what is cognitive psychology? focuses on processes going on in the mind. the mind is a black box,...

What is Cognitive Psychology? Focuses on processes going on in the mind. The mind is a black box, often inaccessible Examines how these processes work Examines how these processes help structure our understanding of reality Examines what effect these processes have on human behavior Examines the role of mental processes in abnormal behavior

Principles defining Cognitive level of analysis Principle 1: Human beings are information processors and mental processes guide human behavior. Principle 2: The mind can be studied scientifically Principle 3 Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors

State the principles of the CLA Human beings are information processors and that mental representations guide behaviour Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing theories and by using a variety of research methods Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes

More about the principles Purpose of the principles These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of behaviour and cognition. They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be influenced by cognitive processes Define cognition Refers to a process that is based on one's mental representations of the world, such as images, words and concepts People likewise have different experiences and therefore each individual will have different mental representations of the world.

Principle 1 Cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes and stored representations of the world determine behaviour and are central to human experience.

Description Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine where they believe that it is useful to model mental processes using an information-processing approach whereby: Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded Storage and representation of this information to ourselves Ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the individual And how we output information back into the world to be received by others. Computer Analogy Brain hardware Thoughts and representations software

Computer Analogy Attempted to understand what occurs between input and output. They have addressed how the mind selects and codes incoming information and represents knowledge to itself while processing it and combining it with previously stored information (organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this information and therefore how these cognitions affect behaviour. (OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it when applicable to current tasks. People, like computers acquire information from the environment (input). Both transform information, produce new information and then both return the information back to the environment in the form of behaviour (output).

Top Down/Bottom up processing According to this approach, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up processing that is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when the information is processed there is some output in the form of behaviour.

Seen via This information processing approach/principle can be seen in: Schema theory assumed to operate through top-down processing; the role of schema (organized sets of associated information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of processing, but can also lead to distortions. They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information.

Principle 2: Mind Studied Scientifically A second principle the CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories and by using a number of scientific research methods. Mental processes/representations can be studied empirically even if they cannot be directly observed in the same way as behaviour. Describe the principle Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive structures/processes, and inferences made. These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of experimentation. Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically.

Application of Principle 2 This information processing approach/principle can be seen: Through memory processes such as the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968). Connection of study to principle Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can be scientifically studied. Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore model. And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process. Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically and therefore making these cognitive theories and models be applied to real-life scenarios. Many other studies (coming)

Principle 3 Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors. An example of a cognitive process is schemas Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, events and actions The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing information The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society and the culture that they are in. Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different people are exposed to different information. Therefore individuals will have different schemas Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on culture Examples include Religion Cultural tradition Beliefs Morals Whereby these examples are acquired from important persons such as parents, peers, teachers etc

I.E Bartlett This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by Bartlett (1932) Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes as: The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture affected mental representations (schemas)/ This is demonstrated by the changing of unfamiliar words to familiar terms For example: 'Hunting seals' changed to 'fishing' 'Canoes' changed to 'boats'

Cognitive Schema IMPORTANT SO DO NOT EVER FORGET THIS!!! Cognitive Schema: A mental representation of knowledge stored in the brain A network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects in the world. In 5 minutes find examples of these

More about Schemas Knowledge that is stored in our memory is organized as a set of schemas (or knowledge structures), which represent the general knowledge about the world, people, events, objects, actions and situations that has been acquired from past experiences. Types of schemas: Scripts provide information about the sequence of events that occur in particular contexts (e.g. going to a restaurant, visiting the dentist, attending class).s Self-schemas organise information we have about ourselves (information stored in our memory about our strengths and weaknesses and how we feel about them). Social schemas (e.g. stereotypes) represent information about groups of people (e.g. Americans, Egyptians, women, accountants, etc.).

What is Schema Theory?? Crucial!!! Cognitive theory of processing and organizing information. Schema theory states that as active processors of information, humans integrate new information with existing, stored information.

The effects of Schema Theory on our understanding of reality Existing knowledge stored in our memory (what we already know) and organized in the form of schemas will affect information processing and behaviour in specific settings. E.g. Information we already know affects the way we interpret new information and events and how we store it in our memory. It is not possible to see how knowledge is processed and stored in the brain, but the concept of schema theory helps psychologists understand and discuss what cannot be seen. Schema theory can describe how specific knowledge is organised and stored in memory so that it can be retrieved.

Evaluating Schema Theory Schema theory will be evaluated, making an appraisal by weighing up strengths and limitations with some reference to studies on the effect of schema on memory. Schema theory provides the theoretical basis for the studies reported below.

Supporting Studies Bartlett War of the Ghosts (1932) Anderson & Pichert (1978) Brewer & Treyens picnic basket (1981) French & Richards (1933)

Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghost Aim: Bartlett aimed to determine how social and cultural factors influence schemas and hence can lead to memory distortions. Methods: Participants used were of an English background. Were asked to read The War of the Ghosts a Native American folk tale. Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction, where they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals. Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper, which is then read by a second participant who reproduces the first participants reproduction, and so on until it is reproduced by six or seven different participants. Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time intervals from 15 minutes to as long as several years.

Results Both methods lead to similar results. As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more changes to the story. For example, hunting seals changed into fishing and canoes became boats. These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with, This makes the story more understandable according to the participants experiences and cultural background (schemas). He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective (rationalization).

Bartlett 1932 A War of Ghosts Participants read a story Later asked to recall the story Results: Distortion: Participants changed the story as they tried to remember it. This happened in 3 main ways. Assimilation: The story became more consistent with the participants own cultural expectations - that is, details were unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture Leveling: The story also became shorter with each retelling as participants omitted information which was seen as not important. Sharpening: Participants also tended to change the order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of the participants. They also added detail and/or emotions

Conclusion: Memory is very inaccurate It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas Bartletts study helped to explain through the understanding of schemas when people remember stories, they typically omit (leave out) some details, and introduce rationalisations and distortions, because they reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and experiences in the form of schemas.

Evaluation: Limitations: Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as accurate as possible in their reproduction Experiment was not very controlled instructions were not standardised (specific) disregard for environmental setting of experiment

Connection of study to question Bartlett's study shows how schema theory is useful for understand how people categorise information, interpret stories, and make inferences. It also contributes to understanding of cognitive distortions in memory.

Supporting Study 2: Anderson and Pichert (1978) Further support for the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at encoding point was reported by Anderson and Pichert (1978). Aim: To investigate if schema processing influences encoding and retrieval.

Method: Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the other half was given the schema of a potential house-buyer. Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, previously rated by a group of people based on their importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement) or a burglar (10speed bike, colour TV). Participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested. After another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the switched schema. Participants with burglar schema were given house-buyer schema and vice versa. The other half of the participants kept the same schema. All participants recalls were tested again. Shorter Method: Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or potential home buyer. After they had recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given, they were shifted to the alternative perspective (schema) and were asked to recall the story again.

Results: Participants who changed schema recalled 7% more points on the second recall test than the first. There was also a 10% increase in the recall of points directly linked to the new schema. The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many ideas in the second testing. Research also showed that people encoded different information which was irrelevant to their prevailing schema (those who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when the schema was changed, and vice versa). This shows that our schemas of knowledge, etc. are not always correct, because of external influences. Summary: On the second recall, participants recalled more information that was important only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first recall.

Conclusion: Schema processing has an influence at the encoding and retrieval stage, as new schema influenced recall at the retrieval stage.

Evaluation: Strengths Controlled laboratory experiment allowed researchers to determine a cause-effect relationship on how schemas affect different memory processes. Limitations Lacks ecological validity Laboratory setting Unrealistic task, which does not reflect something that the general population would do Connection of study to question This study provides evidence to support schema theory affecting the cognitive process of memory. Strength of schema theory there is research evidence to support it.

Supporting Study 3: Brewer and Treyens (1981) picnic basket Introduce Study/Signpost:

The study Aim: To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office. Methods: Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office.

The Study Results: Participants recalled things of a typical office according to their schema. They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office. Conclusions: Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it. They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their typical office schema.

Evaluation: Strengths: Strict control over variables --> to determine cause & effect relationship Limitation: Lacks ecological validity Laboratory setting artificial environment Task does not reflect daily activity

Connection of study to question This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory. Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory. Strength of schema theory there is many types of research evidence to support it.

Draw Me..

Supporting Study 4: French and Richards (1933) Aim: To investigate the schemata influence on memory retrieval. Methods: In the study there were three conditions: Condition 1: Participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw from memory. Condition 2: The same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock from memory. Condition 3: The clock was left in full view of the participants and just had to draw it. The clock used represented the number four with IIII, not the conventional IV.

The study Results: In the first two conditions, the participants reverted to the conventional IV notation, whereas in the third condition, the IIII notation, because of the direct copy. They found that subjects asked to draw from memory a clock that had Roman numerals on its face typically represented the number four on the clock face as IV rather than the correct IIII, whereas those merely asked to copy it typically drew IIII. Conclusions: French and Richards explained this result in terms of schematic knowledge of roman numerals affecting memory retrieval. The findings supported the idea that subjects in the copy condition were more likely than subjects in other conditions to draw the clock without invoking schematic knowledge of Roman numerals.

Evaluation: Strengths: Strict control over variables to determine cause & effect relationship Limitation: Lacks ecological validity Laboratory setting artificial environment Task does not reflect daily activity

Connection of study to question This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory. Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory. Strength of schema theory there is many types of research evidence to support it.

Summary of evaluation of schema theory: Define strengths of schema theory: Supported by lots of research to suggest schemas affect memory processes knowledge, both in a positive and negative sense. Through supporting studies, schema theory was demonstrated in its usefulness for understanding how memory is categorized, how inferences are made, how stories are interpreted, memory distortions and social cognition.

Strengths and weaknesses continued Define weaknesses of schema theory: Not many studies/research evidence that evaluate and find limitations of schema theory Lacks explanation It is not clear exactly how schemas are initially acquired how they influence cognitive processes how people choose between relevant schemas when categorising people Cohen (1993) argued that: The concept of a schema is too vague to be useful. Schema theory does not show how schemas are required. It is not clear which develops first, the schema to interpret the experiences or vice versa.

Weaknesses continued Schema theory explains how new information is categorised according to existing knowledge. But it does not account for completely new information that cannot link with existing knowledge. Therefore, it does not explain how new information is organised in early life E.g. language acquisition

Concluding Points Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes and are used to organize our knowledge, assist recall, guide our behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of current experiences helps us understand how we organize our knowledge. In conclusion, strengths of schema theory: Provides an explanation for how knowledge is stored in the mind something that is unobservable and remains unknown in psychology There is much research that supports schema theory But its limitations are that, It is unclear exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between schemas It does not account for new information without a link to existing schemas Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema theory should be considered an important theory that provides insight into information processing and behaviour. It has contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes. But the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome its limitations and uncover its unclear aspects

links http://www.thinkib.net/psychology/page/8195/bartlet t-1932 http://www.thinkib.net/psychology/page/8195/bartlet t-1932 Anderson Pichert burglar homeowner https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1 8055/ctrstreadtechrepv01979i00119_opt.pdf?sequence=1 https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1 8055/ctrstreadtechrepv01979i00119_opt.pdf?sequence=1

Evaluate: two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

Memory Memory is defined to be the mental process of encoding, storing and retrieving information Outline Memory Process Memory undergoes a series of stages in order to store its information. Encoding process: incoming information is organized and transformed so it can be entered into memory Storage process: involves entering and maintaining information in memory for a period of time Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from memory so it can be used

State the different models/theories of memory There are three main types of models of memory that demonstrate how our memory processes work including the: Multistore Model (MSM) Working Memory Model (WM) Levels of Processing Model (LOP)

Multi-Store Memory Model

Describe the MSM Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) The multi-store model (MSM) consists of three memory stores: Sensory memory (SM) Short-term memory (STM) Long term memory (LTM)... that is used for different tasks.

Sensory Memory SM is... A storage system that holds information in a relatively unprocessed form for fractions of a second after the physical stimulus is no longer available stores sensory characteristics of a stimulus. Plays a vital role in filtering out useless information, enabling us to focus our attention on important details. Duration: decays rapidly Capacity: unlimited Coding: information is picked up by our senses and stored in this form Iconic: visual information enters the visual store Echoic: auditory information is handled by the auditory sensory store Haptic: information picked up via sense of touch

Short Term Memory A limited-capacity memory system for storing information for brief periods of time. A & S (1968) see STM as a temporary storage depot for incoming information after it receives and encodes information from the sensory memory Short Term Memory (Store) (STM/S): Duration: 15-30 seconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971) Capacity: limited; 7 2units (Miller, 1956) Coding: Acoustically (Baddeley, 1966) Information is lost unless it is rehearsed (via repetition)

LTM LTM is...: Holds a vast quantity of information, which can be stored for long periods of time. Information kept here is diverse and wide-ranging, including all our personal memories, general knowledge and beliefs about the world, plans for the future, and where our knowledge about skills and expertise is deposited.

LTM Continued Long Term Memory (Store) (LTM/S): Duration: Long-lasting (perhaps for a lifetime), proposed that it could last for 48 years (Bahrick et al, 1975) Capacity: Unlimited Coding: Primarily semantic (Baddeley, 1966); but also acoustic and visual Information in the LTS can also be recalled via retrieval, bringing the information back to the STS

Studies: Supporting Study 1 Studying properties of STM Baddeley A key researcher who investigated encoding, (which is the first and crucial process of creating memories, which allows the perceived item of interest to be converted into a construct/concept that can stored within the brain, and then recalled later from the STM or LTM) is by Baddeley (1966).

The study Aim: To investigate encoding in the short term memory store Methods: Participants were given lists of words that were: acoustically similar (e.g. cat, mat...) acoustically different (e.g. pen, cow...) semantically similar (e.g. boat, ship...) semantically different (e.g. book, tree...) Their recall of the words was tested. Results: In STM, better recall of acoustically different than acoustically similar words more errors with similarly sounding words than distinctly sounding words Slightly better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words Conclusions: In the STS, information is encoded acoustically because recall is affected by the sound of words

Study 2 LTM Encoding (same guy) Aim: To investigate encoding in LTM Method: Participants were given the same lists of words in the previous experiment for STM Their recall of the words was tested Results: In LTM, no difference in recall of acoustically different and acoustically similar words Much better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words Conclusion: In LTM, there is semantic encoding because recall is affected by meaning of words

Evaluation: Strengths Laboratory experiment strict control over variables able to determine a cause-effect relationship between Weaknesses Laboratory experiment Lacks ecological validity Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would do

How relevant?? Connection of study to question This study supports the Multi-store model of memory as it shows that: STM and LTM have different encoding processes: STM: acoustic encoding LTM: semantic encoding Thus STM & LTM are separate stores.

Supporting Study 3 (Case Study) A study demonstrating memory processes between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by Sacks on Clive Wearing (2007). History: Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis. This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused him memory impairment. He suffers from: anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident

Findings: Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge) He could not transfer information from STM to LTM. His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. Conclusion: STM & LTM are separate stores STM has limited duration Evaluation: Strengths Case study Realistic In-depth information Limitations Cannot be generalised to the whole population

Relevance This study supports the multi-store model because it shows that: STM and LTM are separate stores Wearing has STM intact but could not access LTM STM has a limited duration Wearing could only use STM and he experienced time elapses of around 30 seconds. It also provides support for anterograde amnesia. Does not support the multistore Model of memory because: Wearing had significant damage to his declarative memory, but his procedural memory was fully intact This suggests that LTM is separated into declarative and procedural, rather than a single, unitary store as the MSM assumes.

Study 4 (Case Study) Another demonstrating memory processes between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by Shallice and Warrington on KF (1974). History: KF was in a motorcycle accident which impaired his memory

Study 4 contd Findings: He could transfer information from STM tLTM He suffered problems with STM of different types of information digit span was severely impaired visual and auditory information (e.g. telephone ring) was unaffected Conclusion: Findings suggest that: STM & LTM are separate STM is not required for LTM There may be more than one STM store --> it is possible to suffer impairment of verbal information without affecting auditory information

Evaluation: Strengths Case study Realistic In-depth information Limitations Cannot be generalised to the whole population Relevance?? This study supports the idea that memory stores are not unitary. KF suffered impairment of some types of STM (verbal) but had others fully intact (auditory) STM store is not unitary

Experiment time

Evaluation of the MSM Model STRENGTHS (+) Influential; early model that stimulated further research into memory processes Still accepted by most psychologists and is still widely used Considerable evidence for demonstrating the existence of STM and LTM as separate memory stores Differing via duration, capacity and coding Provides support for anterograde amnesia Based on considerable evidence and evidence for the model is gained from a variety of sources e.g. studies of brain damaged individuals Whereby these studies support the distinction between STS and LTS Some patients with amnesia suffer damage tLTM but not STM, and vice versa As demonstrated by Shallice & Warrington (1970); Milner (1966); Baddeley (1997)

Strengths contd Demonstrates insight into different memory processes, such as: Demonstrates differences in encoding, i.e. STM = STM = acoustic, LTM = semantic Demonstrates differences in capacity, i.e. STM = 72, LTM has no limits Demonstrates differences in duration i.e. STM = approx. 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959), LTM = 48 years (Bahrick et al.,1975). Demonstrates in ability to form declarative or procedural memories by patients with brain damage, amnesia.

Limitations of MSM There is emphasis on the amount of information taken into memory Focuses too much on the structure of memory systems rather than providing an explanation on how it works (functioning/ processing) Reductionist*, oversimplifying memory processes (Eysneck & Keane, 1995) too simple Mechanical in transfer from one store to another Memory processes are more complex and flexible *a form of explanation or approach to understanding complex things by simplifying (or reducing) them to their most basic parts. Assumes that stores are single and unitary

More Limitations Unlikely that the diverse information in LTM is contained in one, simple, unitary store in same form Tulving (1972) suggests that LTM can be divided into episodic, semantic and procedural components, stored separately Cohen & Squire (1980) suggest LTM is divided into 2: Declarative memory: involves recollection of facts and events, includes episodic and semantic memory. Procedural memory: memories for how to do things. Evidence from amnesia patients who have poor declarative knowledge with no damage to procedural knowledge Spiers et al. (2001) Clive Wearing Baddeley, 1997

And more Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) focused almost exclusively on declarative knowledge and did not account for procedural knowledge in their model. Model suggests that rote rehearsal is the only way information transfers from STM tLTM Too simple Ignores any other factors such as effort and strategies people employ to remember things Studies have questioned whether the more information is rehearsed, the more likely it is to be transferred tLTM Rehearsal may be what occurs in laboratory experiments but this lacks ecological validity Most people rarely actively rehearse information in daily life, yet information is constantly transferred into LTM (Eysenck and Keane, 1995) Rehearsal is not as important as the MSM suggests Increased rehearsal is no guarantee that information will be stored in LTM

And Finally MSM under-emphasises interaction between stores transfer of information is strictly sequential information stays in LTM until retrieved Does not consider the possibility that LTM interacts and even directs other memory stores Sensory what is important to pay attention STM helps rehearsal or meaningful chunking

Memory Model 2: The Levels of Processing Model

Another visual

LOP Model Proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972) LOP predicts that how deeply people process information determines how well it is stored in memory Deeper, meaningful processing creates stronger, longer-lasting memory traces. Shallow processing leads to weaker memory traces It states that memory is a by-product of processing information: Maintenance rehearsal (repetition to hold information in STM) is shallow processing and leads to short-term retention of information. As opposed to argument of MSM Elaboration rehearsal (meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information) leads to better recall.

LOP Contd The three levels of processing Structural (shallow) encode the physical qualities/appearance Phonological (intermediate) encode sound/auditory Semantic (deep) encode meaning and associate it with existing knowledge

Supporting Study 1: Hyde and Jenkins (1973) Aim:...investigating whether people could remember without intentionally trying to, and whether deeper processing leads to better recall Method: Participants were presented with auditory lists of 24 words Different groups of participants were asked to perform one of the following tasks requiring different levels of processing rating words for pleasantness estimate frequency with which each word is used in the English language detect occurrence of letters e' and 'g' in any of the words decide part of speech appropriate to each word (e.g. noun, adjective) decide whether words fitted into a particular sentence frame Half participants were told in advance that they would be asked to recall words (intentional learning group) Other half were not (incidental learning group)

contd Results: Minimal differences in the number of words correctly recalled between the intentional and incidental learning groups. Recall was significantly better for words analysed semantically (e.g. rated for pleasantness) than words which had been rated more superficially (e.g. detecting 'e' and 'g') Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal is not necessary for learning.

Evaluation of the study Strengths Laboratory experiment strict control over variables able to determine a cause-effect relationship between Weaknesses Laboratory experiment Lacks ecological validity Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would do

Relevance This study supports the LOP theory because it shows that: semantic processing is deeper than structural and leads to better memory intention is unnecessary for retention supports Craik and Lockhart's belief that retention is a by-product of processing

Supporting Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975 A further study investigating the effects of deep and shallow processing on memory recall is by Craik & Tulving (1975). Aim: To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall Method: Participants presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three questions, requiring different depths of processing. Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to pick out the original words.

contd Results: Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed. Conclusion: Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall. Evaluation: Strengths Laboratory experiment strict control over variables able to determine a cause-effect relationship between Weaknesses Laboratory experiment Lacks ecological validity Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would do

EVALUATION OF THE LOP MODEL: STRENGTHS (+) Overcomes criticisms of the Multistore Model as being too simple methods of remembering. LOP was very influential when first proposed. Much research and evidence supporting the LOP theory's idea that deep processing aids memory.

Strengths contd It changed the direction of research and stimulated further research into memory Accounts for why some things are remembered better and for longer than others. LOP theory is useful in daily life as it shows how elaboration, which requires deeper processing, leads to better memory. It helps to understand processes at learning stage. Improvements on Multi-store model of memory: Does not make strict distinction between STM & LTM Does not regard LTM as simple storage unit, rather a complex processing system Encoding is not simple and straightforward improvement on the MSM's account of transfer from STM to LTM Focuses on mental processes rather than structures

Weaknesses of LOP Lacks ecological validity all the evidence based on laboratory experiments LOP theory focuses on the processes rather than structures of memory. Evidence (e.g. Clive Wearing, KF) supports memory structures of STM and LTM stores proposed by MSM.

Problems with Deep Processing Major limitation difficult to define deep processing It is vague and cannot be observed, making it hard to measure objectively Circular definition deeply processed information will be remembered better, but the measure of depth is how well information is remembered. LOP theory is descriptive rather than explanatory. Though later research has attempted to explain how and why deep processing is effective in aiding memory, the original theory did not provide a detailed explanation of this (Eysenck and Keane, 1995). Ordering of memory of LOP (semantic better than phonological better than structural) is not always supported by research.

More limitations Several studies have shown that deeper processing does not guarantee better memory. Participants usually spend more time and effort on the tasks requiring deeper processing. Type of processing, amount of effort and length of processing time are often confounding It is difficult to know that depth of processing alone influences memory Better memory may be due to more time or effort spent on processing; not deeper processing. Like the MSM, LOP theory is too simplistic; research indicates that memory is more complex and varied than depth and elaboration.

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process. Focus: Alzheimers disease.

If you were to get this question you need to: State what you are doing in the essay I.e This essay will attempt to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of how biological factors may affect the cognitive process of memory in Alzheimer's disease (AD) State interaction between cognition and biological factors Human cognitive processes have a biological basis. Define memory Memory is the cognitive process whereby information is retained and recalled from past experiences, in which memory processes are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information from past information and knowledge. Define Alzheimer's disease AD is a serious and progressive degenerative brain disease, which leads to the loss of neurons and often leading to dementia.

And Outline AD The onset of symptoms is gradual but its progression is irreversible. AD impairs the creation of new memories but procedural memory (how to die a bike or play a musical instrument) is largely unaffected. Episodic memory (memory of events and personal experiences) is the most severely affected. Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of AD AD also causes a steady decline in the semantic memory general knowledge about the world, concepts and language. State biological factors affecting AD Medial temporal lobe Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine Amyloid plaques Neurofibrillary tangles Genetic predisposition Signpost Therefore, to answer this question, the link between the biological causes and effects of Alzheimers Disease (AD) will be investigated in regards to the effect it has on a persons cognition of memory processing.

What to talk about in the discussion (how Alzheimers affects the brain and the cognitive processes) Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL) is crucial.

MTL Biological Factor 1: Medial temporal lobe Introduce the Medial temporal lobe (MTL) One biological factor that may cause AD and then affect memory is the medial temporal lobe (MTL). The MTL has been investigated because it is known to play a role in episodic memory and it is the first area to show pathological changes in the brain.

Supporting Study 1: Schwindt and Black (2009) Aim: To test the effect of episodic memory on AD. Method: They conducted a meta-analysis of fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients, compared to normal & AD patients. Results: There was greater brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control group. Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation in the MTL and increased activation in the prefrontal cortex. There were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies. Conclusion: It was well-established that AD patients show decreased activation in the MTL.

Connection of study to question Connection of study to question Schwindt and Blacks study supports the biological factor of the MTL in causing AD and thus, impairment in memory. Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next biological factor: AD develops through a series of stages. First, the MTLs are affected, in particular the hippocampus, then the parietal lobes and other brain regions. The symptoms of AD seem to be caused by the loss of brain cells and the deterioration of neurons

Biological Factor 2: Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine hippocampus This is particularly prevalent in the hippocampi area of the brain. The hippocampus has been found to affect memory from cases of amnesia patients such as HM (Milner and Scoville, 1957) and Clive Wearing (Baddeley, 1997).

Supporting Study 2: Mosconi (2005) Study that shows how biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Mosconi (2005). Aim: To test how the hippocampi region interacts with AD/To investigate metabolism in the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain activate responses in the body and dies. Method: Followed a sample of 52 normal participants for a period of 9 24 years (longitudinal). They used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic activity in the hippocampus. Results: Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus was associated with later AD.

Connection of study to question Mosconis study supports the role of the hippocampus in AD. This can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus of normal people contains high concentration of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987). Low concentrations are found in people with AD. This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas of the forebrain, known to secrete acetylcholine. Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next biological factor: Autopsies reveal two characteristic abnormalities in these acetylcholine-producing neurons. These neurons in AD patients also show abnormal levels of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

Biological Factor 3: Amyloid plaques AD is caused by deposits of amyloid-B protein which accumulates in spaces between neurons and damages the membranes of axons and dendrites (Lorenzo et al., 2000) The amyloid plaques are formed from the degenerating axons and dendrites and contain a dense core of amyloid- protein, in which the plaques accumulate in the spaces between neurons. Most AD patients accumulate amyloid plaques before onset of AD (Selkoe, 1990).

Supporting Study 3: Murphy and Levine (2010) To investigate whether is a relationship between default activity patterns in cortical regions in early adulthood and amyloid deposition in elderly AD patients. Method: Eighteen older participants were enrolled from the longitudinal sample of the Washington University Alzheimers Disease Research Centre and screened to exclude neurological illness, psychoactive medications and medical conditions that may produce cognitive impairment. Results: Presence of amyloid-B protein 42 in early AD starts a chain of events that leads to AD. Connection of study to question Therefore, the results of this study support the biological factor of amyloid-B protein in AD.

Biological Factor 4: Neurofibrillary tangles As well as amyloid plaques, another factor which plays a role in the degrading of neurons that is significant for the onset of AD is neurofibrillary tangles. The tangles are microtubules found in the cell body and dendrites of neurons, which forms abnormally and causes the microtubules to tangle (neurofibrillary tangles). When they tangle, the neuron loses its structure and no long has support, thus shrivels up and dies. The inhibition of the movement of neurotransmitters across the synapse prevents electrical messages to be passed from one neuron to the other; therefore, certain actions in the body are unable to be activated. It is caused by the accumulation of an abnormal form of tau protein around the support structure of neurons that causes them to collapse.

Biological Factor 5: Genetic predisposition Another important biological factor in causing AD is our genetic predisposition to diseases such as AD. Research has found that genes play a role in producing amyloid-B protein. Research by... Lott (1982): Demonstrate and early onset Alzheimers linked to chromosome 21 (downs syndrome) Levy-Lahad eta al (1995): Early onset Alzheimers gene found on chromosome 1 Schellenberg et al (1992): Early onset Alzheimers gene found on chromosome 14 Ertekin-Taner et al (2000): Gene for later onset Alzheimers found on chromosome 10

But genes do not provide a full explanation of AD, Which is demonstrated by: St George-Hislop (2000): Half of all Alzheimers patients have no relatives with the illness Hendrie (2001): Yoruba people have Alzheimers genes, but much lower rates of the illness.

Conclusion Medial temporal lobe(Schwindt and Black, 2009) Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine (Mosconi, 2005) Amyloid plaques (Murphy and Levine, 2010) Neurofibrillary tangles Genetic predisposition... all play a role in the development of Alzheimers Disease, affecting memory processing, which is a significant part of our cognition. Therefore it can be assumed that biological factors affect memory in AD.

and State its physiological basis It can be seen that AD interacts directly with physiology because it is caused by biological factors such as a genetic predisposition to the disease; damage in brain; and the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles; occurring mainly in the hippocampi region of the brain, which contributes to the degradation of the neurons developing the onset of AD. State its cognitive basis Therefore, the physiological effects of amnesia are what influences/affects cognition, in regards to memory processing.

Cognition and Emotion

The topic: To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? Introduce topic by explaining the cognitive level of analysis The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive processes guide behaviour. As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in terms of the biological and cognitive influences.

Emotion What is emotion? Emotion can be defined as the bodys adaptive response to a particular situation. Examples Ekman et al. (1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental emotions that were consistent across cultures. This includes (FASSHD): Fear Anger Surprise Sadness Happiness Disgust These primary set of emotions are viewed as universal that is, they are expressed facially in the same way, and are recognized, by all members of diverse cultures Suggests that emotion is genetic (biological) rather than cognitive.

Emotion and its relation to cognition Emotions are sometimes dependent or are initiated through physiological and or cognitive factors. Define cognition Cognition can be defined as the mental processes of acquiring and processing knowledge and understanding through though, experiences and the senses occurring within the mind The mind cannot exist nor function independently without these processes. Define physiology Whereas physiology is the internal, biological mechanisms (hormones, neurotransmitters, localization of brain function) of living organisms which is the way the organism functions. State purpose of your essay As such, this essay response will aim to consider the argument or concept of how both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion and influence how humans experience emotion. A conclusion will then be made regarding the extent in which these factors influence emotion.

Important theories of Emotion Le Doux Theory James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory Schachter & Singer's cognitive labelling theory (Two- Factor Theory) Darwin's evolutionary theory Lazarus' appraisal theory of emotion

Biological Factors of emotion Biological psychologists view emotion as a primarily somatic (bodily) process. These somatic processes may be: body arousal hormones facial expressions, associated to be with pleasant or unpleasant mental states of mind physiological changes, such as the arousal of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system brain activity neurochemical processes

Cognitive factors of emotion Cognitive psychologists assume that conscious and unconscious mental processes can influence emotions. Focus more on mental aspects of emotions and how unconscious and conscious mental processes influence emotional experiences and actions. This guides cognitive and rational emotive therapies, which assume that cognitions and emotions are interrelated, and that negative cognitions will lead to negative emotions. Those negative emotions may come out of peoples faulty interpretations of experiences, and that is by raising awareness of, challenging and changing those beliefs that may alter our mood.

The interaction between cognitive and biological factors in emotion Emotions can be initiated through physiological and cognitive factors. It is assumed that emotions consist of three components: Physiological changes (biological reactions) Subjective feeling of the emotion (cognitions)...which then leads to an associated behaviour and thus emotion is expressed. Thus, cognitive and biological factors interact to produce an emotional response to an event. Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between cognitive and biological factors in emotion

Theory 1: Le Douxs Model of Emotion A researcher, which demonstrates a biological and cognitive interaction in emotion Le Doux based his research on animals, and investigated the brains emotional circuit.

Le Doux continued Le Doux discovered that for fear responses, there are two neurological pathways: The short route: that goes from the sensory store in the thalamus to the amygdala The long route: traverses the neo-cortex and the hippocampus before it results in a fear response. Le Doux argues that there is an evolutionary advantage of having two separate pathways for fear responses.

Le Doux continued During times of danger: The short route is effective, as it will lead to a quick, but often inaccurate response. The long route however, is slower, but will allow for a more thorough evaluation of a situation, and a more appropriate response. Therefore, the amygdala receives input from the sensory processing areas in the neo-cortex and thalamus and projects to areas in the brainstem controlling the fight or flight response. Diagram:

Diagram

Key Experiment 1: Le Doux Rat Experiment (1996) Study link to question: A further study conducted by Le Doux to find out where the brain stores emotional memory, which pairs the tone and shock in memory demonstrating his theory...

The Study Aim: To investigate the brains emotional circuit effects of lesions on fear conditioning Method: Made lesions in specific neural pathways in rats to determine the functions of the damaged pathways and disrupt the conditioning response. The lesions were first made in the auditory context where the brain processes sound. And the auditory thalamus which provides most auditory inputs to the cortex.

The study showed Findings: Found that the brain structures of the thalamus and the amygdala play different roles in the generation of emotion. Lesion in the auditory cortex rats still learned to fear tone. Lesion in the auditory thalamus eliminated the rats susceptibility (vulnerability) to fear conditioning. Most of the cells in the thalamus transmit to the cortex BUT some also transmit to the amygdala, a region of the brain already implicated in various emotional behaviours. Thus indicating that the pathways with lesions led to the thalamus or amygdala, affected emotional responses

Implications Conclusion: It can be concluded that the biological factor of brain damage to either of these areas would result in issues in generating emotions. Connection of study to question This supports that biological factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent. http://www.columbia.edu/~lep1/rry/w3410/LeDoux/N YT.Nov.96.html http://www.columbia.edu/~lep1/rry/w3410/LeDoux/N YT.Nov.96.html

Evaluating the study

How Le Douxs theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotion This suggests that the amygdala plays a central part/role in determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain. Thus the connections between these structures allow the amygdala to transform sensory information into emotional signals and therefore control emotional responses. Le Douxs theory (of emotional circuits in the brain) supports biological factors in emotion as it identifies that the amygdala and surrounding brain processes play a central role in determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain. The theory also supports cognitive factors in emotion because the situation is appraised though the long route. Thus it cannot be said that biological factors alone interact with emotion, but cognition also plays a role in creating and controlling these emotional responses.

Theory 2: Schacter and Singers Two-factor Theory (1962) Two factors interact to determine specific emotions Physiological arousal Emotion interpretation and labelling of the physiological arousal Strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of emotion Interpretation of physiological arousal determines which particular emotion is experienced

Relevance How the two-factor theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotion Perception of stimulus may lead to bodily physiological arousal Physiological arousal is necessary for emotional experience, but needs to be labelled or interpreted by cognitive appraisal of the situation If a state of unexplained bodily arousal is induced, people will look around and try to explain the arousal in terms of their environment This cognitive appraisal results in labelling of the arousal as an emotional experience.

Key Study 2: Schacter and Singer (1962) Aims: To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline

Methods 184 college males Divided into 4 groups All groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its effects on vision Even though men were really receiving adrenaline and: Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin) Given no information on effects Given false effects Last group was given a placebo 4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups Condition 1 euphoria Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting room (with office equipment) Condition 2 anger Confederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became more and more angry as the questions became more personal Participants were observed for changes in emotion Participants were then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion

Results: Showed that participants that were given information on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in emotion because they had an accurate explanation of their emotion But those who had been told no effect showed much higher changes in emotion because they had no explanation for their state of arousal, so they used cues of the confederate's behaviour and labelled their emotions These participants changed their behaviour according to cognitive appraisal of their emotions, rather than specific physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is required.

Conclusion Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective experience of emotion

Connection of study to question This study supports that a combination of physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive labelling (appraisal of the situation) can contribute to changes in emotion Introduce importance of first theory Lazarus Theory of Appraisal: Cognitive researchers on emotion usually emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisal.

Theory 3: Lazarus Theory of Appraisal (1982; 1991) The appraisal theory of emotion is based on the evaluation of situations according to the significance they have for us, therefore it has more of a cognitive basis Suggests that cognition is essential. This theory states that emotion is experienced when, in our interaction with the environment, we assess our surroundings as to whether it is beneficial or harmful for our well-being. Appraisals are interpretations of situations and how they will affect ones well-being. Appraisals are both conscious and unconscious; contribute to the quality and intensity of an emotion.

The appraisal theory is based on two concepts: Primary appraisal where the organism assesses the significance or meaning of the event. Three components: Motivational relevance relevance to goals? (If positive, then there is emotion) Motivational congruence favourable to goals? (Positive emotion when yes, negative emotion when no) Accountability who is responsible for what is happening? Secondary appraisal when the organism appraises the consequence of the event and decides on how to act. It also has three components: Problem-focused coping cope with a situation by changing it to make it less threatening for an individual to cope Emotion-focused coping change the situation by how I feel about it (e.g. reinterpreting). Future expectancy To what extent can I expect the situation will change?

Supporting Experiment 2: Speisman et al. (1964) A supporting experiment which demonstrates how cognitive appraisals are affected by bodily responses (emotions) to stressful situations, which is illustrated by Speisman et al. (1964). Aim: To demonstrate the influence of appraisal on emotional experiences.

Method Participants were shown a stressful film about unpleasant genital surgery depicting Aboriginal boys have circumcision in the context of puberty. Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the appraisal of the surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control: Trauma condition pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized Denial boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de- emphasizing the pain (presented the ps as happy and deliberate) Intellectualization soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture Silent nothing Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of electrical conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic arousal and heart rate.

Findings Observations and self-reports showed that participants reacted more emotionally to the soundtrack that was more traumatic. Lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions. The way participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what they were seeing in the film affected their physiological experience in terms of emotion.

Evaluation of this study Controlled lab setting Rigorously controlled results Methodological problems It is possible that the participants reactions were primarily affected by the music, not that the music affected the appraisal of the situation.

Conclusion of the study Thus, according to appraisal theory, it can be concluded that the music affected the appraisal of the situation, which in turn affected the emotional reaction to it....the cognitive factor of how we appraise certain situations influences our emotional responses

Connection to the topic This supports that cognitive factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent. State connection to cognitive interactions within emotion: Thus, Lazarus theory of appraisal states that we experience emotions when interacting with our environment and appraise good and bad to our well-being. Lazarus suggests that the specific emotions experienced are determined by the pattern of answers the individual gives throughout the components of the primary and second appraisal.

Conclusion of the section The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive and biological factors contribute and interact in emotion. According to the information processing view of the brain (supported by Le Doux), emotion is produced as cognitive and perceptual processing occurs in brain regions such as the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and the pre-frontal lobe (biological factors) According to the TFT, emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labelling According to Lazarus theory of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition) determines emotion These theories have been supported through much research, and although there were a few limitations within the studies, there have been no other theories or research that opposes the idea that biological and cognitive factors influence emotion. Therefore, all of these theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a LARGE extent

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process. One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive process of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM) suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977). Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by enhancing it. According tLe Doux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the memory of events that occur during the aroused state; however, even though these emotional memories are emotions evoked by a particular event, the memories may not always be correct. (MOVE TO EVALUATION)

Flashbulb Memory (FB) Flashbulb Memories is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed (photographic-like) memories of highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a cameras flash. I.E. 9/11 What you were doing when you heard about the death of a loved one Car Accidents

FBM explained Brown & Kulik (1977) also argued that the special biological memory mechanism of FBM is triggered when an individual usually encounters significant, often unexpected and emotional events or experiences. Events that have excessive levels of surprise and emotion Therefore creating a FBM of the immediate experiences surrounding the highly emotional (happy) experience or traumatic event

FBM Explained FB memories also have unique features that distinguish them from other memories they are more: vivid, detailed, accurate, long-lasting, consistent and easy to remember This is in contrast to normal memories, which most researchers are believed to be selective, unreliable and malleable (easily changed or distorted). Examples?

Main Study: Brown and Kulik (1977) Aims: To investigate FBM and how it works (to support their theory). Methods: Interviewed 80 Americans 40 African Americans 40 Caucasian Americans Had to answer questions about 10 events 9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of well-known American personalities The last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock They were asked how much they rehearsed these events (overtly or covertly) Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating

Brown and Kulik Contd. Results: They found that J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories of all participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with vivid detail) African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin Luther King more than the Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM) For the tenth event (which was self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events like the death of a parent Conclusions This study carried out by Brown and Kulik (1977) supported the theories of flashbulb memories whereby they : Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information Are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others) and covert rehearsal (private) Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and accurate Require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information permanently in a unique memory system

Evaluation of Brown and Kulik

Relevance to the topic? FBM can be explained in how emotion can affect/influence memory by either enhancing it or impairing it. Enhanced memory leads to more vivid memories of the event (FBM) Impairing memory leads to Repression due to traumatic events Repression is used to describe a certain type of memory, usually of a traumatic type, when information cannot be retrieved as a result of being locked out of our consciousness. Mood dependent memory, emotion dependent

Study 2: Conway et al (1994) UK and non- UK on Flashbulb Memory Aim: To test the theory of Flashbulb Memory Methods: Participants were either UK or non-UK undergraduates Was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990) Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days after the event They were asked again 11 months after the event Results: They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher While there were fewer non-UK participants (29%) had flashbulb memories of the event

Contd. Conclusions: Thus, Conway claimed that this event met the criteria for FBM for British people as it was an unexpected and highly significant event pertaining to their culture, therefore arousing deep emotions, influencing the special neural mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the event. Evaluation: Strengths : Ecologically Valid: real event Interview: in depth qualitative data Not focused (don't have specific questions Questionnaire) Limitations Distress in having to remember a tragic event and some methodology was not controlled Connection of study to question Suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from normal memories However, they may only exist for events with personal significance

Evidence arguing against Flashbulb Memory: Neisser and Harsch (1992) One of the most significant research arguing the validity and accuracy of FBM is by Neisser (1982), and later on by Neisser and Harsch (1992). Neisser questioned the idea of FBMs, in which he suggested that the memories are so vivid because the event itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event. According to Neisser, FBM may simply be a narrative convention, governed by conventions of a storytelling schema Neisser also argued that FBMs are subject to the same types of inaccuracy and forgetting as any other memories.

Neisser and Harsh Aim: To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memory Methods: Participants were asked to report on the circumstances of their learning about the challenger space disaster on 1986. Neisser and Harsch investigated peoples memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident and then again two years later.

Neisser and Harsh Results: 1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about the disaster on television Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V Clearly, their memories of how they learned the news about the challenger disaster changed over time Assuming that participants' memories were more accurate one day after the disaster, it can be concluded that their memories about how they had heard about the news had deteriorated significantly during the subsequent two and a half years. Conclusions: Connection of study to question This thus suggests that FBM are not reliable (as influenced by post-event information). Neisser and Harsch claimed that such findings suggest that FBM's may just be ordinary memories

Arguing Study 2: Wright (1993) Hillsborough Disaster and (5 months) recall Aim: To investigate the accuracy of FBM Methods: Interviewed people about the Hillsborough disaster After 5 month he asked participants to recall what had happened at this event/disaster Results: After five months, memories were vague, and subject to systematic biases. Found that memories were a blend of their own real experiences, and information that had come after the event. Conclusions: Thus concluding that flashbulb memory is no different to any other type of memory Shows that the memory that is flashbulb can decay over time, unlike as assumed Connection of study to question This study shows that FBM is no different than any other type of memory.

Arguing Study 3: McCloskey et al (1988) Challenger Disaster after 9 months recall Aim: To test the accuracy of flashbulb memory Methods: Participants were interviewed and asked questions about the explosion of the challenger a few days after 9 months Also asked on personal memories Results: It was found that there were discrepancies over time between what was recalled shortly after the accident and what was remembered nine months later. There were inaccuracies in the memories. Conclusions: FBM can be forgotten and thus cannot be considered as a special memory, but are products of ordinary memory mechanisms.

Evaluation of these studies Strengths: The type of methodology used was interview thus questions asked in the experiment were not focused thus could vary from participant to participant Weaknesses: Ethics (forced to remember tragic events) Not ecologically valid because the these events are deemed not personal/emotional therefore not meeting the criterion of FBMs.

Connection Does not support this theory of flashbulb memory Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and accurate This study showed that flashbulb memories are not different as they don't last as long as assumed by Neisser.

Concluding thoughts on FB Memory In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can influence the recall of memories. However, it is hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very retrospective Overall Strengths: The majority of research into flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves peoples reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore there is high in ecological validity. Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can lack reliability as they cannot really be replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see how consistent the results are. Also, much of the research is retrospective, and there is the issue that we cannot reliably measure how accurate peoples initial memories are.

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process How to approach this question: Define schemas Expand on schema (explain what they are and how relevant) Explain briefly how schemas and memory interact Define Memory Relationship between cultural influences and memory Discuss Studies

Relevant Studies Bartlett: War of the ghosts Brewer and Treyens: Picnic Basket Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947) Schemas and constructive memory Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982) Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974)

Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947) Schemas and constructive memory Aim: To see if schemas affect recall. Method: White and Black Americans participated in the study. Firstly the White Participants were shown a picture of an argument between a well-dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man holding a cut throat razor. Serial reproduction: Participant asked to describe picture to another white participant who in turn described it to someone else (similar to Chinese whispers). This method was repeated and the picture was shown to the Black Participants

Contd. Results: White participants: After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the aggressor, holding the knife. Black Participants: Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There were more correct observations from the black participants in relation to the picture showed to them. Conclusions: This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we expect (based on stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and process into our memory. White people were heavily influenced by the history of racism from the acts of the olden-days America, whom discriminated against and placed heavy prejudices on Black African American people. Thus, the history of how black men were portrayed as aggressive and dangerous may have also influenced how they interpreted the story, affecting their schemas.

contd Evaluation: Limitations: Lacks ecological validity Artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience Ethics Experiment demonstrates a racist schema When the participants found out they had a schema of a black person being aggressive they might have been distressed because they might not have considered themselves racist. They would have felt bad afterwards - didn't come out the same as when they went in Connection of study to question This study relates to how schemas affect memory. Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by participants' stereotypical schemas. However in terms of a cultural aspect/viewpoint, the participants backgrounds may have affected how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge of and history of their culture towards black people and hence influencing their schemas.

Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982) Aim: The aim was to determine whether non-western children would show a memory defect for contextually organized spatial material. Mayan children had previously been shown to have poor spatial memory Methods: They gave Guatemalan children a memory task that was meaningful in local terms; constructed a diorama of a Mayan village located near a mountain and a lake, similar to the locale in which the children lived. Each child watched as a local experimenter selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 and placed them in the diorama. Objects included (the kind of things that would be found in a real town): Cars Animals People Furniture Then the 20 objects were returned to the group of 60 others remaining on the table. After a few minutes, the children were asked to reconstruct the full scene they had been shown. This methodology was then repeated to children from the united states (to their counterparts)

contd Results: Under these conditions, the memory performance of the Mayan children was slightly superior to that of their United States counterparts. Connection of study to question This study supports that culture affects memory. Guatemalan children could remember better than their US counterparts when the task was meaningful in local terms. Culture heavily impacts schema, thus memory recall. Through this study, it shows that people can remember better or perform tasks which are recognized as part of their culture, due to cultural influences and experiences stored in their schemas. People learn to remember in ways that are more relevant for their every day life, thus social situations affect cognition

Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974) A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge (in terms of memory strategies in different cultures USA & Liberia) is by Cole and Scribner (1974). They observed the effects of formal schooling/education (in relation to culture) had on memory. Methods: Tested the memory ability of non-schooled children in the Kpelle tribe in Liberia and compared them with US school children. Children were expected to remember items on word lists that were organized into different categories. Test was repeated with the children several times.

contd Results: The Kpelle children did not improve their performance in free recall memory tests after the age of 10 in the same way as US children; after 15 trials they only remembered 2 more items. Kpelle children who attended school had similar performance to US school children. School children in US and Liberia used categorical recall; they appeared to have chunked the items in to linked categories as they recalled them in groups such as utensils, clothes, vegetables, tools. When items were presented as part of a story the Kpelle children (non-schooled) had equally good performance as the US children. Children with formal schooling in America and Liberia used this mnemonic which improved their memory of the items. Children without formal schooling however, did not use the categories to aid their recall and subsequently did not remember as much as children who had attended school.

Connection of study to question: This study supports that culture affects memory. The Kpelle children performed just as well as their US counterparts in a culturally-familiar memory task, but not on a free recall task. This is because the free-recall task that Cole and his colleagues originally used to assess memory among Liberian tribal people has no precise analogy in traditional Liberian cultures, so it is not surprising that the corresponding way of remembering would not be acquired. Cognitive skills (memory) are dependent on the environment which is made up of education, social interaction, technology and in this case, culture. Therefore culture influences schemas, and thus our memory ability/ability to recall and have advantageous effects if asked to do a task associated with your culture.

Conclusion As demonstrated in these five studies, cultural factors stored in our schemas affect memory, Therefore, human cognition is culturally dependent in the way that cognitive abilities are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live. The implication of these studies is that although the ability to remember is a universal intellectual requirement, specific forms of remembering are not universal, as factors such as cultural aspects are different, in that not cultures have the same memory strategies. As demonstrated by the studies, people learn to remember in ways that are relevant for their everyday lives. The studies established, in particular Bartletts work, showed that memory is, to a significant extent, a construction; moreover, one that relies heavily on the schemas we develop in our cultural settings. And that the schemas we develop from our cultural backgrounds can influence the cognitive process of memory.

Ethical Considerations in Cognitive Psychology In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by.

These Ethics Are: Protection of participants Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. Consent Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected

Ethics contd. A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are Children under 18 years of age Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study Right to withdraw Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty. Confidentiality Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data

And more ethics Deception Deception should be avoided But slight deception is considered acceptable if: Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study The research has potential significant contribution It is unavoidable The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity Debriefing Any deception must be revealed and justified Participants should leave the study without undue stress Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible

Cases with questionable ethics Genie Curtiss Background: Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language early in life She had no apparent language skills when she was discovered at age 13. Aim: To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty) during which language must be acquired to develop normally.

More about Genie and Ethics Method: Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise. They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring environment for Genie. Ethical issues of this study: There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include: Participant Protection Genie was protected from harm during the study But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment and carers and the leaving of the researchers

And more,,, Consent Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language restrictions and mental state But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the study Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent Withdrawal Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions

what is cognitive psychology? focuses on processes going on in the mind. the mind is a black box,...

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