013). While most of these Australian designers described positive
experiences with seeking and gaining of internships that later transitioned into
140 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
ongoing employment, recent Canadian research suggests that interns are often
undervalued and exploited as free labour. Shade et al. (2015) argue that the
increasing reliance on unpaid internships as a strategy for getting work experience or
the first job was creating a class structure, in that only the privileged with financially
supporting parents could afford to undertake such unpaid work. There is some
evidence of this divide beginning in Australia with one woman offering this advice:
Do work experience. I mean, when I was a student ... I couldn't afford to ... If you can in any way, then I recommend doing that … If you don't have any experience, you can't get in there. (#07)
Second, transition to workplace culture seemed to be one of the largest hurdles; this
is particularly acute if they have not engaged in any type work experience during
their education as it can provide context for their learning and understanding of
graduate positions (Perrone & Vickers 2003). Graduates often perceive a tension
between the skills they have developed while under academic guidance and those
expected by potential employers. The university aims for broad transferable skills
that will allow graduates to be flexible and adaptable to changing work environments
whereas employers often focus on specific skills and abilities for their specific
conditions (Haukka 2011; Davis, Savage & Miller 2009; Ball 2002; Smith et al.
2007; Perrone & Vickers 2003). ‘Basically just understanding the workforce … So
coming in five days a week doing the hours that we were doing was a bit of a shock
and that was the main challenge’ (#03). Further the strategy of looking beyond a
narrowly defined design position or application of discipline agility was not always
obvious to recent graduates who are often reluctant to step outside their core
specialism at the early stage of their career (Bridgstock 2011a; Ashton 2015).
Third, understanding the globalised, networked world of 21st century creative work is
a valuable capability and may further lead to exposure to jobs in non-traditional
sectors (Bridgstock 2011b). For these women, travel, predominantly to Asia,
highlights the shift in the work of the industrial designer and how many companies
involve designers more closely in all the activities of design-to-market, requiring
them to communicate across all disciplines engaged in the process. The ability to
communicate in foreign languages along with international views are additional
attributes that assist with new graduate employability (Yang, You & Chen 2005).
Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace 141
Fourth, the study illuminates the historical development of this discipline, being
similar to that of engineering in that they both have an image of being dirty or
technical and to do with machines, and are both industries that have been established
with masculine patterns and values (Powell, Bagilhole & Dainty 2006; Bruce &
Lewis 1990; Bruce 1985). Although there has been an increase in the number of
women making their way into the industry through successful education (Lockhart &
Miller 2015a), there are still significant gendered hurdles that the women face. At the
same time the gender based patterns appear to be accepted as just something that the
women deal with. Nonetheless, to achieve success and acceptance in this space,
women often modify their behaviours by adopting male attributed traits such as
toughness and competitiveness, or alternatively utilise deference, a more acceptable
feminine characteristic. Often the types of work that are available to women in this
space offer little creativity and responsibility, resulting in reduced opportunity for
advancement (Windels & Wei-Na 2012; Windels & Mallia 2015). The women in this
study who have been frustrated by these constraints and barriers have stepped away
from the convention and developed their own entrepreneurial working environment
producing their own products, taking control of the whole product to market process
and how they work. ‘So our studio is not open on Fridays, so that is part of our
lifestyle choice’ (#10). The move to self-employment most notably occurs at a time
when they have developed confidence in their business skills and knowledge
(Langowitz & Minniti 2007; Henry 2009; Heilman & Chen 2003).
Conclusion
There has been an increase in the number of women studying design at university,
specifically industrial design. In this paper we have considered some of the issues
that challenge women when pursuing their careers after graduation from university.
These findings are based on the experiences of 19 female industrial design course
graduates interviewed. Some experiences and challenges appeared consistently
across the interviewees even though their time in the workplace and type of work
experiences differed. A number of the challenges or hurdles that were identified may
hinder them in achieving their desired success. The understanding of these hurdles is
important as they can be seen to push the women out of the mainstream industry to
142 Chapter 7: Succeeding in the workplace
self-employment. This move often does provide a space for women to follow their
passion and to tailor their work environment, although it removes women’s voices
and sensibilities from the centre of the field.
This discipline-specific research, when read alongside that of other disciplines such
as architecture, advertising and the creative industries, begins to suggest that there
are common problems for women working in these creative fields (Caven & Diop
2012; Windels & Wei-Na 2012; Bridgstock 2011b). In particular, it highlights that
there is still gender discrimination, a ‘boys club’ where women are held to different
standards – made to prove themselves, often offered the less creative jobs and
thereby less remuneration, and there is little flexibility in place and hours of work
making management of family and children difficult.
Future research should examine the experience of men also moving into this field to
provide further understanding of how the industry embraces and treats all new
graduates. Similarly, such research could investigate whether there is attitudinal
change occurring: if younger men who studied alongside these women and who have
not experienced any discrimination during their study (Lockhart & Miller 2015b),
have embraced the diversity and skills set women may bring to this creative
environment.
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Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 149
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
Although there has been an increase in the number of women entering and
graduating from university in the area of industrial design, there is limited knowledge
about their aspirations, experiences and actual career paths. This study addresses this
knowledge gap from the perspectives of 19 female graduates from one industrial
design course offered at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia. It provides
detailed insight into career hurdles and how they are navigated. As well as exploring
their unique experiences, this research suggests why these women do not appear to
be achieving success in the workplace, or rather, are redefining what being a
successful designer looks like for them.
The results, outlined in detail in the previous chapters, are consistent with the
existing body of literature exploring women’s experiences of working in non-
traditional fields, including medicine, the STEM disciplines and the more creative
areas of architecture and advertising (Ceci, Williams & Barnett 2009; Elston 2009;
Kinzie 2007; Caven & Astor 2013; Windels & Wei-Na 2012). Further the results of
this study find similarity in the career path study of graduates at another Australian
university by Trathen and Varadarajan (2015) particularly with the adapters who are
often ‘stretching the boundaries of what is industrial design’ (2015, 51) and their role
in small scale manufacture along with the application of their design thinking skills
in non-traditional ways. Essentially, a wide array of cultural, social, psychological,
economic and political factors intertwine to impede women’s awareness of design as
a potential career, active engagement in university study and subsequent success in
the workplace. This chapter discusses each of these hurdles, as well as the research
limitations and the theoretical and practical implications.
It is important to note, as outlined in the literature review, that there is a wide group
of career models and gender theory frameworks (Rosenbloom et al. 2008; Lent,
Brown & Hackett 1994; Blickenstaff 2005). Perhaps the most well-known is the
widely rejected deficit theory (Goodwin 2008), which argues that women lack the
skills needed for the field. This research adds further evidence, as this sample of
150 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
female designers demonstrates mastery of creative thinking, problem solving, design
detailing and communication through the use of computer aided design programs
(CAD), rapid prototyping and model-making to produce market ready products.
Dominance theories consider how power is most often exerted over women and the
implications of gender power dynamics, whereas difference theory argues that the
differences between men and women make them distinctly unique (Goodwin 2008).
To a certain extent, women in this research noted some gender-based differences,
particularly at university (for example, design assessments tended to be masculine in
nature, such as designing cars or tools) and in the workplace (for example, masculine
norms in workplaces and the types of work offered to women such as graphics and
2D work).
Theoretical Models
Conceptually, this research drew on the hurdles model proposed by Bruce and Lewis
(1990). The original model proposed three hurdles, as per Figure 8.1 this research
identified a fourth hurdle: redefining success.
Figure 8.1 Four-hurdle model of influences affecting women
At this juncture, it is appropriate to reflect on the advantages and limitations of using
this model. On the one hand, as the only model to be developed with the design field
specifically in mind, it provides a simple and easily understood summary of the
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 151
issues facing women designers. That simplicity could also be viewed as a weakness,
however – especially when looking at other theoretical models which attempt to
explain gender differences that include multiple overlapping factors (for example,
causal model in STEM and social-cognitive career theory). However, it could be
argued that industrial design as a discipline prefers straightforward models; for
instance, in their recent research focussing on the post-graduation work experiences
and choices of male and female industrial design graduates in Australia, Trathen &
Varadarajan (2013) developed a three category model of Adopters, Adapters and
Departers. Similarly, Bruce and Lewis’s (1990) hurdles model provides a simple,
elegant and comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding both the obvious
and the more invisible hurdles that women must overcome to achieve success in
design. As it is now over two decades old, though, it is important to assess the extent
to which it reflects the experience of contemporary women designers; thus, below
each of these hurdles is discussed in turn, focussing on how well it captured the
experience of these UTS graduates.
Hurdle one: gaining a qualification
Hurdle one considers education and gaining a qualification. In this research, it is
separated into two key sub-categories: why these women chose to study design
(Paper 1) and their educational experience in the course at university (Paper 2). It is
important to understand the motivations and influences to study a particular area or
to choose a particular career path, as there are often a number of factors that
influence whether women think a career is suited to them. In her expectancy-value
theory for STEM disciplines, Eccles (2009; Eccles et al. 1983), identified how
cultural norms, social experiences, ability, competence beliefs and values all
combine to influence whether women think a particular STEM field might be right
for them. Similarly, this research with industrial designers also identified that early
life experiences (specifically childhood exposure, primarily via parents working in
design and construction fields) were significant. These women appeared to grow up
in ‘design families’, with parents and family members who worked in (and were
interested in) design fields. Almost all of these women recalled a high level of
engagement and competence in the three-dimensional world from an early age, and
recalled being excited by making things, sticking and gluing and building with Lego.
Interestingly, this early interest and focus on making things was also documented in
152 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
Clegg et al.’s (1999) UK research on why women engage in design and IT courses at
university. In design, it was a part of their identity while growing up, while in IT the
women developed their own understanding or metaphor for making the discipline
their own. These Australian industrial designers described themselves as the kind of
girls who developed a sense of identity through their passion for creating – as one
explained, ‘I think it’s just always been part of what I do, what I like doing’ (#01).
This research has highlighted that parents clearly play a key role in encouraging and
supporting their daughters’ early interest in designing, creating and making, with
their expectations for achievement playing a meaningful role in their later choice to
study design. The critical role parents play in supporting their daughters’ choices is
consistent with research in other non-design disciplines (see for example, Eccles
2009; Wang, Eccles & Kenny 2013; Davis-Kean 2005; Li & Kerpelman 2007).
Parental use of language around a particular subject area further influences the
confidence of girls to engage in an area (Tenenbaum 2009), particularly if it is
outside the norm or a gender non-traditional area. These participants used phrases
like ‘my mum always said, “Oh, I always knew you would be in a creative
role”’(#12) and ‘So I made a lot of toys. I always had a lot of support from home, in
making things … It's a common factor in our family’ (#14), highlighting the
nurturing and positive familial environment in which their passion for design first
developed. As noted in Paper 1, most participants came from ‘design’ families
(where parents worked in a related three-dimensional profession such as architecture
or building), and this provided some context for appreciating and seeing the
industrial design profession as a viable career option. Industrial or product design
was then explored as a viable career option because it involves both creativity and
making things - something all these women loved to do: ‘I thought practical. I like
working with my hands and I think it suited what I wanted to do so I put industrial
design down and I got in.’ (#5)
As well as parents, research typically finds (Bregman & Killen 1999; Brown, Ortiz-
Nunez & Taylor 2011) that ‘significant others’ (which includes older siblings,
friends and teachers) also influence girls’ and women’s attitudes towards careers. In
this research, female participants recalled how significant others actively encouraged
their interest in studying design; as one recalled, ‘my graphics teacher in year 12
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 153
actually said, “You should do industrial design,” but I didn’t know what it was about;
the careers counselor didn’t know either … so I kind of left that and went off and did
science’ (#15). Here, many of the designers recalled that many of their friends and
siblings had identified a design course for their own path of study and they thought it
sounded interesting. One recalled that her sister recommended she study industrial
design: ‘my sister studied interior architecture and she said, “There’s this course
called industrial design. It is like art but it’s more practical because you get to make
products and I thought that sounded really good.”’ (#14)
In particular, teachers (often of art) are in a privileged mentoring position and,
having an overview of the skills and talents of the young woman, can provide more
focused direction and identify design as a potential career (Eccles & Wigfield 2002;
Eccles 2005). As one recalled, it was her art teacher who said, ‘maybe look in
industrial design or design because you are quite good at sculpturing … get some
practical knowledge’ (#9). Of course, these teachers need to be aware of the course
options. One of the challenges facing industrial design is that it is not a very well-
known course or career; in Australian universities, industrial design often has a lower
entry requirement due to low public visibility and understanding of the profession
(Robertson & Design Institute of Australia 2013a).
Thus, for many of these women, their experience of identifying industrial design as a
potential study option was often very serendipitous; they frequently described
‘stumbling across’ it when searching for popular design or creative related courses
such as visual communication and architecture in university study guides. As one
explained, she didn’t think she ‘knew about industrial design until I looked into the
UAC guide’ (#5); for others, industrial design was a gateway to another desired
course (architecture) or a substitute for a preferred option; for example, one recalled
that she ‘actually wanted to do this vis comm and I missed out on it by one mark or
something so I said I will start with industrial design and move over’ (#19).
The serendipity involved in engaging these women with industrial design is a
concern for educators, professionals and the design profession more broadly. The
Design Institute of Australia holds an annual salary survey of its members and
designers around the country. Alongside the questions of salary and fee structure,
154 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
respondents are asked to respond to what they consider to be important issues for
being a designer and how they could be addressed (Robertson & Design Institute of
Australia 2013a). In the 2011/12 survey the three open ended questions covered the
following issues: what are the major industry and professional issues for the design
professions at the moment, technology?; how are the internet, mobile application and
social media affecting your design profession and support?; and how can the
professional body best support your design discipline in the next five years?
Specifically, the profession and its practitioners believe that the general population
requires further education on the scope and limitations of design, arguing that this
would open the possibility of further work and offer a deeper understanding of the
value of industrial design as providing more than just a styling service.
Australian Bureau of Statistics occupation codes highlight 1014 occupations that are
design related, with the DIA 2011 survey suggesting that 1 in every 140 Australians
has a qualification in aesthetic based design disciplines; these include industrial
design, interior design, interior decoration, fashion design, jewellery design, graphic
design, illustration, multimedia design and web design (Robertson & Design Institute
of Australia 2013b). Most of these disciplines have a close or reliant relationship on
another industry; industrial design closely linked with manufacturing, where
changes, specifically the slow-down of manufacturing in Australia, will have a
negative flow-on effect. When manufacturing closes or moves its operations
overseas, potential demand for local industrial design services is diminished;
traditionally, this industry has often sought the advice of problem solvers (industrial
designers) local to the manufacturing to speed up response time, yet the decline of
manufacturing in Australia (increasingly in cheaper off-shore Asian hubs) is
reducing this. At the same time, as noted by the relatively low awareness of
industrial design amongst the women designers interviewed in my research, the
discipline needs to do a much better job of marketing and communicating itself to the
wider public.
Experience Studying Design
Once in the degree, these participants generally felt there was relatively little tangible
and explicit gender bias throughout their study. Of course there were some
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 155
identifiable hurdles that negatively impacted their experience of the course. The
course was problem focused, where design possibilities were explored through
projects frequently in the context of a theme (Talbot 2007). These themes were often
perceived as gendered, with assessment items typically focused on more ‘masculine’
interests, such as designing power tools or accessories for cars. There was a sense
that the men in the class would have an advantage in these assessments, through their
previous pattern of experience or simply life exposure. Clearly, consideration and
framing of assessment themes in less strongly-gendered terms (along with providing
a choice within a studio project) will further allow the student to self-direct their
learning and provide the opportunity for deeper engagement and satisfaction (Yang,
You & Chen 2005; Clegg, Mayfield & Trayhurn 1999).
One of the most negative, challenging and simply scary experiences for these women
designers at university was navigating the design workshop. The workshop
environment, for making models and prototypes, is a space where technical mastery
is required. It was perceived as masculine, with the scale of machinery confronting
some of the women leaving them feeling clumsy and ill equipped As they described
it: ‘I hated model making, I hated the workshop, I hated the mess, I hated the dirt, I
hated the sound’ (#3), with almost apologetic language for their lack of success … ‘I
didn't really thrive on the workshop’ (#19). This is consistent with research on
women studying furniture design, who felt they had to prove themselves to be equal
to the men to gain acceptance in the space (Clegg, Mayfield & Trayhurn 1999).
The building of confidence in design skills is an essential ingredient in this type of
degree; fortunately, these women acknowledged that skill level and confidence did
improve throughout the years of study in the course. It often culminated in their self-
derived final major project, where they had to manage their own process from
research to designed outcome bringing together all the elements they had learned
(Green 2005). Although the full impact of the final project was not always
immediately (or ever) obvious to the student, it often shaped future career direction,
established specific knowledge areas and built networks. For instance, one
participant’s (#1) major project began with the research of the care of dementia
patients and how music may be used to reduce stress and induce calm. The
realisation of her research was a set of headphones that slipped into a soft and
156 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
comfortable headband; it could be worn by people of any age, did not require to be
inserted in the ear (an unknown pattern of experience for the particular target group)
and was like pulling on a hat. Within several years of graduating, this designer,
having engaged in a business incubator to resolve the technical details, took delivery
of her first production run of 5 000 units of specific branded headphones that were to
be available through major retailers and specialty stores. At the time of interview, the
headphones had been embraced by sportspeople, especially runners, as they remain
securely in place during activity, they were available nationally and internationally
and she was considering other user environments such as water. Clearly, educators
need to remind all students that final year project selection has the potential to shape
the focus of their future careers, and a strategic choice may have significant future
career benefits. Additionally, as well as possible identification of career path options,
a more systematic and directed approach to the identification of their problem would
ensure reason for deep engagement and, typically, better grades (Green & Bonollo
2003).
In terms of overall negatives, course criticism emerged as the participants reflected
on how the course had prepared them quite broadly - although not deeply in any one
particular area of design practice. Design educators and curriculum developers need
to be able to respond to changes in the discipline and the university education
environment to be able to produce graduate designers who are innovative, creative,
can produce design solutions that suit the intended users and develop sustainable
careers (Wormald 2011; Phillips, De Miranda & Jinseup Ted 2009; Bridgstock
2013). The challenge is in understanding emerging methods and techniques that new
designers will require to work in new ways without the loss of fundamental
discipline skills (Bridgstock et al. 2015). Design thinking, and its application to
creative thinking and innovation, is a methodology that has emerged from the
discipline and been applied to many non-design based companies most ably
facilitated by designers. Design-led innovation looks to create an alternative
competitive advantage through a different way of thinking to generate novel
solutions, often utilising a user-centred approach (Bucolo et al. 2013). At the
education level, by way of acknowledging this, UTS now offers a combined degree
option across all students in the university, a Bachelor of Creative Intelligence and
Innovation, a problem based learning course where students from business, design,
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 157
science and other disciplines work together to creatively solve and find new
possibilities for situations (UTS 2013). Moreover, at the professional level there are
many companies (like IDEO) using ‘design thinking’ within their design practice.
Hurdle 2: Getting a job
The final year projects also often brought into focus the direction and possibilities of
employment. At the end of the degree, many of these participants did not feel work
ready and identified a desire for direct workplace experience and more business
related skills, especially the running of a small business. This fear about the unknown
workplace and feeling of being unprepared for the workforce is not uncommon; other
Australian studies investigating the career-expectations of both male and female
graduates of built environment, design and engineering have also documented the
challenges associated with making the critical transition from university to work.
For instance, drawing on focus groups and surveys, Savage, Davis and Miller (2009)
explored how three key stakeholders - academics, professionals (that is, employers)
and final year students/recent graduates - negotiated the key challenges facing the
industry. New graduates focused on the challenge of getting their first job, while
professionals and academics emphasised the importance of graduates developing
critical thinking, technical and social skills to productively engage and contribute to
their discipline. Other international research has also found that art and design
graduates typically have difficulties connecting what they have learned at university
to the critical professional skills and atributes, and applying them in workplace
environments (Ball 2002; Lewis & Bonollo 2002; Yang, You & Chen 2005; Savage,
Davis & Miller 2009; Haukka 2011). The desire for more training in practical small
business and entrepreneurship skills is also not uncommon; Rae (2004) has
developed a model for teaching entrepreneurship in the creative industries,
acknowledging that mainstream approaches are not always effective for this group.
For industrial design, Wrigley and Bucolo (2011, 231), recognising the changes in
the profession, embedded in the final semester subject of the degree novel ways of
including new technologies and services, integrated with business strategies with the
ambition to ‘foster a more grounded and resourceful future designer.’
158 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
Interestingly, these women had a strong desire to hold a business card with the title
‘designer’ under their name – which they saw as a validation of their years of study
and passion for the industry. Unfortunately, some of this sample of women
experienced difficulties in gaining their first job, which they attributed to a lack of
confidence of their own skills and also to the male dominated and patterned work
environment, described as the ‘boys’ club’. This is sadly similar to what Bruce &
Lewis (1990) reported over two decades ago. The experience of more current women
graduates was that breaking into the design workplace required, on top of good
grades and a strong design portfolio, an array of innovative pro-active job-seeking
strategies. Women who were most successful in quickly securing desired design
employment identified this need for work experience and sought it throughout study
or as a transition to full-time employment. This is not always the case, as identified
by Haukka (2011) through the analysis of two major studies into the creative
industries in Australian which highlights that aspiring creatives may not have
engaged in or developed industry networks through voluntary work as they usually
need to be in paid employment to support their study (Haukka 2011). Like
Bridgstock (2011b ; 2013), this thesis also found the ability to see an alternative path
or ‘sidestepping’ proved very effective in providing valuable work environment
experience and transferable skills while also building a network. For example, one
participant recalled taking a receptionist position at a furniture retailer: ‘it’s like an
ear to the ground, there’s no point having a job that is not in the industry’ (#14),
allowing her to remain active and continue to build her network. Another consciously
took a position as a production manager that was more ‘problem solving and
troubleshooting’ (#02), building skills that were utilised later in her own company.
Consistent with other research (Eby, Butts & Lockwood 2003), these women also
described how networking through university projects and contacts also provided
significant opportunities that were turned into employment. One participant had
carried out an interview for an assignment in third year of her study and on
completion of the degree made contact again, expressing interest in the company’s
work, and secured ‘work experience for a bit and it ended up being a position … she
was the most invaluable mentor you could ever have’ (#18).
These women felt that, in comparison to their male counterparts, getting a first
design job was slightly harder for them as women. While societal standards and
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 159
stereotypical gender norms have changed significantly, their reality was that design
in Australia remains a relatively male-dominated and technical field. The experiences
of one participant (#7 described below) reflected the prevailing attitude that women
don’t have the technical skills and abilities, even if they have completed the same
education as a man and have similar work in their portfolio.
I applied for a job that I know some fellow male students applied for and I was straight away told I didn't have enough engineering background and I thought that's fine but then one of the guys got it who I knew had the same education. And then I have also been questioned in interview - ‘Did you actually do that work?’, and stuff like that, and they go, ‘Really?’ (#7)
Hurdle 3: Becoming a success
Once a design position had been secured, these women found that their skills and
specific industry knowledge were tested and it often took time for confidence and
trust to be built. They needed to learn how to navigate the profession successfully
and gain recognition. One of the key indicators of ‘success’ for these women was the
gaining of trust from the employers. This was evident through travel and representing
the firm overseas, primarily to China or Korea where they were sent to
manufacturing facilities to direct design and check production, often taking
advantage of their language skills. The importance of international skills and
confidence is a reality in our global marketplace, with Yang, You and Chen (2005)
highlighting that marketing strategy and analysis, team work, and communication
skills in foreign languages are now part of the required capabilities and competencies
for future industrial designers (Yang, You & Chen 2005).
In their original definition of becoming a success, Bruce and Lewis (1990) included
promotion and awards. As noted anecdotally at the beginning of this thesis, the major
awards scheme in the country, the Good Design Awards (previously the Australian
International design awards), is male-dominated with men and teams of men being
acknowledged for the design of particular products. There are very few women
present; this is a fact that is evident from the audience, as many men in suits walk
across the stage but very few women. The winning of awards was not specifically
addressed in the interview questions (a research limitation), although only two
160 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
participants mentioned awards. One was an industry specific award that went to the
team that brought the product together (#12); the other was a prestigious individual
award for young designers up to the age of 25 and she won first prize, to spend time
with the famed Australian industrial designer, Marc Newson, in his office in London,
including the opportunity to discuss commercialisation prospects of her designs (#2).
In Australia, most of these women felt awards and promotion were not viable
options, due often to their small company size; in 2013, around 60% of Australian
design business had fewer than three designers/owners (Robertson & Design Institute
of Australia 2014b). Further, as almost half of the participants were self-employed,
they have stepped away from this type of traditional work environment and
promotions were viewed as an irrelevant consideration.
The gendered work environment of industrial design, somewhat reflecting that of
engineering (Powell, Bagilhole & Dainty 2006; Bruce & Lewis 1990; Bruce 1985) in
that both are considered technical and dirty, with masculine patterns and values, was
evident on breaking into the profession; the women described their experiences of
male gate-keeping and sexism. They described having to prove themselves more,
with their capabilities and skills more often questioned than those of male colleagues.
The types of work offered were less technical and less creative, resulting in less
recognition and remuneration. This is consistent with research into creatives in the
advertising industry (Windels & Wei-Na 2012; Windels & Mallia 2015). To ‘get on’,
these women generally had to adopt one of two approaches: either male attributes of
toughness and competitiveness’, or deference and other more acceptable feminine
characteristics. This is most evident in the narratives of participant (#13), who
recalled how some women colleagues flirted with the director; ‘they played the
game’ allowing them to take on more design related work, whereas (#13) was
considered ‘weird’ not to play along, with the consequence that her work options
were limited.
Hurdle 4: Redefining success
This research identified a new fourth hurdle: women redefining what design career
success can be for them. Work-life balance is an increasing issue, with design and
creative industries notorious for long working hours, particularly when there is a
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 161
deadline. For many women, especially those with children, there is an increasing
reluctance to work traditional 9-5 hours, with their desire for more flexibility limiting
their income possibilities and opportunities for advancement in traditionally run
firms (Windels & Mallia 2015; Windels & Wei-Na 2012). As a designer there is a lot
of overtime and, to retain professional standing and credibility, working full-time is
seen as the only option. Further, the types of projects and their scale prevents them
from being broken down into part-time elements, with employers appearing reluctant
to explore job sharing options or working less than full-time. Windels & Mallia
(2015) described advertising creative departments being developed on male norms
and ways of working, with long hours and inflexible work arrangements, and found
that women expressed frustration with how time was used and valued, especially if
they wanted to incorporate childcare into their role. Similar reluctance in relation to
innovative job-sharing or part-time work is also observed across a number of STEM
industries (Ayre 2001).
Unlike their female STEM counterparts, however, many in this sample felt that their
chosen profession was suited to exploring self-employment and entrepreneurship.
Creating their own design focused small business was a viable option for these
women, whereas starting their own enterprise is perhaps less achievable in other
professions (for example, STEM). At the time of interview, just under half this group
(42%) had decided to quit traditional employment and set up their own small
businesses, with a further small percentage (5%) expressing the desire to also have
their own business when the time was right. The advantages of owning their own
businesses provided these women with the ability to determine their own work
schedule and desired work-life balance; one participant (#19) described how now
that she had her own business, she did not work on Fridays. Both clients and
manufacturers had accepted this, and with both business partners having children,
this practice has provided them with the flexibility they desired for work-life balance
and to care for their children. Further, there is a greater sense of personal
achievement and satisfaction; as one explained: ‘Because I'm investing my own time
and my own money in everything, it's just all - a bit different to working for someone
else’ (#2).
162 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
Of course, the move to self-employment and entrepreneurship is a growing trend for
women across many working sectors. To date, however, there remains a significant
gender gap with much larger numbers of men undertaking this type of activity. The
most recent Australian statistics show that 81% of all new small business started in
2013 were run by men and only 19% by women (Startup Muster 2014). In explaining
why men are more likely to engage in such entrepreneurship, researchers point to
men being less risk-adverse and women typically requiring more certainty in return
for this effort, as well as differences in men’s and women’s availability to qualify for
and secure financial support (either to start-up or to expand the business). Exposure
to other women-owned businesses and mentorship plays a significant role in
supporting their entrepreneurship activities (Afandi & Kermani 2015; Dalborg 2015;
Bodolica & Spraggon 2015; Perks 2015; Langowitz & Minniti 2007). The
oversupply of designers is further pushing self-employment as the DIA highlights
(Robertson & Design Institute of Australia 2014a) that, due to the scale of the tertiary
industry and popularity of design courses in general, recent graduates have few
options. For industrial design this is heightened by the changes in the manufacturing
sector, where significant number of employers of designers have closed or moved
off-shore. Further noted was the decline in the number of consultancies across the
country with speculation that the work is being taken by freelance or self-employed
designers, although a creative and design based education can position graduates
well for this type of employment as Ball’s (2002) research establishes that hands-on,
problem-solving experiences in higher education often produce flexible, adaptable
entrepreneurs. They may not always have set out to start a business and it may have
evolved from the learning processes and working methodologies that underpin their
practice and a desire to have greater control over lifestyle and their creative practice
as reflected by one of the women interviewed:
It had been a hobby and it got to the point where it was demanding more and more time and we were taking annual leave to do tradeshows. Before it was at markets and on weekends. So it was suddenly kind of encroaching on our day job and we met in the morning, what bits would be made the night before, one would print out an invoice at work because we didn't have printers at home; go to the post office at lunchtime. We would call customers back from our cars at lunchtime. So obviously it was becoming a force to be reckoned with but also it was at a point for both of us where I think, you know, maybe I had the eight-year itch and personally it was a good time - I felt it was a good time to do something different. (#19)
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 163
Limitations
At this juncture, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this research. First,
the findings are based on one university in a large Australian city, covering women
who graduated over a 14 year period (1995 to 2009) and were able to be contacted.
Although no significant differences were observed across these cohorts, future
research should narrow the graduation timeframe. Notably, I have been an industrial
design academic throughout this time, personally teaching all of these graduates at
UTS; this may have been a factor influencing the willingness of graduates to
participate (or not) in this research. Second, this thesis focuses only on graduates of
the course and does not include the experiences of women who may have started the
course and not completed it; their experience, although beyond the scope of this
thesis, needs to be explored in the future as it may further inform course structure.
Third, as the focus was only on women, it is unclear whether their male counterparts
might report similar backgrounds, influencing factors and workplace experiences.
Although such factors are unlikely to significantly bias the results, future studies
should address these issues and endeavour to recruit a more diverse sample of
women from multiple universities, as well as comparing their experiences to those of
their male counterparts. Given the very small body of research exploring the
experience of female industrial designers, this thesis has made a significant
contribution to the literature and addressed the central research question: how do
Australian women experience their design education and career paths?
Women in Industrial design: where to from here?
At the beginning of this thesis, along with exploring Australian women’s experiences
of their design education and career path, I outlined three main aims:
1. To explore the drivers and motivations of women who choose to engage in
Industrial Design.
2. To understand the aspirations, experiences and actual career paths taken by
female graduates from Industrial Design.
3. To identify possible actions to improve the experience of women in industrial
design, from education to practice and leadership.
164 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
While the first two aims have been explicitly addressed in the body of this thesis
(specifically the published papers), below I focus primarily on the possible actions
that could help improve the impact and visibility of women in industrial design.
In addressing the first aim, this thesis has shown that three key elements motivate
women to become industrial designers: early exposure and aptitude (most were from
‘design families’); the influence and support of key others (family, friends, teachers,
university, industry); and just simple serendipity (for example, a boyfriend studying
design told them about the course).
In addressing the second aim, understanding their aspirations, experiences and actual
career paths, these women were passionate, flexible and entrepreneurial. Entering the
profession is where the graduates encounter the highest hurdle. Their identity is built
on their passion for design, and they acknowledge being adaptable, good with people
and project management and willing to up-skill when required. Although they
graduate with portfolios and skill levels equivalent to the men, potential employers
scrutinise them more negatively, and appear to evaluate the work of women to a
different standard. Clearly the women have the talent and skill to perform as
industrial designers as just under half of our small group have utilised their
knowledge and experience of the design process to design and successfully bring to
market their own products, thereby fulfilling their creative passion and creating
independence with the ability to control their work environment to suit their lifestyle,
which often includes the care of children.
Below, I have created a SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunity, threat) analysis to
complete a profile of the woman who studies industrial design and makes her way
into the profession. Drawing on the data from the interviews, this analysis highlights
the personal characteristics that a woman needs and situations that she needs to be
aware of – it provides a strategic concept for career development for women in
industrial design. Critically, it also highlights what actions educators and the
profession need to undertake to build critical momentum and capacity in this field.
SWOT analysis has been a foundational tool in strategic planning since its
development in the 1950s and 1960s, and offers a way to make sense of complex
situations and to assist with decision-making. SWOT is most often used in a business
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 165
or corporate context to provide a means of evaluating and developing strategy,
although it can be applied to individuals, groups, teams, organisations and plans
(Chang & Huang 2006; Chermack & Kasshanna 2007; Helms & Nixon 2010). This
type of analysis has been utilised in the medical profession to identify barriers that
may be preventing women from obtaining leadership positions and to create a
strategic concept for career development (Schueller-Weidekamm & Kautzky-Willer
2012). In this SWOT analysis, as Figure 8.1 illustrates, strengths and weaknesses are
the internal characteristics that help or hinder career advancement; opportunities and
threats are the external elements or chances that impact on their career position.
Figure 8.2 SWOT analysis of women in industrial design
SWOT: Internal strengths and weaknesses for female industrial designers
In terms of internal strengths, the list of positive characteristics that contribute to
these women’s success in their industrial design careers is quite extensive:
determination to stick with it and believe in it; passion; adaptability; taking initiative;
forward thinking; always challenging themselves; being good with people at all
levels; and working in partnership. The ability to time manage and project manage
are key, and as design is always working to a deadline this further requires the ability
to delegate. A sense of humour and a positive outlook help to solve difficult
situations and conflicts, while motivation to be involved in interesting work that they
can be passionate about is also critical. In terms of weaknesses, the women
highlighted their poor ability to communicate about their skills, personalities and
successes. They have a tendency toward understatement and poor self-confidence,
often comparing themselves to male colleagues who are just ‘more ballsy’(#3). The
mastery of technical skills featured strongly, while the ability to keep up to date with
Strength passion, adaptable, people skills, project management,
partnership, humour, language
Weakness Self-confidence, inability
to sell self, technical skills, CAD currency
Opportunity networks, mentors, business
study, entrepreneurship
Threat remaining design current,
running a business, accessing finance
Internal characteristic
External elements
166 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
the latest CAD and rendering programs and the need to understand different
manufacturing methods were viewed as stressful.
SWOT: External opportunities and threats for female industrial designers
To increase the opportunity for success, the women identified a number of points for
improvement. In terms of education, they felt that project themes should be broad
and not gendered, and that the ability to self-direct is important to improve
engagement and retainment in the course. In terms of career awareness, they
identified a need for improvement in the types of strategies required for getting the
first job and ways in which new graduates could avoid being exploited. They also
pointed to the importance of understanding the diversity of the profession and
building networks, starting while studying.
In terms of career, the need to be able to turn ‘designing on’ all the time, to
demonstrate high levels of creativity and to have an understanding of new trends
were identified as some of the most challenging demands. Whether working for
themselves or for others, understanding the role of the designer often requires them
to work across office and manufacturing and to be able to work with a variety of
different types of people, which could prove challenging.
Finally, nearly half of the interviewees were setting up their own design businesses.
Consistent with a number of studies on women entrepreneurs, the ability to find
encouraging mentors was seen as critical. These women described how mentors
often emerged from family or friend networks and provided advice that assisted with
the production of products overseas and the management of importation. Other
mentors are life partners, who ‘keeps me calm and gives me the confidence to aim
high’(#2). Business study is often required on top of a design education to
understand invoicing and basic costing of a product. Indeed, these women described
how actual designing can become quite a small part of their businesses, as they
worked chasing new business, managing invoices, developing corporate identity, and
keeping up with newsletters and related social media. Patenting, locally and globally,
along with the design registration required to be able to protect the uniqueness of the
designed product was a very challenging area, usually requiring a significant level of
professional assistance.
Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 167
Finally, my third aim was to identify possible actions to improve the experience of
women in industrial design from education to practice and leadership. For educators
the challenge is to understand the changes to the profession, requiring them to
evaluate the course focus (which is often on design for manufacture) and its
relevance in new design practices, and an ability to provide open design tasks that
allow the student to incorporate emerging design-led innovation and technologies in
new ways is essential. Practice, through the Design Institute of Australia, needs to
carefully consider the recommendations that are emerging from Parlour and the
guidelines for equitable practice as a starting point for the education of the industry.
There is also opportunity for more celebration of women industrial designers through
exhibition of their work. Leadership can be supported and encouraged through public
forums of women talking about their practice and how they have navigated the
hurdles, which would also provide the opportunity for network building.
Conclusion
Internationally and within Australia, there is slowly emerging evidence and public
acknowledgment of the critical roles women have played in the development of
design, in all its forms. Online environments are providing the platform for exposure
and allow for many contributors; for example, internationally there is core77 who is
slowly building the stories of women designers and their work, primarily in America
(http://www.core77.com/Designing-Women), and in Australia there is the women’s
register (http://www.womenaustralia.info/) and Design & Art Australia
(https://www.daao.org.au/), which are both focusing on recording the life
experiences an stories of Australian women in creative arts and design, and Parlour
(http://archiparlour.org/) with its growing number of reports and guidelines that
focus on the practice of Architecture and women. It is my hope that this thesis, in a
small way, contributes to this growing knowledge base and highlights the struggles,
experiences and contributions of Australian women in industrial design.
168 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion
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Appendix A 189
Appendix A
Appendix A
Participant information
Invitation to participate, information flyer and participant consent form
190 Appendix A
PARTICIPATEINRESEARCHInformationforProspectiveParticipants
ThefollowingresearchactivityhasbeenreviewedviaQUTarrangementsfortheconductofresearchinvolvinghumanparticipation.
Ifyouchoosetoparticipate,youwillbeprovidedwithmoredetailedparticipantinformation,includingwhoyoucancontactifyouhaveanyconcerns.
Wherearethewomen?WomenIndustrialDesigners–fromuniversityto
workplace
ResearchTeamContactsCathyLockhart–PhDStudent&UTS
LecturerFacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,
SchoolofDesign
DrEvonneMiller—SeniorLectureratQUT
FacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
Pleasecontacttheresearcherteammemberstohaveanyquestionsansweredorifyourequirefurtherinformationabouttheproject.
Whatisthepurposeoftheresearch?AspartofherPhDresearch,CathyLockhartisexploringwhatthewomengraduatesfromtheIndustrial Design course do throughout their career and how the course of study hasinfluenced that path. The aim is to better understand the circumstances of women IDgraduates,theirambitionsandtherealityoftheirworkinglife.
Areyoulookingforpeoplelikeme?The research team is looking forwomen graduates from the Industrial Design course atUTS,between1990to2009.
Whatwillyouaskmetodo?Your participation will involve taking part in an in-depth interview, lasting for 60 – 90minutes, at a convenient central location (e.g., your office). Youwill be invited to speakabout your experience and views of working in the design profession. A copy of thequestionsandtopicscoveredwillbeemailedtoyoupriortotheinterview,whichwillcoverissuessuchas:
• Gettingyourqualification• Gettingyourfirstjob• Becomingasuccess
Theinterviewwillbedigitallyrecordedandlatertranscribed,butallcommentsandresponsesareanonymousandwillbetreatedconfidentiallyatalltimes.
Arethereanyrisksformeintakingpart?Theresearchteamdoesnotbelievethereareanyrisksforyouifyouchoosetoparticipateinthisresearch. It should be noted that if you do agree to participate, you can withdraw fromparticipationatanytimeduringtheprojectwithoutcommentorpenalty.
Arethereanybenefitsformeintakingpart?
Appendix A 191
Itisexpectedthatthisprojectwillnotbenefityoudirectly.However,thefindingsmayinformthedevelopmentofstrategiesandinitiativesbyuniversitiesandprofessionalassociationstoenhance careeropportunities forwomen IndustrialDesign graduates andmay lead to thedevelopmentofawomen’snetworkinIndustrialDesign.
WillIbecompensatedformytime?Unfortunately, no. We appreciate your time is valuable and, should you choose toparticipate, to recognise your contributionparticipantswill beprovidedwitha copyof theresearchfindings.Iaminterested–whatshouldIdonext?If you would like to participate in this study, please contact Cathy Lockhart([email protected] [email protected] ) todiscuss further.Youwill be provided with further information to ensure that your decision and consent toparticipateisfullyinformed.
ThankYou! QUTEthicsApprovalNumber:
1000000991
PARTICIPANTINFORMATIONFORQUTRESEARCHPROJECT
“Wherearethewomen?WomenIndustrialDesigners–from
universitytoworkplace”
RESEARCHTEAMCONTACTSCathyLockhart,PhDStudent&UTSLecturer DrEvonneMiller,SeniorLectureratQUTFacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,
SchoolofDesignFacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
0403301116 0410263046
[email protected] [email protected]
DESCRIPTIONThisprojectisbeingundertakenaspartofPhDforCathyLockhart.Thepurposeofthisproject isto investigatethecareerpathsofwomengraduatesfromtheIndustrialDesigncourseatUTS.The research team requests your assistance because you are one of thosegraduates.PARTICIPATIONYour participation in this project is voluntary. If you do agree to participate, you can withdraw fromparticipationatanytimeduringtheprojectwithoutcommentorpenalty.YourdecisiontoparticipatewillinnowayimpactuponyourcurrentorfuturerelationshipwithQUTorwithUTS.Your participationwill involve an interview or focus group at an agreed location,andwill take approximately 60minutes thatwill be digitally recorded.Questionswillinclude1.WhydidyouchoosetostudyIndustrialDesign?2.Whathasbeenthehighlightofyourcareersofar?EXPECTEDBENEFITSIt is expected that this projectwill not benefit you directly. However, the findingsmay inform thedevelopment of strategies and initiatives by universities and professional associations to enhance
192 Appendix A
careeropportunitiesforwomenIndustrialDesigngraduatesandmayleadtothedevelopmentofawomen’snetworkinIndustrialDesign.RISKSTherearenorisksbeyondnormalday-to-daylivingassociatedwithyourparticipationinthisproject.CONFIDENTIALITYAll commentsand responsesareanonymousandwill be treated confidentially. Thenamesofindividualpersonsarenotrequiredinanyoftheresponses.ItwillbestoredinasecureUTSandQUT-basedlocationandaccessibleonlybythemembersoftheresearch team, who are QUT employees or HDR students. Publications will notincludeanyidentifyinginformationexcepttheyearofgraduation.Alldatawillbede-identifiedatthepointoftranscriptionand/orcoding.Toensurethatparticipant’sviewsareaccuratelyrepresented,multipleexcerptsfromtherawdatausingtheexactwordsoftheparticipantswillbeprovided.Thischeckingallowsparticipantstocheckthattheresearcherhasaccuratelyrecordedtheirexperiencesand transcripts reflect their words and meanings. Specifically, this will requireposting/emailing transcripts to participants and then telephoning them to checktheiraccuracy.CONSENTTOPARTICIPATEWe would like to ask you to sign a written consent form (enclosed) to confirm your agreement toparticipate.QUESTIONS/FURTHERINFORMATIONABOUTTHEPROJECTPleasecontactoneoftheresearchteammembersnamedabovetohaveanyquestionsansweredorifyourequirefurtherinformationabouttheproject.CONCERNS/COMPLAINTSREGARDINGTHECONDUCTOFTHEPROJECTQUTiscommittedtoresearchintegrityandtheethicalconductofresearchprojects.However,ifyoudohave any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project youmay contact the QUTResearchEthicsUniton[+617][email protected] is not connectedwith the research project and can facilitate a resolution to your concern in animpartialmanner.
Thankyouforhelpingwiththisresearchproject.Pleasekeepthissheetforyourinformation.
Appendix A 193
CONSENTFORMFORQUTRESEARCHPROJECT
“Wherearethewomen?WomenIndustrialDesigners–from
universitytoworkplace”
RESEARCHTEAMCONTACTSCathyLockhart,PhDStudent&UTSLecturer DrEvonneMiller,SeniorLectureratQUT Name–Position Name–PositionFacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign FacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,
SchoolofDesign SchoolorFaculty/Externalorganisation SchoolorFaculty/Externalorganisation0403301116 0410263046 Phone Phone
[email protected] [email protected](useonlyQUTemailunlessexternal
organisation)Email(useonlyQUTemailunlessexternal
organisation)
STATEMENTOFCONSENT
Bysigningbelow,youareindicatingthatyou:
• havereadandunderstoodtheinformationdocumentregardingthisproject
• havehadanyquestionsansweredtoyoursatisfaction
• understandthatifyouhaveanyadditionalquestionsyoucancontacttheresearchteam
• understandthatyouarefreetowithdrawatanytime,withoutcommentorpenalty
• understandthatyoucancontacttheResearchEthicsUniton[+617]31385123oremailethicscontact@qut.edu.auifyouhaveconcernsabouttheethicalconductoftheproject
• understand that the project will include audio recording• agreetoparticipateintheproject
Name
Signature
Date / /
Pleasereturnthissheettotheinvestigator.
194 Appendix A
WITHDRAWALOFCONSENTFORQUTRESEARCHPROJECT
“Wherearethewomen?WomenIndustrialDesigners–fromuniversityto
workplace”
RESEARCHTEAMCONTACTSCathyLockhart,PhDStudent&UTSLecturer DrEvonneMiller,SeniorLectureratQUTFacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
FacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
0403301116 [email protected] [email protected]
IherebywishtoWITHDRAWmyconsenttoparticipateintheresearchprojectnamedabove.
IunderstandthatthiswithdrawalWILLNOTjeopardisemyrelationshipwithQueenslandUniversityofTechnology.
Name
Signature
Date / /
Appendix B 195
Appendix B
Appendix B
Ethics approval
196 Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Data collection
Questions used for interviews, sample transcription
PARTICIPATEINRESEARCHInformationforParticipantsINTERVIEWQUESTIONS
ThefollowingresearchactivityhasbeenreviewedviaQUTarrangementsfortheconductofresearchinvolvinghumanparticipation.
Wherearethewomen?WomenIndustrialDesigners–fromuniversitytoworkplace
ResearchTeamContacts
CathyLockhart,PhDStudent&UTSLecturer DrEvonneMiller,SeniorLectureratQUT
FacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
FacultyBuiltEnvironment&Engineering,SchoolofDesign
Pleasecontacttheresearcherteammemberstohaveanyquestionsansweredorifyourequirefurtherinformationabouttheproject.
Whatisthepurposeoftheresearch?Asyouknow,thepurposeofour interviewtoday istodiscussthe impactsonyourcareerpathforhavingstudiedIndustrialDesignandasawomanhowyouarenegotiatingthisworld.Theinterview,whichwillbedigitallyrecorded,willtakebetween30to60minutes.Allcommentsareconfidentialandwillnotbelinkedtoyoupersonally.Doyouhaveanyquestionsbeforewestart?GettingthequalificationFirstIwouldliketotalkaboutyourexperienceofstudyingatuniversityandthecircumstancesofyourchoiceofcourse.
1. Whendidyoustartdesigning?2. WhydidyouchoosetostudyIndustrialDesign?3. Whatwerethemostpositiveaspectsofyourstudy?Wherethereanynegative
aspects?
Appendix C 197
4. Whatwasanimportantorusefulthingyoulearnedordevelopedthroughyourstudy?
5. Thinkingabouttheprojectsyouundertookthroughoutthecoursewhichdoyouconsiderhadthegreatestimpactonyourunderstandingofthedesignprocess?(PROBE:Didthatoranyotherprojectorassignmentinfluenceyourcareerpath?)
6. Asafemaleinthecoursewhatwasyourexperience?(PROBE:Didyouexperienceanybarriers?Doyouthinkyourexperiencewasdifferenttoyourmalepeers?Whatwasyourrelationshipwiththestaff?)
7. Doyouthinkthecourseadequatelypreparedyouforacareerindesign?8. Haveyouparticipatedinanyfurthertrainingorpostgraduatestudy?
(PROBE:Ifyespleasedescribehowithasbeenofbenefit.)
GettingthefirstjobNowIwouldliketodiscusswhatyouhavedonesincecompletingtheindustrialdesigncoursestartingwiththeearlyyears.
1. Whatwasyourplanwhenyoucompletedmajorprojectandthecourse?2. Whatwasyourfirstjobaftercompletingthecourse?3. Howdidyougetyourfirstdesignrelatedjob?
(PROBE:Howmanyjobsdidyouapplyfor?Whatlevelofconfidencedidyouhaveinyourdesignskillsandabilitieswhenapplyingforthosefirstpositions?)
4. Whathasbeentheinfluenceofthatfirstjobonyourcareerpath?5. Whatwerethekeychallengesinthefirstyearsaftergraduation?
BecomingasuccessThethirdsectionIwouldliketodiscussiswhereyouarenowandyourthoughtsonyoursuccess.Thenwhatdoesthefuturehold?
1. Whereareyouworkingnow,whatisyourtitleandwhatcircumstancesleadtothisposition?
2. Whathasbeenthehighlightofyourcareersofar?3. Canyoudescribeyourcharacteristicsthathaveenabledyoutodowhatyoudo?4. Whatdidyouhavetopersonallydeveloporchangeinordertoachievewhatyou
have?5. Whatwouldyousaythemostchallengingpartsofbeingadesignerare?6. Whatisthebiggestmythaboutbeingadesigner?7. Haveyouencounteredanybarriersintheworkplace?8. Istheresomeone,suchasamentor,whoyoulookuptomostandifsowhy?9. Canyouexplainyourdesignprocessforoneofyourprojects?10. Howwouldyoudefinesuccess?11. Ifyouhadtoboilyoursuccessdowntojustonething,whatwoulditbe?12. Wheredoyouaspiretobeworkingin5yearstime?13. What do you think will be the major issues designers will be addressing in the
future?
Womenindesign
1. Whydoyouthinktherehavebeensofewwomendesignersofnote?2. Atthe2010AustralianInternationalDesignawardsfifty-fourmenwentonstageas
partoftheteamsreceivingdesignawardsandfivewomenwhydoyouthinktherewassuchadifference?
198 Appendix C
3. Whatdoyouthinkisvalueofthistypeofpeerreviewprocess?4. Whatattitudesandpracticeswouldneedtobechangedinordertoproducemore
ofthem?5. Whatonepieceofadvicewouldyougivetoarecentwomengraduatefroman
IndustrialDesigncourse?
ThankYou! RMReferenceNumber: 1000000991
when every word counts…
ph: 3852 2276
www.reporters-ink.com interview 9 27 Jan 2011 MATTER: DS500024 Introduction. When did you first start designing? In my own life? Probably as soon as I could cut, draw and paste. In kindergarten I always remember - you know, my favourite thing was to fold pieces of paper and stick them together and make little television sets with sort of people in them. So - I mean, it was just craft then but that's when design probably did start or I knew that I was quite creative and a visual person. Why did you choose to study industrial design? You probably know a bit of this (laughs). I did three units, arts practical, and I also did design and technology and textiles. So a lot of my senior subjects were geared towards either art or design. And my art teacher, when we had to put our preferences in for the HSC, I had no idea what I wanted to do and my art teacher was saying, "Well, there's this new course at UTS" - or, I don't know whether it was new or not but she said, "Maybe look in industrial design or design at COFA or something like that, because you are quite good at sculpturing. Rather than studying fine arts, maybe try and get some practical knowledge where you can apply it later on and get a job, blah, blah, blah." And I think that was mum's way and it influenced me. She said, "You can't study art," but I don't know if I wanted to study art either. I still saw myself in some sort of career or office, I don't know.
Appendix C 199
So that's why I chose industrial design. But I have to admit, I didn't know anything about the course when I chose it and it was quite a rude shock, probably, the first year and the second and third (laughs). And fourth and fifth (laughs). Yeah, didn't know anything about it. I kind of read the course description and was like, "Oh, yeah." But also, I am ashamed to say that my boyfriend at the time, Lindsay, chose it as well. I don't know whether you remember Lindsay. Lindsay? Lindsay Mendel? So it was like, "Oh, okay". And my other friend, close friend, chose interior design at UTS. So it was sort of boosted by that. He didn't make it? No, he quit in the third year and went to geography. So it's part of change (laughs). So many people have made the decision on those five lines in that UAC book and it is your life. Yeah. I wonder whether - I wanted to take a year off and I wonder whether taking that year off between school and university would have changed things, but I don't know. Anyway, we will stick to the questions. What was the most positive aspect of your study? I would probably say not - the lecturers, realising all the resources and the knowledge that I could sort of use, but this was only until the fourth year. I would say the first three years of university, I was kind of stumbling around and not really knowing what - how to do projects, who to go to or - and it was only the fourth year where, I don't know, something sort of clicked and changed. Maybe it was dissertation, doing my own thing, when I understood that, "Oh, I can go to the workshop and ask all these questions or go to Nick Williams and ask him questions." There's no reason to pretend that I know everything. That was probably the best part of it. You travelled amongst----- Yeah, so I did international studies. You did combined----- Yes. So I did two years, went overseas and then came back third year, and that's when-----
200 Appendix C
And did fourth year. ------I got into your office and said, "I don't know what I want to do with it any more." (Laughs). Cried and cried. Yeah, look, it is hard. Yeah. Were there any negative aspects to your study? Yes. I think that the course when I started was very - and I didn't - I just knew I didn't like it, but I didn't realise it at the time why. Looking back on it, it's because it was quite - you know, it was geared towards power tools, PDAs; you know, very sort of consumer products and also a very masculine environment. Not just because the amount of boys to girls was - back then it was almost like a 70/30 per cent ratio sort of thing. Not just because of that, but I felt the projects were always geared to that sort of stuff and it never exposed me to what you can actually do with the course, which is where I am now, I never thought I could do exhibition