what is adventure? an investigation into how personal
TRANSCRIPT
What is Adventure? An investigation into how
personal experiences and concepts of adventure
compare with theories of adventure.
Christopher Eddington
DISSERTATION PRESENTED IN PART FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN
OUTDOOR EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
MORAY HOUSE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
2007
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Contents
Contents ...................................................................................................................3
Tables.......................................................................................................................4
Abstract ....................................................................................................................5
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................6
Introduction .............................................................................................................8
Literature Review ...................................................................................................11
Other Literature..........................................................................................20
Research Questions ................................................................................................25
Methodology ..........................................................................................................26
Methods .................................................................................................................32
Presentation of Findings..........................................................................................49
Personal Data about Sample Group ............................................................50
Experiences Described by Subjects..............................................................52
Concepts of Adventure................................................................................57
Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................82
Conclusions ............................................................................................................89
Future Research .....................................................................................................92
References ..............................................................................................................93
Appendix A: Data Gathering Instruments.............................................................100
Appendix B: Intercoder Reliability Check.............................................................104
Appendix C: Selected Data...................................................................................114
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Tables
Table 1 Code tree showing hierarchy of codes used in TAMS Analyzer ................. 37
Table 2 Individual Codes by Data Type................................................................. 44
Table 3 Code Families by Data Type .................................................................... 46
Table 4 Personal Data for Subjects......................................................................... 51
Table 5 Details of Experiences Described by Subjects. ........................................... 55
Table 6 Key Aspects of Adventure from Subjects ’ Definitions............................... 64
Table 7 Key Aspects of Challenge from Subjects ’ Definitions. .............................. 64
Table 8 Individual Code Scores by Subject. ........................................................... 66
Table 9 Code Family Scores by Subject.................................................................. 67
Table 10 Individual Codes by Gender. ................................................................... 68
Table 11 Code Families by Gender. ....................................................................... 70
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Abstract
Adventure lies at the heart of philosophies of outdoor education. This study
conducts qualitative research with a small group of subjects to investigate whether
current theories of adventure adequately describe individuals ’ experiences. The
literature characterises two types of adventure: either short, thrill-based, single
activity experiences that require little commitment from participants; or longer,
multi-facetted experiences requiring sustained effort and commitment. The
literature suggests that both forms are characterised by challenge in the form of
overcoming either fear or hardship. There is an assumption that these experiences
will be guided or led, and that there is little or no potential for learning from
recreational experiences. The study reviews other literature illustrating different
ideas of adventure. Findings reveal the importance of newness, independence,
physical effort and learning about self. The personal nature of experiences of
adventure and differences in priorities between genders are also highlighted.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the staff in the Outdoor Education section at Moray House
School of Education, The University of Edinburgh for sharing their expertise on
research and outdoor education, and for their continuing advice and encouragement.
Many thanks especially to Robbie Nicol, my supervisor, for guiding me through this
process with constant encouragement and clear and practical advice at every stage.
Robbie has been very patient with my spasmodic and painfully slow progress through
the dissertation process. His help and the amount of his time he has given me have
gone far beyond the call of duty. Thank you Robbie!
I must also thank Mark Leather for his help with intercoder reliability checking and
ongoing discussion of my topic, and Paul Davies for agreeing to pilot my data
gathering process. Thanks also to the students from the 2006-7 Postgraduate
Diploma in Outdoor Education course who shared their experiences and ideas with
me.
I must thank my partner Stella, for allowing me the time to pursue this research, for
her support, encouragement and advice, and for taking over my share of our
domestic and childcare arrangements over recent months, while I have been stuck in
my office working.
Working on this dissertation has coincided with the sad loss of two important people
in my life and a significant new arrival. Shortly after I started work on my
dissertation, my father passed away. My early experiences of outdoor adventure
were shared with him and he took a close interest in my outdoor adventures and
studies later on. He was entirely supportive of my decision to change from a career
in publishing to work in outdoor education. He also read Swallows and Amazons to us
when we were young, as he had read it when he was a child. In the summer of 2006
my friend Mat Goodyear died while climbing in the Alps. Mat and I were both
students on the Postgraduate Diploma course at Moray House. Many of my best
adventures in recent years have been with Mat. Mat helped me with my dissertation
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by sourcing articles that I struggled to locate, discussing ideas and sharing what he
had learnt from completing his own dissertation. My son Daniel arrived about
halfway through work on my dissertation. Exploring the ideas in this dissertation has
caused me to think a great deal about what sort of adventures I want him to
experience and the part I might play in ensuring they happen.
I would like to dedicate this work to the memory of my father Ray Eddington and
Mat Goodyear, and to Daniel, with whom I hope to share many adventures in the
coming years.
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Introduction
This dissertation suggested itself as a result of rediscovering the Swallows and Amazons
novels of Ransome (2001a), which I first read as a child at my father ’ s enthusiastic
recommendation. The experiences of the characters in these books are essentially
‘ adventures ’ , echoing many of the themes of outdoor adventure education, but
with significant differences. These differences suggest a gap in the literature and
theories of outdoor adventure. The character of the adventures described by
Ransome (2001a) reminded me to some extent of some of my own childhood and
later experiences of the outdoors, often with my father, and contrasted sharply with
my professional experience of outdoor adventure education. I found myself
wondering, “Isn ’ t this what we ’ re supposed to be doing with young people in the
outdoors? ” and also concerned that I might only be able to provide this type of
experience for my own children. The purpose of this research is to investigate a
perceived gap in the literature and to discover whether other people ’ s experiences of
adventure support the suggestion that there are other ways of describing adventure.
Justification
Personal and Professional
I have a strong personal interest in the learning process and the circumstances that
help people to interpret and draw meaning from their own experiences. My own
learning in the outdoors derives from ongoing reflection on my own experiences,
many of which were not facilitated, instructed or taught in the traditional sense. As
an outdoor educator I endeavour to constantly review my own teaching methods and
I am keen to find out how I can improve the circumstances and opportunities for
learning.
Outdoor Adventure Education Literature
Barrett & Greenaway (1995) indicate, “a desperate need for new research which
focusses on young people themselves ” (p.54) and for “research focussing on the
process ingredients identified in this Review”, (p.54). Also, Foley, Frew &
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McGillivray (2003, p.158), discussing the nature of commercial provision of outdoor
adventure and its perception, suggest, “it is essential to investigate the implications of
commodification processes upon traditional providers located within the adventure
education domain. ” Loynes (2002, p.122) advocates a move away from “outcome
focused or process oriented” approaches to more exploratory and emergent learning
experiences.
Higgins (1997, p.12) and Maddern (1990) have suggested that outdoor education
provides opportunities to help young people in their transition from childhood to
adulthood, in a manner similar to some traditional rites of passage. They identify key
aspects common to both: departure of participant from home environment, a journey
or adventure with a peer group, and return to home, or “separation ”, “transition ”
and “reincorporation ” as defined by Venables (1997, p.8). Higgins (1997, p.12)
asserts that: “There are few other opportunities for young people to have such
experiences and allow them to become the hero of their own story. ” Loynes (1998b)
draws comparisons between outdoor adventure education and the “hero ’ s
journey ” (Campbell, 1993), a key feature of myths and fairy tales, which can also be
seen as rites of passage. It is possible to see characteristics of both rites of passage and
the “hero ’ s journey ” in Swallows and Amazons (Ransome, 2001a). The type of
experiences described might have some potential for facilitating this type of transition
or development.
Education
Proposals to alter the school curriculum in A Curriculum For Excellence (Scottish
Executive, 2004) call for “a better balance between ‘ academic ’ and ‘ vocational ’
subjects and include a wider range of experiences,” (p.7). It aspires to produce
“ successful learners ”, “confident individuals ”, “ responsible citizens ” and
“ effective contributors ” with qualities including creativity, independence, self-
respect and self-awareness, ability to assess and manage risk, resilience, self-reliance,
and the ability to work with others and to solve problems. While few could
disapprove of or disagree with these aims, the proposals are of the broadest nature
with no specific indication of how these aims might be achieved.
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As well as being the language of personal and social development within outdoor
adventure education, these terms might also be applied to Swallows and Amazons
(Ransome, 2001a), whose characters demonstrate self-reliance and independence,
camping on an island for a week without direct adult supervision, cooking their own
meals, collecting provisions, sailing and taking responsibility for their own safety.
This suggests that the type of adventure experiences described by Ransome might be
one way of achieving the aims of “A Curriculum For Excellence ” (Scottish Executive,
2004).
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Literature Review
In this section I will review the literature on adventure that has influenced the theory
and development of outdoor adventure education in the United Kingdom. This is
mostly, but not exclusively, from the United Kingdom itself, and ranges from the
early twentieth century until the present. I will identify the key themes or
characteristics of adventure, as defined in the literature. I will also discuss literature
from other fields, including Ransome ’ s Swallows and Amazons (2001a) and research
into Significant Life Experiences from the field of Environmental Education.
Adventure is a key concept in the literature of outdoor education, and is
characterised by two distinct forms. Barrett & Greenaway (1995) note that outdoor
adventure experiences vary in terms of remoteness, skill level, effort, responsibility
and level of contrivance “from a mountain walk to a “low tech ” bivouac, to “high
tech ” adventure sport. They describe activities as low, medium or high intensity or
as “recreational ”, “educational ” or “developmental ” respectively (Barrett &
Greenaway (1995, p.5). Their examples of low and high intensity experiences share
important characteristics with “narrow ” and “broad adventure ” as explained by
Rubens (1999, p.26) and Higgins & Nicol (2002, p.8-9).
Rubens (1999, p.26) refers to “narrow adventure” experiences, which he suggests
are “limited in duration ” and “with a significant level of anxiety”. He adds:
“ Thrill seeking activities were seen as the best way to impart adventure. ” Higgins
& Nicol (2002, p.8-9), drawing on Rubens ’ work, suggest that such adventures
“ require little effort on the part of the student who takes minimal responsibility for
his or her actions ”, and suggest ropes courses, zip wires and abseiling as examples of
this form. In contrast Rubens (1999) suggests that “ broad adventure ” is
characterised by “long time scales ”, “living and working with others ”, “challenges
which do not necessarily invoke high anxiety and which are many and varied ” and
for which “a significant degree of effort ” is required. Higgins & Nicol suggest,
“ broad adventure […] most notably requires the student to take responsibility for
their actions and sustain effort ” (Higgins & Nicol, 2002, p.8-9). They suggest that
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journeys by canoe or on foot typify the latter form, requiring a “mastery approach ”
and sustained physical effort over longer periods of time.
Hunt (1989, p.18) also stresses the importance of effort and active engagement in the
experience by participants: “it should depend on the efforts, the judgement and the
commitment of the participants themselves. ” Higgins & Loynes suggest:
“ Adventure in this context implies that there is a journeying out (a move onto new
ground) to embrace the experience” (Higgins & Loynes, 1997, p.6). This is
reminiscent of Dewey ’ s argument for “continuity” in learning, (education as an
ongoing process), which highlights the importance of “curiosity ” in this process:
…if an experience arouses curiosity, strengthens initiative, and sets up desires and purposes that are sufficiently intense to carry a person over dead places in
the future, continuity works in a very different way. (1938, p.38)
In practice “active engagement ” seems to depend on issues of the degree of
contrivance in the activity, level of control and effort by the participant, as discussed
above. Greenaway (1998, p.25) supports this view with his advice: “Make the
journey a self-designed, independent one (with necessary safety arrangements). ”
Loynes (1998a) dismisses narrow adventure experiences as “Adventure in a Bun ”,
describing them as “an instant fix ” (p.39) and as producing “a guaranteed
adrenaline rush ”, (p.35) thereby losing core values of outdoor education and
removing the element of uncertainty that is regarded by Mortlock (1984), Hopkins &
Putnam (1993), Higgins (2001) and Priest (1989) as a vital component of adventure.
Gair (1988, p.30) also comments on the demand and market for “instant
adventure ” and “immediate thrills ”, while Foley, Frew & McGillivray (2003) talk of
“ the chic of adrenaline, where radical and risk meet ” and of “the adrenaline
‘ f ix ’ ” (p.150). There is an implicit assumption that narrow adventure has minimal
potential for learning.
The literature offers polarised views of adventure, perhaps as a result of the need to
simplify theories of adventure. For example, activities are presented as either
contrived or uncontrived, requiring either active engagement or relatively passive
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participation, and either educative or non-educative. On the other hand, perhaps
more realistically, Hopkins & Putnam (1993) seek to characterise experiences of
adventure as part of a continuum. Mortlock (1984) also suggests that adventure is a
continuum, but in reducing this to the four “stages” of adventure, he again leaves
the impression of neatly pigeonholed experiences.
Characteristics of Adventure
A number of key characteristics of outdoor adventure experiences can be seen to
emerge from the literature, which are applied or interpreted in different ways in
narrow and broad adventure experiences. I will examine these and discuss how their
application appears to differ.
Type of Activity
Journeys appear central to some ideas of adventure in the literature, although
journeys within narrow adventure tend to be of shorter duration and more focussed
on excitement. Mortlock (1984, p.14) defined adventure as “the journey with a
degree of uncertainty with a premium on self-reliance ”. Drasdo (1973) too talks of
journeys, “Generally speaking the longer or the more difficult the journey the
better ”, (p.40) and elsewhere of the “ideal journey ” (p.42) and “travel ” (p.46).
Foley, Frew & McGillivray (2003, p.157) see journeys at the heart of adventure, as
does Greenaway (1998). Gair (1988, p.30) suggests expeditions and exploration as
an alternative to “adventure holidays ”, while Higgins & Nicol (2002, p.8-9) suggest
that journeys typify broad adventure experiences.
Examples of narrow adventure experiences on the other hand include ropes courses,
zip wires and abseiling (Higgins & Nicol, 2002, p.8-9), the types of activities offered
by some operators using the countryside as “an outdoor gym ”, (Foley, Frew &
McGillivray, 2003) on “adventure holidays ” (Gair, 1988, p.30), as part of “the
multi-activity deal ” rejected by Loynes (1998, p.39). In a similar vein Becker (2003,
p.100) regards many adventure experiences as “stage-managed in such a way that it
serves the interests of the organizer. ”
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Duration
The type of journeys suggested by Mortlock (1984), Drasdo (1973), Higgins & Nicol
(2002) and Gair (1988) are of “sustained rather than short duration ” (Higgins &
Nicol, 2002, p.8-9). As an example of this, Gair (1988) refers to the Duke of
Edinburgh Award, a feature of which is multi-day expeditions. On the other hand
narrow adventure experiences are “of short duration ”, (Higgins & Nicol, 2002, 8-9),
such as those on multi-activity programmes, described by Gair as “a fairground
ride ” providing “immediate thrills for the young” (1988, p.30)
Outcome
Mortlock ’ s definition of adventure suggested “a degree of uncertainty ”, (1984,
p.14), a view supported by Hopkins & Putnam (1993), Hattie, Marsh, Neill &
Richards (1997, 45), Priest (1989, p.157), and Higgins (2001):
The essence of such experiences is that the outcomes cannot be predicted to
any great degree. This uncertainty is the essence of adventure… (Higgins, 2001, p.102)
Becker (2003) suggests that the “expectation of a possible loss of control and the
uncertainty of it happening is a constitutive part of adventure ” (p.96). This may be
characteristic of broad adventure experiences but Loynes is critical of activities such
as ropes courses, which offer a “predictable outcome ” (1998, p.36). He argues
against the tendency of many programmes which have “predetermined outcomes,
which are measured ” (2002, p.114) and advocates “goal free ” learning that is “not
outcome focussed or process oriented; it is emergent ” (p.122). Similarly, Hunt
(1989, p.18) argues that “the outcome should not be predetermined; it should
depend on the efforts, the judgement and the commitment of the participants
themselves. ”
Challenge
Challenge is central to ideas of adventure and is expressed in the literature in terms
of overcoming fear or hardship. Hahn speaks of “ the power to overcome ” (Hahn,
1960, p.4), “conquering adversities ” (Hahn, 1947, p.4), and “overcoming fear ”
(Hahn, 1965, p.6). Mortlock (2001, p.33) sees challenge as a basic need of young
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people: “In other words, every boy and girl needed challenge in the outdoors and
thrived on it. ”
Mortlock (1984) defined four stages of adventure:
• Stage One, Play - participants are not stretched or challenged;
• Stage Two, Adventure - participants are challenged and need to use or acquire
skills, but remain in control;
• Stage Three, Frontier Adventure – participants are tested, with less certainty of
retaining control, but should find their skills adequate;
• Stage Four, Misadventure – participants are not in control and may sustain
physical or mental injury or even death.
He suggests that overcoming “discomfort and fear” (Mortlock, 1984, p.48) is
essential to Stage Three experience, and should be part of introductory sessions. I
am not convinced by this suggestion, which assumes an instructor ’ s ability to know
how a learner experiences an activity, their preferred learning style, their threshold
of fear etc. (Gair, 1997). Nor am I convinced that instructors following this
suggestion could be certain that they had judged these issues correctly or whether
psychological damage had been sustained by the learner. Mortlock ’ s suggestion
seems at odds with many of his own formative experiences journeying alone or with
his family (Mortlock, 1984, p.15), described as “a return to basic living ”. He does,
however, concede that “not all suffering, however, is valuable and may not lead to
positive outcomes (Mortlock, 1984, p.71), particularly in Stage Four experiences, a
reminder perhaps of Dewey ’ s assertion that “[not] all experiences are genuinely or
equally educative… some experiences are miseducative”, (Dewey, 1938, p.25).
Priest (1989) identifies five stages of adventure experience: Exploration &
Experimentation, Adventure, Peak Adventure, Misadventure and Devastation and
Disaster. He describes challenge as “the interplay of risk and competence ” and
defines risk as “the potential to lose something of value ” (1989, p.157). Hopkins &
Putnam (1993) identify three stages of adventure, Recreation, Adventure and
Misadventure, with a critical zone in the Adventure stage between apparent and real
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danger. They see the problem of providing appropriate challenge as balancing fear
and boredom. All see the Adventure stage (Adventure and Frontier Adventure for
Mortlock; Adventure and Peak Adventure for Priest) as having the greatest potential
for personal growth or development, and appear to dismiss the potential of recreation
or play for learning, a view echoed by Higgins & Loynes (1997), Hunt (1989) and
Barrett & Greenaway (1995).
Recently I have watched my young son progress from lying prone, to rolling, then
crawling, experimenting with steps and stairs, standing and the early stages of
walking. This has been achieved through play, experiment and exploration with no
teaching or instruction from his parents. His motivation has been simply his own
desire for independent movement. Consequently I question the rejection of
recreation as a learning opportunity, particularly in the light of work on this subject
by Holt (1964) and Rogers (1969), highlighting the importance of enjoyment as a
condition for learning and asserting the value of self-directed or “self-initiated”
learning (Rogers, 1969, p.5)
Where challenge takes the form of overcoming fear, it is usually the fear of danger, of
injury or death as in Mortlock ’ s Stage Four – Misadventure. Thus risk and safety,
and perceptions of the same are intertwined with challenge. Loynes & Higgins
(1997) acknowledge that outdoor education can be hazardous, but suggest that
engagement with that risk may be an important part of the educative process.
Nonetheless, the safety of learners is of paramount importance: “safety is the
essential framework ”, (Mortlock, 1984, p.33); “the discrete maintenance of a safe
environment within which outdoor experiences take place ”, (Higgins & Loynes,
1997, p.6). However, they stress the importance of distinguishing between risk as a
means to an end, perhaps to generate excitement and enjoyment in “narrow
adventure experiences ” from risk that is inherent but not central to activities, such as
the incidental risks that accompany but are not the rationale for a canoe journey, e.g.
drowning. Gair provides a useful example: “When rockclimbing, for example, we
may, likewise, have a statistical chance of falling to our death but we do not expect to
do so, ” (Gair 1997, p.60)
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Challenge is a feature of both narrow and broad adventure experiences. In broad
adventure experiences such as journeys, challenge often takes the form of endurance
or overcoming physical and mental hardship. These activities are not free from risk,
but risk is not the central rationale for the activity, as Higgins & Loynes (1997)
suggest. This does not appear to be the case with narrow adventure experiences.
Foley, Frew & McGillivray (2003, p.156) referring (like Loynes, 1998) to
‘ McDonaldised Adventure ’ suggest that “the illusion of risk becomes the central
feature of its consumption ”. Loynes (1998, p.37) personally regards risk as “a
secondary consequence to be minimised, not celebrated ” and that it “can therefore
be viewed as a marketing strategy ”. He suggests that “outdoor adventure would be
advised to find another way of working and another word than “challenge ” to
describe its process. ”
Place
There is agreement in the literature that adventure experiences should take place in
an outdoor setting (Hattie, Marsh, Neill & Richards, 1997, p.44; Barrett &
Greenaway, 1995, p.3; Higgins & Loynes, 1997, p.8; Hopkins & Putnam, 1993;
Hunt, 1989) or perhaps a “relatively natural habitat ” (Tanner, 1980, p.23). Drasdo
(1973) speaks of “our affair with landscape ” (p.26), “a sanctuary of neutral
country ” (p.32) and “a retreat to the hills ” (p.33). Gair (1988, p.29) suggests that
the venue can sometimes be more important than the activity – “being there is often
enough! ” Cooper (1994, p.10) claims: “Adventure is a great motivator. Time spent
alone or in small groups in natural places also motivates. ” “Remote or seemingly
remote places ” (Yaffey, 1990, p.29) are also important.
For others the natural setting is the source of the challenge in the adventure
experience. Yaffey (1990, p.29) suggests that “the natural environment itself creates
the challenge to be met (the rock, the white-water, the sea, wind or mountain) ”.
Barrett & Greenaway (1995, p.13) refer to a group’ s response to a common
“ wilderness challenge ”. Becker (2003, p.96) gives some examples of the challenges
thrown up by “the wild, relatively untouched side of nature”.
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In narrow, and sometimes in broad adventure, the natural environment can become
little more than “an assault course, gymnasium or puzzle to be resolved and
controlled […] a resource to be consumed instead of a home to which to relate ”,
(Loynes, 2002, p.114). Loynes (1998, p.36) and Foley, Frew & McGillivray (2003,
p.115) show how many of the activities, such as climbing, that traditionally took place
outside, often now take place in indoor facilities or “ cathedrals of adventure” (Foley,
Frew & McGillivray, 2003, p.153)
Role of Instructor
There is a general consensus that the experience will be guided, (Hunt 1989; Higgins
& Loynes, 1997, p.6; Higgins, 1997; Hopkins & Putnam, 1993; Barrett &
Greenaway, 1995; Davidson, 2004; Hattie, Marsh, Neill & Richards, 1997), but with
clear agreement that the educator should not intrude into the learning experience
more than is necessary. Greenaway & Bill (in Hopkins & Putnam, 1993) suggest the
role of the educator is “to help the learner move through the learning cycle, without
inhibiting the participants ’ natural ability to learn, ” or to avoid being an “intrusive
complicator ” (Greenaway, 1997). Higgins (1997, p.9) questions the importance of
the educator in the leaning process: “It is perhaps wrong to assume a lead role for
the educator in the education of the student, ” while Loynes (2002, p.122) suggests
that a positive development in outdoor education might be if: “The facilitator
accompanies rather than leads ”. Hopkins & Putnam (1993, p.115) stress that
“ Education is essentially about learning, rather than being taught. ” Hahn, on the
other hand, believed that the role of the teacher was “to impel every youngster into
health-giving experiences ”, (Hahn, 1960, p.5; 1965, p.3), a view supported by
Mortlock (1984).
Mortlock ’ s (1984, p.14) definition of adventure promoted the idea of self-reliance,
suggesting an ability to act independently, perhaps best exemplified by
unaccompanied journeys. Earlier, Hahn encouraged solitary or solo experiences,
such as walks, to help develop the “love of aloneness ” (Hahn, 1940, p.9). Solo
journeys were important in the development of Mortlock ’ s philosophy of adventure
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education (1984, 2002). Drasdo (1973, p.42) argued that, “In the ideal journey no
outside support or assistance is available and no easy escape from the commitment is
possible”. Gair (1988, p.27) highlights the benefits of “a self-led peer group
expedition ”. Hattie, Marsh, Neill & Richards (1997, p.45) see one of the goals of
outdoor programmes as making groups “largely independent of their instructor and
taking responsibility for all aspects of their expedition. ” Greenaway (1998) suggests:
“ Make the journey a self-designed, independent one (with necessary
arrangements). ” The latter no doubt referring to issues of safety and risk
management.
Davidson (2004, p.9) raises the concern that unaccompanied expeditions result in a
higher level of accidents and injuries, asserting that supervision is “the most powerful
tool to reducing the risk in outdoor education. Conversely, Loynes & Higgins (1997,
p.28), drawing on work by Hale, argue that: “Although self reliant groups often get
lost they rarely have accidents. It seems that most accidents that happen to students
occur when they are accompanied. ”
Whereas broad adventure creates some possibilities for unaccompanied (if not
unsupervised) experiences, high tech, narrow adventure experiences, which focus on
risk usually depend heavily on the technical skills and presence of trained staff, in the
way that Davidson (2004) suggests.
Problems in the Literature
The ideas behind both narrow and broad adventure experiences appear to be based
on a number of assumptions found in the literature:
• Firstly it assumes that challenge in the form of overcoming hardship, fear or risk
are an essential component of adventure experience and that no significant
learning occurs unless participants are challenged.
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• Secondly, the idea that educators can design activities with predetermined
outcomes assumes that they can know what participants actually experience and
what learning they might derive from that experience, (Greenaway, 1997). It also
assumes that educators can exercise tight control over the learning experience.
• Thirdly, learning is more likely to occur and groups will be safer if accompanied
and guided.
I would like to suggest that there might be other forms of adventure where some of
these assumptions do not apply.
Other Literature
“Swallows and Amazons”
Ransome ’ s Swallows and Amazons ( 2001a) provides an illustration of a different type
of adventure, perhaps emphasising the importance of being outdoors as much as
outdoor activities. Although fictional and a product of his imagination, it is based on
the author ’ s childhood and later experiences with the Altounyan family in the Lake
District. Its essence of adventure has elements not commonly found in the literature
of outdoor adventure education. Some aspects of broad adventure experiences are
evident in the book but there are also some distinct differences. Apart from
enjoyment, few of the features of narrow adventure experiences appear to apply.
The book recounts the experiences of six young children from two families during
summer holidays in the Lake District. The book focusses on the four Walker
children (the Swallows), who camp on a nearby island on the lake, sailing on their
own to get to and from the island for supplies and for recreation and adventure.
Once on the island they meet the two Blackett girls (the Amazons). The story
recounts their experiences together.
There are some important characteristics of the experiences described. Their
adventure is “low tech ” and low thrill. Central to the book is the idea of living
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outdoors: the children ’ s only means of transport during their stay are sailing,
swimming and walking; on the island they live in home-made tents; they cook their
own food on an open fire; they fetch supplies on a daily basis; they gather firewood;
they fish. Although not journeying, the experiences share many of its key aspects.
The children camp on the island for a number of days, possibly a week, reflecting the
“ sustained ” characteristics of broad adventure. The outcome of their activities is
uncertain and not predetermined (cf. Loynes, 2002; Hunt, 1989, see above); in fact
much of their day-to-day activity appears to be spontaneous, driven mostly by
weather or their own wishes. The motivation and impetus for the experience is
entirely their own; they are not impelled by others but self-impelled; the experience is
self-directed, from conception to execution: they see the island, decide they want to
stay there, seek and obtain their parents permission, and make the necessary
arrangements for supplies etc (with some parental help). During their stay on the
island they are self-reliant – adult intervention is rare and generally uninvited or
unnecessary. The setting is relatively natural and although in reality not remote, it
has an apparent quality of remoteness, (cf. Yaffey, 1990, see above). They
demonstrate responsibility, commitment, effort and “mastery ” of sailing, campcraft,
walking and fishing.
There are some important differences between these experiences and ideas of broad
or narrow adventure experiences:
1. The children ’ s experiences are relatively low key “ living outdoors ” rather
than journeying in the broad adventure sense, or as the ‘ high thrill ’ short-
term nature of narrow adventure. Although the literature of outdoor
adventure education emphasizes journeying rather than “living outdoors ”,
there is perhaps a parallel in the harvest (hunting, gathering mushrooms,
berries etc.) and “tur ” aspects of the Norwegian tradition of Friluftsliv,
(Mytting, 2006).
2. The children are unaccompanied and self-directed throughout and yet safety
is still addressed. Before giving permission, their mother sails with them and
discretely assesses their competence. She also assists with and oversees
22
preparation for their expedition, visiting them at their campsite at various
times to check on their competence and safety. In addition the children
collect supplies everyday from a nearby farm on the mainland; failure to do so
would raise the alarm. Although the relative proximity of the island allows
the mother to monitor the situation through occasional visits, immediate and
direct intervention is not possible; safety mostly depends on her assessment of
the competence of the children.
3. The nature of challenge: the children ’ s experience is not characterised as
overcoming hardship or fear, nor is there generally a perceived risk of the
high anxiety type (Rubens, 1999, p.26) associated with narrow adventure
experiences. There are moments where the children are scared or recognise
the possibility of danger, and even one instance of near misadventure, but on
the whole the characters act comfortably within the limits of their own
abilities. The challenge takes the form of exploration, curiosity, and an
expectation that they can do things rather than fear of danger or failure.
4. The children are not instructed, there is no explicit educational aim to their
experiences, but learning or development does take place in an emergent
manner (Cf. Loynes, 2002). There are identifiable instances of reflection on
situations, achievements, feelings and place by all the characters not
facilitated by adults or relating to predetermined outcomes.
5. A dominant theme in the children ’ s experience is imagination. Adults, even
their own families, are referred to as “natives ”, distinguishing them from the
children as “explorers ” or “pirates ”. The literature of outdoor adventure
education is almost silent on the importance of imagination or role-playing,
although Norwegian legislation on education and Friluftsliv emphasizes the
importance of creativity (The Royal Ministry Of Education, Research And
Church Affairs, 1997, p.11). Perhaps in this context imagination and role-
playing take the place of fear-based excitement or challenge found in other
adventure experiences.
A primary motivation for this research is my interest in what learning takes place
when people ’ s experiences are not led or instructed.
23
As they sail away from the island, each of the children reflects on some aspect of their
experiences during their stay such as achievements, feelings or particular events.
This suggests that their adventure has been a significant experience, as it provides
opportunity for reflection, development and change. The nature of the children ’ s
activities and experiences is similar in a number of ways to experiences studied by
research into “Significant Life Experiences ” in the field of Environmental
Education.
Environmental Education and Significant Life Experiences
Tanner (1980) and Palmer (1993) have undertaken research into the “significant life
experiences ” of “adults who are informed about and actively promote
environmentally positive behaviour ”, (Palmer, 1993, p.26).
Tanner (1980) asked a number of individuals to identify experiences they felt had
been influential on the development of their beliefs and behaviours in respect of the
environment. The responses highlighted the importance of childhood experiences of
nature. These experiences included activities such as hunting (as conducted in the
USA not the UK), fishing, walking and camping and often took place as part of the
family, particularly with fathers. Solitude and exploring the natural environment
also emerged as important. Tanner (1980) recommends: “Consider the release of
students, singly or in very small groups, to nearby wooded parks or vacant lots for
two or three hours, frequently throughout their school careers ”, (Tanner, 1980,
p.23).
Palmer (1993) builds on Tanner ’ s work (1980), conducting similar research in the
United Kingdom and as part of an international collaborative research project,
(Palmer, 1993; Palmer & Suggate, 1996; Palmer, Suggate, Bajd and Tsaliki, 1998;
Palmer et al, 1998; Palmer, Suggate, Robottom & Hart, 1999). Her findings support
and reinforce Tanner ’ s findings (1980) on the importance of childhood experiences:
“ Youthful experiences of the outdoors and of pristine environments emerged as the
most dominant influences, ” (Palmer, Suggate, Bajd & Tsaliki, 1998, p.430).
24
Outdoor pursuits and recreation appear to be important, although the activities
described, e.g. rowing, fishing, walking, birdwatching (Palmer, 1993), which Barrett
& Greenaway (1995) might characterise as “low intensity” or “low tech ”, resemble
those described by Ransome (2001a). There is no suggestion of “high intensity ”,
“ high anxiety” or “high tech ” adrenaline rush activities or of overcoming
hardship, discomfort or fear. Rather there is a sense of feeling at home and
comfortable in the natural environment. The importance of organisations such as
Brownies, Guides, Cubs, Scouts and the Duke of Edinburgh Award is also identified,
(Palmer, 1993, p.29). These represent strong similarities with Ransome ’ s Swallows
and Amazons (2001a).
If outdoor adventure education is about learning that is “a relatively permanent
change in behaviour, due to experience, ” (Payne, 1986, p.24), then it is important to
understand the nature and significance, or otherwise, of participants ’ experiences.
In this context Tanner (1980) and Palmer ’ s research methodology (1993) and
findings can be seen to have a direct relevance to outdoor adventure education.
25
Research Questions
The intention of this research is to explore the nature of people ’ s experiences of
adventure. My primary research question is:
• How accurately do current theories of adventure, characterised by challenge
and overcoming hardship or fear, describe individuals ’ experiences of outdoor
adventure?
I am also interested in exploring the following areas:
• How important are overcoming fear and hardship to adventure?
• Where do living and being outdoors fit into adventure?
• What is the potential of outdoor recreation for learning?
• What is the effect on learning when participants are accompanied?
• How does the length of time of an activity affect the nature of adventure?
• What place is there for imagination in adventure experiences?
26
Methodology
In exploring the nature of people ’ s experience of adventure, I am interested in the
subjective nature of those experiences and how people understand them rather than
the objective facts or measurable results of those experiences, e.g. changes in self-
esteem. This places my study with constructivist (or interpretive), and particularly
phenomenological, rather than positivist approaches to research. Cohen & Manion
state: “In its broadest meaning, phenomenology is a theoretical point of view that
advocates the study of direct experience taken at face value; ” (1994, p.29). Similarly
Robson suggests that:
Phenomenological research focuses on the subjective experience of the individuals studied. What is their experience like? How can one understand
and describe what happens to them from their own point of view? As the term suggests, at its heart is the attempt to understand a particular phenomenon. (Robson, 2002, p.195)
Constructivist approaches to research include, among others, case study,
autobiography and life history research, diaries and other examples of narrative
inquiry. The research by Tanner (1980) and Palmer (Palmer, 1993; Palmer &
Suggate, 1996; Palmer, Suggate, Bajd & Tsaliki, 1998; Palmer et al, 1998; Palmer,
Suggate, Robottom & Hart, 1999) into significant life experiences, discussed above
represents an example of narrative inquiry as explained by Gray (in Bell, 1999, p.16):
It involves the collection and development of stories, either as a form of data collection or as a means of structuring a research project… Narrative inquiry can involve reflective autobiography, life story, or the inclusion of excerpts from participants ’ stories to illustrate a theme developed by the researcher.
Plummer (1983) suggests that life history research has “ a concern to present the
naturalistic, subjective point of view of a participant, ” (1983, p.14) and “with the
phenomenal role of lived experience, with the ways in which members interpret their
own lives and the world around them” (Plummer, 1993, p.67).
This study gathers data from a relatively small number of subjects, exploring their
experiences in detail. It is interpretive at two levels, firstly, by the subjects
themselves, and secondly by the researcher.
27
1. The data gathered consist of subjects ’ accounts of experiences as
reconstructed and interpreted by them and discussion of these experiences.
2. Data analysis requires the researcher to identify significant themes in the data
and organise it into ‘ meaningful ’ categories.
Representativeness
A criticism of narrative inquiry is that it is not representative, that it is “a story in
itself, but no more ” (Plummer, 1993, p.100). Representativeness depends on sample
selection. The approach to sampling used in this study is described in the literature
as “non-probability ” sampling (Robson, 2002, p.261), which can be easier to carry
out than probability samples and result in samples more suited to the purpose of the
research. Robson (2002) suggests that non-probability samples “typically involve the
researcher using his judgement to achieve a particular purpose, and for this reason
are sometimes referred to as purposive samples, ” (p.264) and that “the principle of
selection in purposive sampling is the researcher ’ s judgement as to typicality or
interest ” (p.265). How representative the findings of this study are depends on the
suitability of the sample selected by the researcher.
Trustworthiness – Reliability and Validity
The use of these terms in the literature can be rather confusing. Trustworthiness is a
qualitative term encompassing the concepts of reliability and validity, which are more
closely linked to quantitative research. The literature suggests that reliability relates
to another researcher using the same method and obtaining the same results (Bell,
1999, p.103; Plummer, 1983, p.101); while validity relates to whether the study
actually studies what it is supposed to (Bell, 1999, p.104; Plummer, 1983, p.101).
Robson (2002, p.168-170) regards traditional ideas of reliability and validity as
inappropriate to flexible, qualitative research, the exact circumstances of which can
be difficult to reproduce, and tentatively suggests use of the terms “trustworthiness ”
or “credibility”. Without explicitly defining what “ trustworthiness ” means in the
qualitative research context, he identifies a number of threats to validity that would
28
reduce trustworthiness and suggests a number of measures to counter these threats
(Robson, 202, p.170).
Bias
Bias represents a significant threat to the trustworthiness of research. Cohen &
Manion (1994) suggest that bias can come from a number of sources:
The sources of bias are the characteristics of the interviewer, the characteristics of the respondent, and the substantive content of the questions. More particularly, these will include: the attitudes and opinions of the interviewer; a tendency for the interviewer to see the respondent in her own
image; a tendency for the interviewer to seek answers that support her preconceived notions; misperceptions on the part of the interviewer of what the respondent is saying; and misunderstandings on the part of the respondent of what is being asked. Studies have also shown that race, religion, social class and age can in certain contexts be potent sources of bias. (p.282)
Researcher
In this study problems with trustworthiness might derive from the use of “purposive
sampling ” with its reliance on the judgement of the researcher in sample selection
and similarly during coding and analysis of data in the identification and organisation
of themes and categories.
In discussing positivism, (a philosophical approach concerned with establishing
objective facts through direct observation or measurement, as the basis of
generalisable causal rules or principles.), Robson (2002, p.20) suggests that it assumes
that, “Science separates facts from values; it is value-free ”. He contrasts this with
the contribution hermeneutics, “the art and science of interpretation ” (p.196), has
made to qualitative research methodology, suggesting: “the closer one is to the
source of the text the more valid one ’ s interpretation is likely to be ” (p.197). He
also identifies the risk of the researcher “imposing a framework or meaning on what
is happening ” (p.171) and advocates checking the appropriateness of any such
framework. Plummer (1983, p.101) also asserts that: “The closer one is to the
phenomenon one wants to understand, the nearer one usually is to validity ”.
29
The role of the researcher in qualitative research is therefore complicated. Advocates
of qualitative research see the researcher as the person closest to the data and most
likely to fully understand it (Plummer, 1983; Robson, 2002), while advocates of
quantitative research regard the researcher as a threat to reliability, who risks making
a uniquely personal interpretation of the data, thereby reducing the trustworthiness
of any findings (Robson, 2002). This creates a conflict between approaches to
research and the role of the researcher. In qualitative research the nature and
quantity of the data necessitate direct involvement by the researcher. Plummer,
quoting Dollard, suggests that the researcher
must arrange and systematise the material: he must (vii) “play an active role
against his material; he must do the critical work of fashioning the necessary concepts, of making the required connections…” (Plummer, 1983, p.50).
He also suggests a degree of intuition and that analysis “entails brooding and
reflecting upon mounds of data for long periods of time until it ‘ makes sense ’ and
‘ f eels right ’ and key ideas and themes flow from it ” (Plummer, 1983, p.99). This
contrasts with positivist approaches where facts are facts and capable of only one
interpretation. While accepting this view, I suggest that any coding scheme and
subsequent analysis of data can only be fully understood by its creator. Accepting
Robson ’ s suggestion of identifying threats to reliability and validity and adopting
appropriate countermeasures, places the researcher at the centre of this conflict.
Adler and Adler, meanwhile, are dismissive: “These concerns over validity and
reliability derive from a postpositivist paradigm […] and lose salience as issues in the
postmodern framework. I have used Intercoder Reliability checking (discussed
below) as a countermeasure to bias, but I am uncertain that it is an absolute measure
of reliability. It is useful as a process, requiring the re-examination of codes and
coding decisions, and for what it might suggest about the nature of the data.
Respondent
Another potential source of bias relates to the subjects themselves. The use of
“ purposive sampling ” depends on the judgement of the researcher in identifying
criteria for selection and matching a sample to them. Selecting a sample group from
a single institution creates additional potential for bias, as the students might conform
to the particular philosophy of that institution. There is also potential for bias in the
30
subjects ’ selection and presentation of their experiences. Cohen & Manion (1994,
p.60) describe “retrospective life history” as “ a reconstruction of past events from
the present feelings and interpretation of the individual concerned ”, while Palmer,
Suggate, Bajd & Tsaliki (1998, p.431) note that “autobiographical memory is not
purely a copy of original events, but inevitably involves selection and some degree of
reconstruction ”. Chawla (1998, p.387), reviewing research into Significant Life
Experience within Environmental Education, acknowledges that such research “is
only as valid as the autobiographical memory on which it is based”. Referring to
literature on the reliability of memory she concludes that: “Although memories may
often confuse the precise details of what happened during a specific event, they are
usually accurate about the general course of events” (p.387). She later describes this
type of memories as “of the most reliable kind” (p.388).
Countermeasures
To address the potential for researcher bias Robson suggests that the researcher
should be reflexive (2002, p.173), recording characteristics, values and assumptions
that might potentially affect the research. It is appropriate therefore that I
acknowledge my pertinent personal characteristics that might affect this research,
during data gathering or analysis. These are: I am middle aged, middle class, white,
British, married, a father, I hold a Postgraduate Diploma in Outdoor Education, I
work in outdoor education, I was an enthusiastic reader of Ransome ’ s books as a
child; my own experiences of adventure are not characterised by overcoming fear or
hardship. All of these factors might introduce bias. Robson also suggests “observer
triangulation ” (2002, p.174) to counter the potential for researcher bias, which in
this study will involve checking for intercoder agreement (also known as interrater
reliability). This is discussed below in connection with analysis.
Robson (2002) suggests that a feature of case studies is data collection “from multiple
sources – documents, archival records, interviews, observations, physical artefacts ”
(p.165) and that a characteristic of good flexible design is that “typically, multiple
collection techniques are used” (p.166). In this study “data triangulation ” involves
31
the use of two methods of data collection: written autobiographical account and
semi-structured interview.
To reduce the risk of bias as a result of misunderstandings by the researcher or
subjects at the data gathering stages, both methods were piloted with another subject,
not from the sample group, but with the same characteristics identified for sample
selection: “people characterised as informed, active in and motivated to promote
outdoor adventure education. ” The pilot subject (PD, male) worked for many years
in the outdoor education field with organisations including The Airborne Initiative,
Fairbridge, Venture Trust, Outward Bound, The Prince ’ s Trust; holds a range of
outdoor qualifications (National Governing Body Awards) and is still actively
involved in outdoor recreation.
32
Methods
The design of my project was influenced by the Significant Life Experience research
by Tanner (1980) and Palmer (1993), and is intended to explore people ’ s
experiences and understanding of adventure.
Sample
The subjects of Tanner (1980) and Palmer ’ s research (1993) were characterised as
“ adults who are informed about and actively promote environmentally positive
behaviour ”, (Palmer, 1993, p.26). Adapting these criteria, I tried to identify a group
of people characterised as informed, active in and motivated to promote outdoor
adventure education. By virtue of their successful application for and presence on
the course, the students on the Postgraduate Diploma in Outdoor Education at the
University of Edinburgh match these criteria. The University of Edinburgh website
for the Postgraduate Diploma describes students participating on the course as:
The age range can be as broad as 23-45, with most people being in their late twenties to mid-thirties. They tend to be interesting, experienced people from
a range of academic and professional backgrounds… A good first degree, a minimum of two years full-time or part-time equivalent professional practice, and appropriate outdoor teaching awards. (University of Edinburgh, 2007)
This particular sample has benefits of accessibility and being in a single location,
referred to as “purposive ” or “convenience sampling ” (Robson, 2002, p.264 and
p.266) and by Plummer under the description of “ pragmatism ” (Plummer, 1983,
p.87).
Ten students from this group agreed to participate in this research, although two
withdrew several days later, prior to data collection due to other conflicting
commitments. Another student was deselected for methodological reasons after the
first stage of data collection as the written account submitted was substantively
inconsistent with the other accounts, providing a very brief account of only one
experience, which provided an insufficient basis for the interview in stage two.
33
It is perhaps worth noting that although Ransome (2001a) wrote about the
adventures of children, this study is of adults. Tanner (1980) and Palmer ’ s research
(1993), which produced evidence of the importance of childhood experience, was
conducted with adults.
Pilot
Both stages of the data gathering process were pilotted as described above. This was
particularly useful, as it allowed me to rehearse my interview schedule and check my
audio recording method. As a result, I altered the briefing letter slightly to emphasise
that there was no lower or upper limit on word count or number of experiences
described. I also altered the interview schedule slightly to include questions to obtain
personal information, which I had been concerned might be intrusive.
Data Gathering
Data was gathered using a two-stage process, adapting and extending Tanner (1980)
and Palmer ’ s approach (1993).
Stage one: written autobiographical account
Subjects were asked to produce written autobiographical accounts of their own
significant experiences of adventure in the outdoors. I visited the group on Monday
13 November 2006 to explain the background and nature of my research, and my
research method. I tried to avoid being prescriptive about the number or type of
experiences described and emphasised that there was no minimum or maximum
word count. I did however provide some parameters about details that I wanted
them to include, such as their age at the time, location, who they were with etc. I
gave each a written copy of my explanation and instructions with my contact details.
(See Appendix A: Data Gathering Instruments). Accounts were submitted using
email.
Stage two: semi-structured interview
Semi structured interviews of 30-50 minutes were conducted at Moray House School
34
of Education, The University of Edinburgh on Monday 20 and Tuesday 21
November 2006, drawing on the written autobiographical accounts to explore
subject ’ s ideas and experiences of adventure. The interview schedule was based on
criteria emerging from the review of literature and the subjects ’ written accounts.
(See Appendix A: Data Gathering Instruments).
All interviews were recorded and transcribed in full.
Making Sense of the Data
Before proceeding with coding and analysis, I decided to include the data gathered at
the pilot stage. Although my pilot subject (PD, male) has not been a student on the
Postgraduate Diploma in Outdoor Education at The University of Edinburgh, he
matched the other criteria forming the basis for selection of my sample. His
professional experience in outdoor education places him with others in the sample
group in terms of experience and understanding of adventure, and the content of his
account and interview sat comfortably alongside those of the students. Additionally,
the withdrawal of two subjects and the deselection of another had resulted in a
gender imbalance in the sample; the original group was composed of four males and
six females, reduced to two males and five females, the inclusion of PD ’ s data
brought it back to three males and five females. At this stage my raw data consisted
of eight written autobiographical accounts of varying length, styles and content, eight
lengthy interview transcripts and a few notes with comments or additional
information obtained after the interview recording ended.
Huberman and Miles (1998, p.180) identify three concurrent processes in making
sense of or analysing qualitative data: “data reduction, data display, and conclusion
drawing/verification ”. Similarly Robson (2002, p.476) identifies the need “to
reduce the data mountain through the production of summaries and abstracts,
coding writing memos etc ”. Robson suggests “coding ” as a solution to data that
are “unstructured and difficult to deal with ” (2002, p.477). He also emphasises
how intertwined coding and analysis are: “Decisions about what to select and to
35
summarize, and how this is then to be organized, are analytic choices ” (p.476).
During coding and analysis of my data, I constantly revised my coding scheme,
created data summaries such as code counts, examined co-coding frequencies to try
to understand the data and establish some kind of pattern. Cohen & Manion (1994)
outline a process for coding and analysis of these types of data, which includes:
“ transcription… delineating units of general meaning… delineating units of meaning
relevant to the research question… clustering units of relevant meaning ” and
“ determining themes from clusters of meaning ” (pp.294-5). Broadly speaking, this
is the process I followed in trying to process my data.
To facilitate the management, coding and analysis of my data I decided to use the
TAMS (Text Analysis Markup System) Analyzer software developed by Matthew
Weinstein for use on Apple computers. I am comfortable working with computers
(especially Apple) and decided that the disadvantage of spending time to learn how to
use this software would be outweighed by time saved later. TAMS Analyzer (TA) is
what Richards and Richards (1998, p.215) describe as “code-and-retrieve ”
software, with some useful features. TA allowed me to import all my raw data
documents, create a set of codes and definitions and apply these as tags to relevant
sections of my data sources. It has facilities for searching, selecting, recoding and
exporting coded data to other software such as Microsoft Excel and Word. It can
also generate a number of reports including code counts, data summaries, data
comparison tables and interrater reliability tests. Whilst recognising that “the style
of software one uses can coerce a project along a particular direction ” (Richards &
Richards, 1998, p.242), I felt that rather than shaping my approach to data analysis,
TA gave me exactly the tools I needed.
36
Coding
Before defining my coding scheme I re-read the accounts and transcripts and listened
to the interview recordings to get a sense of the important themes or ideas in the
data. It seemed that my coded data would fall into three categories:
1. Personal data about each of the subjects;
2. Descriptive and factual data relating to the experiences described in the
written accounts (and some additional experiences introduced during
interview);
3. Conceptual data relating to ideas of adventure and challenge, the focus of my
research.
Although my code descriptors and definitions have inevitably been influenced by the
literature discussed in my literature review, the coding scheme is primarily an
interpretative response to my data sources. The coding scheme was revised several
times during coding and analysis; unused codes were deleted. I was conscious of the
need to simplify and structure my coding scheme before analysis and presentation of
my findings. Also a simplified and well-defined coding scheme would increase the
reliability of my findings and potentially improve the outcome of my Intercoder
Reliability check. In spite of this, the complexity of my data resulted in a coding
scheme with 76 sub-codes organised into 13 groups. Some codes were context codes
to assist in searching and selecting data in TA.
My final coding scheme as set up in TA is shown in Table 1.
37
Table 1
Code tree showing hierarchy of codes used in TAMS Analyzer
Cod
e F
am
ily
Su
b-c
od
eS
ub
-cod
eD
efin
tion
Act
ivit
yA
ctiv
ity
Spec
ific
act
ivit
y s
uch
as
clim
bin
g,
can
oei
ng,
mo
un
tain
bik
e et
c
Exped
itio
nM
ult
i-d
ay j
ourn
ey i
n 'w
ilder
nes
s'
Liv
ing O
utd
oors
Em
phas
is o
n b
eing o
utd
oo
rs r
ath
er t
han
act
ivit
y,
e.g.
cam
pin
g.
Tra
vel
Journ
e y n
ot
sole
ly i
n 'w
ilder
nes
s', e.
g. G
ap y
ear
bac
kpac
kin
g t
rip.
Ad
ven
ture
Def
init
ion
Def
init
ion
of
adv
entu
re g
iven
by s
ub
ject
s.
Lev
els
Adven
ture
Mort
lock
's S
tage
2 A
dv
entu
re.
Fro
nti
erM
ort
lock
's s
tage
3 A
dv
entu
re.
Mis
adven
ture
Mort
lock
's S
tage
4 a
dv
entu
re.
Nar
row
Esc
a pe
On t
he
bord
er b
etw
een M
ort
lock
's s
tages
3 a
nd 4
of
adven
ture
, th
ings
go w
rong b
ut
no h
arm
is
sust
ained
.
Pla
yM
ort
lock
's S
tage
1 A
dven
ture
New
Lab
els
Su
bje
ct p
rov
ides
new
des
crip
tio
n o
f ad
ven
ture
lev
el.
Not
Adven
ture
Subje
ct d
efin
es a
dven
ture
by s
tati
ng w
hat
is
not
adven
ture
.
Ag
e_N
ow
**
Su
bje
cts'
ag
e at
tim
e o
f re
sear
ch i
nte
rvie
w.
Ag
e_T
hen
**
*S
ub
ject
s' a
ge
at t
ime
of
exp
erie
nce
des
crib
ed.
Bar
rier
sC
ircu
mst
ance
s th
at r
edu
ce t
he
oppo
rtu
nit
ies
for
adv
entu
re.
Ch
alle
nge
Gen
eral
Su
bje
ct s
pea
ks
abo
ut
chal
lenge
in a
gen
eral
way
.
Co
nd
itio
ns
Ch
arac
teri
sed
by f
acin
g e
xtr
eme
con
dit
ion
s, u
susa
lly w
eath
er.
Def
init
ion
Def
init
ion
of
chal
lenge
giv
en b
y s
ub
ject
s.
Ex
cite
men
tS
ubje
ct c
om
men
ts o
n a
dre
nal
in o
r si
mil
ar s
tate
of
physi
cal
aro
usa
l.
Inde p
end
ent
Ch
arac
teri
sed
by i
ndep
end
ence
, au
ton
om
y o
r s
elf-
reli
ance
of
par
tici
pan
ts.
Out
Of
Com
fort
Zone
Char
acte
rise
d a
s re
qu
irin
g p
arti
cipan
t to
be
ou
tsid
e h
is/h
er c
om
fort
zo
ne.
Contr
ol
Subje
ct s
pea
ks
of
bei
ng i
n o
r o
ut
of
con
tro
l o
f si
tuat
ion
.
Men
tal
Su
bje
ct s
pea
ks
abo
ut
men
tal
aspec
ts o
f b
eing o
ut
of
com
fort
zone
Fea
rS
ubje
ct s
pea
ks
about
fear
.
Ima g
ine
Neg
ativ
eS
ubje
ct s
pea
ks
abo
ut
imag
inin
g n
egat
ive
aspec
ts o
r co
nse
qu
ence
s o
f ex
per
ien
ce.
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
eS
ubje
ct s
pea
ks
about
pro
ble
m s
olv
ing d
uri
ng e
xper
ien
ce.
Ph
ysi
cal
Ch
alle
nge
char
acte
rise
d b
y r
equ
irem
ent
of
physi
cal
exer
tio
n b
y p
arti
cipan
t.
Eff
ort
Subje
ct d
escr
ibes
th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f ef
fort
.
Fit
nes
sS
ub
ject
des
crib
es b
eing o
r b
eco
min
g f
it a
nd
ho
w t
hat
ad
ds
to t
he
adv
entu
re e
xper
ien
ce.
Ris
k D
anger
Th
e pla
ce o
f ri
sk a
nd
dan
ger
in
ad
ven
ture
exper
ien
ces.
Un
cert
ain
tyU
nce
rtai
nty
as
an a
spec
t o
f th
e ad
ven
ture
exper
ien
ce
Fam
ily
**
Fam
ily b
ackgro
und.
Gen
der
**
Ima g
inat
ion
Gen
eral
Su
bje
ct r
efer
s to
im
agin
atio
n i
n g
ener
al w
ay.
Fan
tas y
Sub
ject
tal
ked
ab
ou
t ro
le-p
layin
g o
r re
-en
acti
ng b
ooks
or
film
s.
Infl
uen
ces
Arm
yS
ub
ject
s' i
dea
s o
f ad
ven
ture
in
flu
ence
d b
y i
nv
olv
emen
t o
r in
tere
st i
n A
rmy
.
Books
Fil
ms
Subje
cts'
idea
s of
adven
ture
infl
uen
ced b
y b
ooks
and f
ilm
s
Fam
ily
Su
bje
cts
exp
erie
nce
of
adv
entu
re d
irec
tly
in
flu
ence
d b
y o
ther
fam
ily
mem
ber
s.
Inst
ruct
ors
Su
bje
ct i
nd
icat
es i
nfl
uen
ce o
f in
stru
cto
rs.
Oth
er P
eop
leS
ub
ject
tal
ks
abo
ut
ho
w o
ther
peo
ple
hav
e in
flu
ence
d t
hei
r ex
per
ien
ces
of
adv
entu
re.
38
Table 1 continued
Code tree showing hierarchy of codes used in TAMS Analyzer S
ub
-cod
eS
ub
-cod
eD
efin
tion
Cod
e F
am
ily
Lan
gu
age
Ex
trem
eS
ub
ject
use
s ex
trem
e la
ng
uag
e to
des
crib
e ex
per
ien
ce.
Tec
hn
ical
Su
bje
ct u
ses
tech
nic
al o
r p
roce
ss o
rien
tate
d l
ang
uag
e to
des
crib
e ex
per
ien
ce.
Lea
rnin
gG
ener
alS
ubje
ct m
akes
a g
ener
al c
om
men
t ab
ou
t le
arn
ing o
r ch
ange.
Cu
ltu
ral
Su
bje
ct d
escr
ibes
lea
rnin
g r
elat
ed t
o o
ther
cu
ltu
res.
Dir
ecte
dS
ubje
ct d
escr
ibes
lea
rnin
g t
hat
is
dir
ecte
d b
y a
tea
cher
or
inst
ruct
or
Impac
tS
ubje
ct d
escr
ibes
th
e ex
per
ien
ce a
s si
gn
ific
ant
or
mem
ora
ble
.
Nat
ure
Subje
ct d
escr
ibes
lea
rnin
g a
bo
ut
the
nat
ura
l w
orl
d.
Oth
ers
Sub
ject
des
crib
es l
earn
ing a
bout
oth
er p
eople
.
Per
sonal
Sub
ject
des
crib
es l
earn
ing a
bout
ow
n s
elf
or
abil
itie
s.
Ref
lect
ion
Su
bje
ct d
escr
ibes
ex
ample
of
refl
ecti
on
.
Skil
lS
ubje
ct d
escr
ibes
lea
rnin
g r
elat
ed t
o s
pec
ific
sk
ill,
tas
k o
r si
tuat
ion
.
Nat
ion
alit
y *
*
New
nes
sG
ener
alS
ub
ject
des
crib
es t
he
exper
ien
ce o
r so
me
aspec
t o
f it
as
new
or
dif
fere
nt.
Not
New
Sub
ject
des
crib
es t
he
exper
ien
ce o
r so
me
aspec
t o
f it
as
not
new
or
dif
fere
nt.
Pla
ceS
ubje
cts
des
crib
e se
ttin
g a
s n
ew o
r d
iffe
ren
t to
no
rmal
set
ting,
also
im
pli
ed b
y u
se o
f w
ord
"ex
plo
re".
Nu
mb
er *
**
Nu
mb
er o
f ex
per
ien
ces
(or
gen
eric
ex
amp
les)
des
crib
ed b
y p
arti
cip
ants
.
Peo
ple
As
Inst
ruct
or
Subje
ct p
arti
cipat
es i
n e
xper
ien
ce d
escr
ibed
in
ro
le o
f in
stru
cto
r.
Fam
ily
Sub
ject
s ex
per
ien
ce o
f ad
ven
ture
as
par
t o
f fa
mil
y g
roup.
Inst
ruct
or
Exper
ien
ce l
ed b
y o
utd
oo
r in
stru
cto
r o
r te
ach
er.
Pee
rM
emb
er o
f u
nac
com
pan
ied
pee
r gro
up t
akin
g e
qu
al r
ole
s.
Sh
arin
gS
ub
ject
tal
ks
abo
ut
shar
ing e
xper
ien
ces
wit
h o
ther
peo
ple
.
Solo
Unac
com
pan
ied
exper
ien
ce.
Pla
ceL
oca
tio
nS
ubje
ct i
den
tifi
es s
pec
ific
lo
cati
on
of
exper
ien
ce.
Nat
ura
lS
ub
ject
s d
escr
ibe
sett
ing a
s n
atu
ral
or
wil
d.
Rem
ote
Su
bje
cts
des
crib
e se
ttin
g a
s re
mo
te,
usu
ally
in
geo
gra
ph
ical
ter
ms
bu
t so
met
imes
cu
ltu
ral,
e.g
. l
anguag
e zo
ne.
Pla
nn
ing
Sub
ject
tal
ks
abo
ut
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f pla
nn
ing o
r pre
par
atio
n.
Pro
fess
ion *
*
Rea
son
Ed
uca
tio
nM
oti
vat
ion
to
par
tici
pat
e in
exper
ien
ce i
s ed
uca
tio
nal
.
Esc
a pe
Subje
ct d
escr
ibes
exper
ien
ce a
s an
esc
ape
fro
m o
rdin
ary l
ife.
Ex
tern
alIm
pet
us
for
par
tici
pat
ion
is
pro
vid
ed b
y s
om
eone
oth
er t
han
subje
ct
Fu
nP
arti
cipan
ts m
oti
vat
ion
is
pure
ly f
or
enjo
ym
ent.
Inte
rnal
Par
tici
pan
ts s
elf-
mo
tiv
ated
to
tak
e par
t in
exper
ien
ce,
e.g. se
lf-p
ropel
led
in
to e
xper
ien
ce.
Sk
ills
Par
tici
pan
ts m
oti
vat
ion
is
for
skil
l ac
qu
isit
ion
or
dev
elopm
ent.
Rit
es o
f P
assa
ge
Subje
ct s
pea
ks
of
exper
ien
ces
occ
urr
ing a
t si
gn
ific
ant
tim
e o
f li
fe.
Sp
eak
er *
Tim
eL
ong
Exper
ien
ce w
ith
lo
ng t
ime-
scal
e, i
.e.
mo
re t
han
on
e d
ay.
Short
Exper
ience
over
short
tim
esca
le, i.
e. o
ne
day
or
short
er.
* C
onte
xt
codes
wit
hin
TA
MS
Anal
yze
r
** C
odes
for
per
sonal
info
rmat
ion
*** C
odes
for
conte
xt
of
exper
ience
s des
crib
ed
39
Analysis
The analysis of my data effectively started during data gathering. The written
autobiographical accounts forming the basis of the subsequent interviews, suggested
particular lines of questioning and issues to be probed. While reading the accounts
and conducting and transcribing the interviews, themes and ideas started to emerge
from the data. These themes, influenced by my review of the literature, formed the
basis of my coding scheme.
I used TA to select and export data for the three broad categories of personal
information, details of experiences described and concepts of adventure and
challenge. Data for the first two of these categories were easy to code and structure
while developing the coding scheme for the conceptual categories took more fine-
tuning. I found Huberman & Miles ’ (1998, p.180) recommendations for frequent
displays of data and conclusion drawing helpful and this was an ongoing and
concurrent process. At various stages I produced code counts in TA, sorted to show
which codes were emerging as being important or unimportant. Code counts were
prepared for individual codes and for code families to get an overview of what the
data might mean. I also used TA to produce a co-coding frequency report, to show
where two codes had been applied together. This was particularly useful in
understanding how codes (or themes) related to each other. For example, ideas of
‘ n ewness ’ and ‘ new place ’ , which emerged as being important, had not initially
been grouped together. The high rate of co-coding suggested that they should be
and the data were recoded to reflect this. A similar process was used to understand
how the various aspects of ‘ challenge ’ related to each other.
Once I had a fairly consistent version of my coding scheme, I prepared materials for
my intercoder reliability checks, discussed below, and prepared reports for use in my
presentation of findings. Most useful were data comparison tables, showing scores
for individual codes and code families for each subject. These were imported into
Microsoft Excel and studied in greater detail. These reports are presented and
discussed below.
40
Intercoder Reliability
The analysis of my data and any claims I might make about my research is
dependent on the suitability of my coding scheme. A way of checking this is to
measure Intercoder Reliability (or Interrater Agreement) by asking multiple coders to
code the same data using the same coding scheme and definitions.
Intercoder Reliability Results
Lombard, Snyder-Duch & Campanella Bracken (2006) suggest that a representative
sample of not less than 10% or 50 units of the data be used to assess Intercoder
Reliability. They also suggest that selection be made using a “random or other
justifiable procedure ”. Weinstein (2003) recommends performing this check with a
reduced set of codes. I was unable to decide how to reduce my code set and
proceeded with my full set of codes, recognising that this was likely to reduce the level
of agreement between my coding and that of the second coder.
Approximately 20% of all data chunks (228 of my total database of 1241) for each
individual code were selected in TA. This was exported into Excel and sorted to mix
up the codes, then imported into a Microsoft Word document and sent to my second
coder with the codes and definitions. Once returned, this was added to my TA
project with my original coded sample. TA calculated Intercoder Reliability as a
percentage agreement at .380 (or 38 percent).
This is a low score; Lombard, Snyder-Duch & Campanella Bracken (2006) suggest
that “Coefficients of .90 or greater are nearly always acceptable, .80 or greater is
acceptable in most situations, and .70 may be appropriate in some exploratory
studies ”.
I was concerned by the low score and wanted to understand the reasons behind it.
Firstly, I was convinced that the number of codes (60) supplied to my second coder
was too large and was a large factor in the poor level of agreement. Secondly, I
suspected that I had assigned multiple codes to some of the data included in the
41
sample, which turned out to be the case for 36 of the 228 data chunks. The code
selected by my second coder, although not the one used to select the data for the
sample, did match one of the other codes assigned by me. We agreed to treat these
data chunks as agreeing. A further 36 data chunks had been assigned codes that
were similar or related to the codes I had assigned. After discussion, we were able to
agree coding on these items too. This suggests that there is potential to further
simplify the coding by merging these code categories. Further examination revealed
a small quantity of inconsistencies in my own coding, (mostly a failure to apply all
applicable codes to individual data chunks) and apparently at times in that of my
second coder. At this stage Intercoder Reliability was calculated as a percentage
agreement at .711, bringing it into the range of acceptable scores suggested by
Lombard, Snyder-Duch & Campanella Bracken (2006).
My intention in carrying out the Intercoder Reliability check was to assess the
trustworthiness of my coding and findings and was carried out following my own
analysis of the data. My examination of the results from this check suggested that a
small number of codes could be combined and pointed to the importance for my
findings of the code families. I decided not to further simplify the coding scheme at
this stage as the number of codes affected was relatively small, but made the decision
to present findings in relation to code families as well as individual codes.
This exercise reveals two important things about my data:
1. The data are complex, the large number of codes and high frequency of co-
occurrence suggest this, as does the difficulty I found in trying to simplify and
organise the coding scheme.
2. The data are capable of multiple coding. In the Intercoder Reliability check
a significant number of data chunks appeared not to agree for this reason.
Multiple coding is another indicator of the complexity of my data, see “A
Note on Codes and Data Chunks ” below.
42
Discussion of Intercoder Reliability
As mentioned above, I am unconvinced that this type of check provides an absolute
measure of the reliability of my coding, and hence my findings. It seeks to validate
interpretation of the coding scheme and data by the researcher through comparison
with the interpretation of additional coders. Although comparison of my coding with
that of a second coder provides some measure of the consistency of the coding
scheme and its application, I am unsure how useful this is in terms of establishing
reliability or trustworthiness. I note that Weinstein (2003, p.2) voices similar
reservations: “I’m unconvinced that IRR tells much, though more positivistic types
may like having this.”
I think the real value in this type of check lies in studying the results carefully to see
what they reveal about the nature of the data being coded, and the application of the
coding scheme by different coders. In an extended collaborative study with multiple
researchers, Intercoder Reliability checking could be a valuable tool for the
development of a coding scheme. In this way it functions as a tool for refinement
and audit of the research process.
The results of this exercise are inevitably influenced by the second coder ’ s lack of
familiarity with the data and by the fact that data chunks are presented out of
context. Additionally, the second coder needs to be trained in using the coding
scheme, and even then is unlikely to gain the same level of understanding as the
researcher who developed it. I observed that the rate of agreement rose steadily as
the second coder worked through this exercise. If I were using this method again I
would arrange more training sessions. A significant flaw in this technique is its
reliance on the application of single codes to individual data chunks, which are
capable of multiple coding, the latter being one of the particular strengths of this
method of analysis, see “A Note on Codes and Data Chunks ” below.
43
A Note on Codes and Data Chunks
I have referred above to the potential for multiple coding of individual data chunks to
create difficulties in simplifying my coding scheme. When coding the accounts and
interview transcripts, I often found that although I might assign one particular code
to an individual clause or sentence within a passage, separating that coded section
from its context had the effect of making it meaningless. To prevent this I applied
each particular code to the larger passage to show the coded section in its proper
context. The same passage might contain other sections to which I assigned different
codes, but which also needed to be presented in their surrounding context. This
overlapping or co-occurrence of codes creates the problem I experienced with the
complexity of my data, and might be seen as a shortcoming of this method. At the
same time, I found that analysis of this type of co-occurrence of codes in TA,
highlighted which codes could be grouped together.
Data Triangulation
An advantage of using two data collection methods was that it might serve as “data
triangulation ” (Robson, 2002, p.166). To assess how effective this had been, I used
the Data Comparison Table feature in TA to produce counts for individual codes
and code families by data type (account or interview). These were imported into
Microsoft Excel and results for each data type ranked and compared, see Tables 2
and 3. The results in Table 2 for individual codes suggest that the two data types
produce quite different results, but Table 3, results for code families, suggests that this
difference is less pronounced. I expected there to be some difference between the
two data types as the focus of the written accounts was on subjects ’ experiences
whereas the interviews also explored their concepts of adventure.
44
Table 2
Individual Codes by Data Type C
od
es
Accou
nt
Cod
es
In
tervie
w
Pla
ce>
Nat
ura
l24
Chal
lenge>
Ris
k_D
anger
43
Pla
ce>
Rem
ote
23
New
nes
s41
Act
ivity>
Exped
itio
n19
Chal
lenge>
Indep
enden
ce39
Pla
ce>
Loca
tion
18
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
36
Tim
e>L
ong
18
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one
34
Chal
lenge>
Condit
ions
16
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal
32
Act
ivity>
Act
ivity
14
Adven
ture
>N
ot_
Adven
ture
29
New
nes
s14
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Fea
r27
New
nes
s>P
lace
14
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal
25
Act
ivity>
Liv
ing_O
utd
oors
13
Lea
rnin
g>
Impac
t24
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal
12
Chal
lenge>
Condit
ions
22
Lea
rnin
g>
Impac
t12
Peo
ple
>S
olo
22
Peo
ple
>P
eer
12
Chal
lenge>
Unce
rtai
nty
21
Rea
son>
Fun
11
New
nes
s>P
lace
21
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Fea
r10
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Contr
ol
20
Rea
son>
Educa
tion
8In
fluen
ces>
Books_
Fil
ms
20
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one
7P
lace
>N
atura
l18
Rea
son>
Skil
ls7
Rea
son>
Fun
18
Chal
lenge>
Exci
tem
ent
6C
hal
lenge>
Exci
tem
ent
17
Chal
lenge>
Indep
enden
ce6
Peo
ple
>P
eer
17
Peo
ple
>In
stru
ctor
6C
hal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Eff
ort
14
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
5C
hal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Imag
ine_
Neg
ativ
e13
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>A
dven
ture
4P
lace
>R
emote
13
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>N
arro
w_E
scap
e4
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>F
ronti
er12
Chal
lenge>
Unce
rtai
nty
4C
hal
lenge
12
Peo
ple
>F
amily
4C
hal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Fit
nes
s12
Rea
son>
Inte
rnal
4B
arri
ers
11
Adven
ture
>N
ot_
Adven
ture
3Im
agin
atio
n11
Lea
rnin
g>
Skil
l3
Lea
rnin
g>
Oth
ers
11
Peo
ple
>A
s_In
stru
ctor
3A
dven
ture
>L
evel
s>M
isad
ven
ture
10
Rea
son>
Exte
rnal
3L
earn
ing>
Per
sonal
>R
efle
ctio
n9
Act
ivity>
Tra
vel
2N
ewnes
s>N
ot_
New
9
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal
2P
eople
>F
amil
y9
45
Table 2 continued
Individual Codes by Data Type
Cod
es
Accou
nt
Cod
es
In
tervie
w
Ima g
inat
ion>
Fan
tasy
2P
lannin
g9
Lea
rnin
g>
Cult
ura
l2
Imag
inat
ion>
Fan
tasy
8
Rea
son>
Esc
ape
2P
eople
>S
har
ing
8
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>F
ronti
er1
Push
ing_B
oundar
ies
7
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>M
isad
ven
ture
1L
earn
ing>
Cult
ura
l6
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Contr
ol
1A
dven
ture
>L
evel
s>N
arro
w_E
scap
e5
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Fit
nes
s1
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Pro
ble
m_so
lve
5
Chal
lenge>
Ris
k_D
anger
1In
fluen
ces>
Arm
y5
Infl
uen
ces>
Arm
y1
Act
ivity>
Act
ivity
4
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
>R
efle
ctio
n1
Act
ivity>
Exped
itio
n4
New
nes
s>N
ot_
New
1A
ctiv
ity>
Liv
ing_O
utd
oors
4
Peo
ple
>S
olo
1A
dven
ture
>L
evel
s>A
dven
ture
4
Push
ing_B
oundar
ies
1R
easo
n>
Esc
ape
4
Tim
e>S
hort
1L
earn
ing>
Nat
ure
3
Bar
rier
s0
Lea
rnin
g>
Skil
l3
Chal
lenge
0L
earn
ing>
Undir
ecte
d3
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Imag
ine_
Neg
ativ
e0
Rea
son>
Educa
tion
3
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Pro
ble
m_so
lve
0R
easo
n>
Inte
rnal
3
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Eff
ort
0A
ctiv
ity>
Tra
vel
2
Imag
inat
ion
0In
fluen
ces>
Fam
ily
2
Infl
uen
ces>
Books_
Fil
ms
0In
fluen
ces>
Inst
ruct
ors
2
Infl
uen
ces>
Fam
ily
0L
earn
ing>
Dir
ecte
d2
Infl
uen
ces>
Inst
ruct
ors
0T
ime>
Short
2
Infl
uen
ces>
Oth
er_P
eople
0In
fluen
ces>
Oth
er_P
eople
1
Lea
rnin
g0
Lea
rnin
g1
Lea
rnin
g>
Dir
ecte
d0
Peo
ple
>A
s_In
stru
ctor
1
Lea
rnin
g>
Nat
ure
0P
eople
>In
stru
ctor
1
Lea
rnin
g>
Oth
ers
0P
lace
>L
oca
tion
1
Lea
rnin
g>
Undir
ecte
d0
Rea
son>
Skil
ls1
Peo
ple
>S
har
ing
0R
ites
_of_
Pas
sage
1
Pla
nnin
g0
Tim
e>L
ong
1
Rit
es_of_
Pas
sage
0R
easo
n>
Exte
rnal
0
Tota
l328
Tota
l778
46
Table 3
Code Families by Data Type
Codes Account Codes Interview
Challenge 66 Challenge 336
Place 65 Learning 98
Activity 48 Newness 71
Reason 35 Adventure 60
Newness 29 People 58
People 26 Place 32
Learning 23 Influences 30
Time 19 Reason 29
Adventure 13 Imagination 19
Imagination 2 Activity 14
Influences 1 Barriers 11
Pushing Boundaries 1 Planning 9
Barriers 0 Pushing_Boundaries 7
Planning 0 Time 3
Rites_of_Passage 0 Rites_of_Passage 1
Total 328 Total 778
47
Limitations
The main limitations of my research relate to the problems discussed above in
relation to Intercoder Reliability: the difficulty I experienced in simplifying and
structuring the coding scheme.
My second coder observed that my code scheme included two alternative models of
adventure: Mortlock ’ s four levels of adventure, (to which I had added an additional
level ‘Narrow Escape ’ , based on the data), and concepts of ‘ Comfort Zones ’ and
‘ S tretch Zones ’ . The inclusion of Mortlock ’ s model derived from my review of
literature, while the concept of ‘ Comfort Zones ’ was raised by a number of subjects
during interview.
While conducting and transcribing the interviews, I was acutely aware of my
limitations as an interviewer. In attempting to encourage subjects to relax and speak
freely, I appeared often to unintentionally interrupt them or redirect their train of
thought. On occasions I may have inadvertently put words in their mouths.
I felt uncomfortable with the need to simplify the data to make them more
manageable, an essential feature of this type of research (Bell, 1999; Robson, 2002;
Huberman & Miles, 1998). I felt that it resulted in the loss of some of the data ’ s
distinctive character.
Ethics
When I visited my subjects to explain the nature of my research and research
process, I assured them that their identities would not be disclosed in my dissertation
and that they would be referred to as Subject A, for example. As the focus of my
research is on the subjects ’ accounts of their own experiences, it is inevitable that
people who know the subjects might be able to identify them from these accounts.
Furthermore, as the subjects ’ personal circumstances (gender, age, family
background etc.) are relevant to my study, it is again possible that people familiar
with the subject group might be able to identify individual subjects. Although I
48
cannot guarantee absolute anonymity for my subjects, I have taken all appropriate
measures to conceal their identities. In addition I wished to thank my Pilot subject
and my second coder for their help with this study, which also compromises their
anonymity; I asked both whether they were happy to be named in this way, both
agreed.
49
Presentation of Findings
During the coding and analysis stages of my research I realised that my data fell into
three broad categories, as mentioned above:
1. Personal data about each of the subjects;
2. Descriptive and factual data relating to the experiences described in the
written accounts (and some additional experiences introduced during
interview);
3. Conceptual data relating to ideas of adventure and challenge that form the
focus of my research.
Data will be discussed and presented in the form of tables for categories 1 and 2,
while findings for the most important code families will be presented with selected
examples of data for category 3.
50
Personal Data about Sample Group
My sample group consisted of seven students from the Postgraduate Diploma in
Outdoor Education course at the University of Edinburgh, five of whom are female
and two male. These were supplemented by my pilot subject, who is male. The ages
of my subjects ranged from 23 to 38 at the time of interview; five subjects were in
their late twenties. Two subjects are Canadian, the remainder British. Subjects had
a range of academic and professional backgrounds: four had been working as
teachers prior to the Postgraduate Diploma, two more in outdoor education, one in
the army and one in conservation work.
Data were gathered about family background for two reasons:
1. The research into Significant Life Experiences by Tanner (1980) and Palmer
(1993) indicated the importance of childhood experiences of nature in family
contexts, often with the father. I was interested to see whether this was also
the case in the context of my research.
2. I had originally intended to gather data on family background for the reason
given above, but at the pilot stage, being aware of PD ’ s (male) family
background, I became concerned that this line of questioning might be
regarded as intrusive. In discussion after the interview recording ended he
suggested that I should follow my original plan. He told me: "When Dad
died when I was 10 it killed any adventure for me". This confirmed the
potential importance of this aspect of the data.
Coincidentally Subject E ’ s (male) family circumstances were similar. Family
participation in adventure experiences appears not to have been of great importance
except for Subjects A (female) with father, E (male) with brother and F (female) with
father. Parents of another two subjects were divorced. All apart from one mentioned
siblings.
51
I was aware of a wide range of experience among the subjects, in both their
professional and recreational experiences of adventure. There was also a range in
the number of experiences described in the written autobiographical accounts, this is
covered in more detail below. Data were gathered about nationality with a view to
considering whether this influenced the nature of subjects ’ experiences or
understanding of adventure.
Personal data for the subject group is summarised in Table 4.
Table 4
Personal Data for Subjects
Name Gender Age at
time of
research
Nationality Professional
background
Family background
Parents, siblings
Subjects' marital status and children
Number of
experiences
described in
account
Number of
additional
experiences
described in
interview
Father died when subject aged 10, Mother
still alive, 1 brother
Married, 2 children
Parents still together, 1 brother
Single
Parents still together, 1 brother
Single
Parents divorced when subject 15, 1 brother
Subject stayed in UK with father.
Married, expecting first child.
E M 28 British Teacher Father died when subject aged 10, Mother
still alive, 1 brother, 1 sister
Single
2
F F 27 British Teacher Parents divorced, lived with Mother, 1 sister
Single
5
G F 29 Canadian Teacher Parents still together, no data re siblings
Single
3 1
PD M 38 British Outdoor education 3 2
A F 26 Canadian Outdoor education 7
B F 23 British Conservation work 3 2
C F 29 British Teacher Parents still together, 1 brother, 1 sister
Single
2
D M 35 British Army 3 1
52
Experiences Described by Subjects
There was a great deal of variety in the written autobiographical accounts, in a
number of significant aspects:
1. The number of experiences described
This ranged from two experiences described by Subject C (female), (although
one of the experiences she described incorporated two additional
experiences), to seven by Subject A (female). This did not necessarily
correlate with subjects ’ amounts of experience of adventure.
2. Age of subjects at time of experience described
Only three subjects described experiences in their early childhood, from five
years old (B (female), F (female) and G (female)); six referred to experiences
between the ages of eleven and eighteen (A (female), B (female), D (male), E
(male), F (female) and G (female)); seven described experiences that they have
had since the age of eighteen (all but E (male)).
3. Specific or generic
Although most of the descriptions were of specific episodes in varying degrees
of detail, subjects describing experiences from their early childhood (B
(female), F (female) and G (female)) provided generic descriptions of a number
of similar experiences.
4. Style of accounts
Some were very descriptive, with an almost story like quality, others were
written in a brief report style, addressing the particular parameters I had
suggested in my briefing. Subject F (female) indicated that she would prefer
to discuss her experiences rather than write about them: “I don ’ t think I will
represent them authentically if I spend ages thinking about what to write. ”
This was echoed by PD (male):
I didn't want to go through a whole long process of almost cataloguing everything I had done that I would see as adventurous and then cherry picking from it. I just chose the things that really, I almost carry around with me constantly.
53
I hope that by incorporating both written accounts and interviews in my data
gathering process, I allowed subjects to express themselves as they would
prefer to.
5. Type of activities described
These range from childhood play to hill walking, power-boating, climbing,
expeditions, winter mountaineering, ski touring, canoeing, kayaking, sky
diving, scuba diving, sea kayaking, cycling and sailing.
6. Level of Adventure
I categorised the experiences described using Mortlock ’ s levels of adventure.
About half of the experiences I classed as Stage Two-Adventure experiences,
nine as Stage Three-Frontier Adventure, two as Stage One-Play, and two as
Stage Four-Misadventure (these both involved car crashes, and were not seen
as misadventure as such by subjects PD (male) and A (female)). Two others I
classified as Narrow Escape, as explained above. Two experiences included
by Subject F (female) in her account, although “objectively adventurous ”, in
that they appeared to have many features she regarded as typical of
adventures, were not regarded by her as adventures.
7. Context
About a third are formal or structured experiences, such as summer camp
etc., either as participants or as instructors, and the remainder being
recreational activities pursued alone, with peers or with family members.
In spite of the points of variation described above there were also some important
similarities between the experiences described:
1. Twenty of the experiences described could be classed as expeditions and
eighteen of those involved living outdoors.
2. Two experiences I categorised as travel.
3. Twelve were descriptions of shorter, focussed activities, e.g. scuba diving,
climbing.
4. Although a number of experiences were educationally driven, 23 of the 35
experiences listed in Table 3 were informal or recreational: the word used by
subjects was ‘ fun ’ .
54
5. Twenty-three of the experiences took place over a long time period – the
expeditions and travel experiences.
The above suggests a preference for broad adventure.
The experiences described by subjects are summarised in Table 5.
55
Table 5
Details of Experiences Described by Subjects.
Sp
eak
er
Ag
e a
t ti
me
of
exp
erie
nce
Bri
ef d
escr
ipti
on
of
exp
erie
nce
Ty
pe
of
Act
ivit
yA
dv
entu
re L
evel
Du
rati
on
Wh
o w
ith
24
Mo
un
tain
eeri
ng
in
Ch
amo
nix
(F
ran
ce)
Ov
erst
retc
hed
du
rin
g c
lim
b o
n m
ult
ipit
ch r
ou
te,
clim
b t
oo
k l
on
ger
th
an e
xp
ecte
d,
des
cen
t ro
ute
no
t ap
par
ent.
Act
ivit
yN
arro
w E
scap
eL
on
gP
eer
28
Po
wer
bo
atin
g i
n t
he
Inn
er S
ou
nd
(N
W S
cotl
and
)
rou
tin
e fe
rry
op
erat
ion
of
a sm
all
RIB
po
wer
bo
at,
eng
ine
fail
ure
an
d d
eter
iora
ting
co
nd
itio
ns.
Act
ivit
yN
arro
w E
scap
eS
ho
rtS
olo
28
Sn
ow
-ho
lin
g o
n t
he
Cai
rng
orm
pla
teau
x (
Sco
ttis
h H
igh
lan
ds)
Th
e p
lan
was
to
sp
end
a d
ay w
alk
ing
an
d t
hen
spen
d o
ne-
nig
ht
in t
he
sno
w-h
ole
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Pee
r
?S
erio
us
car
cras
h *
?M
isad
ven
ture
Sh
ort
Pee
r
15
G
etti
ng
lo
st o
n m
oo
rlan
d w
hil
e w
alk
ing
alo
ne.
*A
ctiv
ity
Nar
row
Esc
ape
Sh
ort
So
lo
11
-12
3 d
ay c
ano
e tr
ip, H
alib
urt
on
Hig
hla
nd
s
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Pla
yL
on
gIn
stru
cto
r le
d
11
-12
10
day
can
oe
trip
, T
emag
ami
Nat
ion
al P
ark
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Inst
ruct
or
led
15
T
win
s L
akes
to
Su
nsh
ine
hik
e, A
lber
ta R
ock
ies
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Inst
ruct
or
led
16
-17
Tre
kk
ing
Mac
hu
Pic
hu
tra
il,
Per
u
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Inst
ruct
or
led
24
-34
14
day
sk
i to
ur,
Bri
tish
Co
lum
bia
an
d A
lber
ta R
ock
ies
and
ser
iou
s ca
r cr
ash
Exp
edit
ion
Mis
adv
entu
reL
ong
As
Inst
ruct
or
24
-34
5 d
ay b
ack
co
un
try
sk
i to
uri
ng
, M
ann
ing P
ark
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
As
Inst
ruct
or
24
-34
5 d
ay c
ano
e tr
ip,
Ken
ned
y L
ake
and
Cla
yq
uo
t A
rm
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
As
Inst
ruct
or
5-1
5
Cli
mb
ing
tre
es w
ith
my
fat
her
, d
igg
ing
fo
r b
uri
ed t
reas
ure
, cl
imb
ing
up
hil
ls a
nd
can
oei
ng
do
wn
riv
ers
in t
he
Th
ames
Val
ley
an
d C
hil
tern
Hil
ls.
Act
ivit
yP
lay
Sh
ort
Fam
ily
5-1
5M
y e
arli
est
sign
ific
ant
ou
tdo
ors
exp
erie
nce
I r
emem
ber
is
wal
kin
g u
p S
no
wd
on
Act
ivit
yA
dv
entu
reL
ong
Fam
ily
22
I w
ent
to h
elp
in
Sri
Lan
ka
afte
r th
e T
sun
ami
and
was
par
t o
f a
team
th
at b
uil
t a
refu
gee
cam
p f
or
ov
er 1
00
0 p
eop
le.
Tra
vel
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Fro
nti
erS
ho
rtP
eer
23
Wal
kin
g i
n C
airn
go
rms
du
rin
g P
ost
gra
du
ate
Dip
lom
a h
illw
alk
ing
mo
du
le.
*
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Inst
ruct
or
led
23
I w
ent
to Z
anzi
bar
on
a 'C
har
ity
Ch
alle
ng
e' t
rip
we
s pen
t 1
6 d
ays
circ
um
nav
igat
ing
th
e is
lan
d o
n b
ikes
an
d c
amp
ing
ov
er n
igh
t u
nd
er c
anv
as
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Pee
r
28
Lat
yea
r I
wen
t o
n a
ro
un
d t
he
wo
rld
tri
p o
n m
y o
wn
Tra
vel
Fro
nti
erL
ong
So
lo
28
Sk
yd
ivin
g d
uri
ng
ro
un
d t
he
wo
rld
tri
pA
ctiv
ity
Fro
nti
erS
ho
rtIn
stru
cto
r le
d
28
Scu
ba
div
ing
du
rin
g r
ou
nd
th
e w
orl
d t
rip
.A
ctiv
ity
Ad
ven
ture
Sh
ort
Inst
ruct
or
led
Stu
den
t C
PD
Stu
den
t A
Stu
den
t B
56
Table 5 continued
Details of Experiences Described by Subjects. S
pea
ker
Ag
e a
t ti
me
of
exp
erie
nce
Bri
ef d
escr
ipti
on
of
exp
erie
nce
Ty
pe
of
Act
ivit
yA
dv
entu
re L
evel
Du
rati
on
Wh
o w
ith
15
Cro
ssin
g t
he
Lak
es a
s p
art
of
a te
am f
rom
sch
oo
l, w
ith
ou
t ad
ult
sup
erv
isio
n
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Fro
nti
erL
on
gP
eer
21
Bri
tish
Sch
oo
l E
xp
lori
ng
So
ciet
y e
xp
edit
ion
to
th
e W
hit
e S
ea o
f R
uss
ia.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Fro
nti
erL
on
gA
s In
stru
cto
r
28
A t
wo
wee
k e
xp
edit
ion
to
Nep
al,
kay
akin
g t
he
Tam
ur
riv
er.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Fro
nti
erL
on
gP
eer
12
Sea
lyh
am r
esid
enti
al o
utd
oo
r p
urs
uit
s ce
ntr
e in
So
uth
Wal
es,
Pem
bro
kes
hir
e
Cli
mb
ing,
abse
ilin
g,
ori
ente
erin
g,
kay
akin
g,
surf
ing
, m
ou
nta
in d
ay,
assa
ult
co
urs
es,
coas
teer
ing
an
d b
ivy
ing
Act
ivit
yA
dv
entu
reS
ho
rtIn
stru
cto
r le
d
14
-17
3 D
uk
e o
f E
din
bu
rgh
's A
war
d e
xp
edit
ion
s
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Pee
r
5-1
5L
ots
of
wal
kin
g a
nd
cam
pin
g t
rip
s w
ith
my
Dad
in
th
e L
ake
Dis
tric
t.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Fam
ily
16
Lak
e D
istr
ict
trip
wit
h m
y f
rien
d,
wal
kin
g t
hro
ug
h t
he
mo
un
tain
s an
d s
tay
ing
at
Yo
uth
Ho
stel
s.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Pee
r
16
Ro
ck c
lim
bin
gA
ctiv
ity
Fro
nti
erS
ho
rtP
eer
24
-26
Mo
un
tain
an
d m
oo
rlan
d w
alk
s in
th
e U
KA
ctiv
ity
Ad
ven
ture
Sh
ort
So
lo/P
eer
24
-26
Alp
ine
cli
mb
ing
tri
p *
*A
ctiv
ity
?Short
Pee
r
24
-26
Sa
ilin
g t
rip
s *
*E
xped
itio
n?
Long
Fam
ily
5-1
5?
3 d
ay c
ano
e tr
ip i
n A
lgo
nq
uin
Par
k
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Inst
ruct
or
led
24
4 d
ay h
ikin
g t
rip
wit
h f
rien
d i
n A
nd
es.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Fro
nti
erL
on
gP
eer
28
Mo
nth
lo
ng
cycl
e to
uri
ng
tri
p f
rom
Qu
ebec
C
ity a
long
th
e S
t L
awre
nce
Riv
er t
o t
he
Atl
anti
c.
Ex
ped
itio
n
Liv
ing
Ou
tdo
ors
Ad
ven
ture
Lo
ng
Pee
r
29
Kay
akin
g t
rip
du
rin
g P
ost
gra
du
ate
Dip
lom
a k
ayak
ing
mo
du
le *
Act
ivit
yF
ron
tier
Sh
ort
Inst
ruct
or
led
*E
xp
erie
nce
in
tro
du
ced
du
ring
in
terv
iew
.
**
Exp
erie
nce
in
clu
ded
by
sub
ject
in
acc
ou
nt
bu
t al
tho
ug
h o
bje
ctiv
ely
ad
ven
turo
us,
no
t re
gar
ded
as
an a
dv
entu
re b
y s
ub
ject
.
Stu
den
t E
Stu
den
t F
Stu
den
t G
Stu
den
t D
57
Concepts of Adventure
Findings about subjects concepts of adventure were derived in two ways: firstly by
studying their definitions of the terms adventure and ‘ challenge ’ ; secondly by
analysis of coded data from both stages of data gathering. The definitions are
presented first, followed by some analysis of the coded data and a selection of data for
the most important concepts identified through this process.
N.B. I have edited some of the quotes to remove my own interjections, where they
add nothing to the meaning, and to present the essential aspects of subjects ’
statements.
Individual Definitions
Adventure
As I had asked the subjects to provide me with written accounts of their experiences
of adventure, I decided to ask them in the interviews what they understood the word
adventure to mean.
PD (male) defined it in terms of learning, risk, enjoyment, excitement and
uncertainty:
… it's partly a learning experience… But there would be an element of… well not an element, but a large part of sort of hazard or risk. Whether or not you
deliberately set out to have that kind of risky experience or it happened but that would have to be part of it. That would be a major core ingredient. So if there wasn't any hazard, risk or danger then it wouldn't be adventure for me.
Describing crossing a river by stepping-stones, he adds:
I would definitely class that as an adventure, I mean it was fun, it was exciting, it was something that wasn't expected. There was an element of sort of risk in it…
In his description of snow-holing in his written account, PD (male) defines adventure
in this instance as:
58
A sense of adventure? – comes from being in a snowhole, in a remote setting, poking your head out into the darkness (from complete stillness into wild
weather) and knowing that you are relatively speaking alone in a wild place.
Student A (female) places the emphasis on being out of her comfort zone:
I think an adventure, especially with respect to outdoor education, is anything
that takes someone out of their comfort zone. So it doesn't necessarily have to be climbing or anything like that, it's just an experience that is pushing into your stretch zone where you're challenging… For me, adventure's probably more defined by pushing my challenge zone, but I would relate it, equate it to being in the outdoors or something like that.
She adds to this the importance of the duration of the experience:
It has to be an activity that… I'd be doing something that's self-propelled… Ahhh… I'd be solo or with a group in a context of achieving something… It's gotta be multi-days for me… Usually a minimum of five I would probably say.
Self-reliance and the setting is also important:
And that's for me an adventure would probably… would have to be a lot of backcountry, where you carry your own stuff and not seeing … I guess I equate it to here they call an expedition…
Student B (female) sees adventure in terms of learning, challenge and as a story:
Something exciting, (laughs)… Hmm… I'd say away from home… somewhere where I've learnt something… about myself, somewhere where I've learnt
something about other people, or about the place… Hmm… and also with a beginning and an end and maybe that kind of journey… from there, either emotional or like a physical journey.
She adds,
…challenge, I think, it's part of an adventure…
and reveals an important influence on her ideas of adventure:
When I think of adventure, I think of Enid Blyton and… and think of that kind of adventure (laughs)… what I've been taught was an adventure.
Student C (female) focusses more on excitement and enjoyment:
Hmm… something's that sort of new and exciting, and gets the adrenaline pumping and… Hmm… I usually think of it as being outdoors… I usually think of just things that are sort of being fast-paced you know, sort of you know… Hmm… like white water rafting, you that kind of idea that's what
59
always springs to mind as you know… dangerous or you know a trek in the jungle or that kind of thing.
And
Because an adventure has to be fun I think.
For Student D (male) independence and challenge are key factors:
It was an adventure because we had huge amounts of autonomy and independence…
As soon as there's a challenge there then it becomes adventurous…
As soon as you start taxing yourself… then it becomes adventurous.
Conditions such as weather and terrain can also add to the sense of adventure:
… because the weather was so bad, it made the adventure all the more
interesting…
Like PD (male), Student E (male) identifies uncertainty and risk:
I think it's the… the… the idea of the whole wild thing, about not quite knowing what… what's going to happen.
and
… for me it's something where there's a… a bit of risk involved, but whether that's perceived or whether that's an actual risk…
Student F (female) identifies the importance of the setting, the activity, excitement
and uncertainty:
Hmm… well to me something outdoors, and typically for me it'll be hmm… something in the mountains… climbing, walking, camping… and when I think of adventure I think of excitement and so… some unknowns… … but I don't feel… I think… I don't associate adventure with something that's
completely planned for me or that I'm just going along, which might be… which might be even more unknown… but I feel when it's my adventure it's something that I've had… I have some handle on the planning and err… the risk management of it and… some (pause)… hmm… yeah some understanding of… of the out… what the outcomes might be.
Well definitely a sense of challenge, yeah.
60
In her autobiographical account, Student F (female) concisely explains her reasons
for selecting the experiences described:
The reasons these were adventures were: we were self-sufficient and often alone, the places we visited were new to me, I felt it was a challenge and there was an element of uncertainty - we sometimes turned back due to bad weather.
Student G (female) also identifies uncertainty as an important factor, and also
physical effort and mental challenge:
OK. Hmm… for me the word that comes to mind is the unknown, so no matter how much you plan for… it might even be just a day trip… if all of these unknown things start happening, things where you're… the events that
are happening differ from the potential expectation or… lack of expectation, I think that's what I think an adventure is.
and
… and, yeah… I… I… part of me thinks that err… there's a bit of a physical component to it, that with an adventure comes a… you know… a physical push that's required from an individual, but I don't know that that always fits my definition.
and
… have to problem solve through… through some things…
Not Adventure
Subjects also defined adventure by explaining what they did not regard as adventure.
Some of the experiences they regarded as too controlled or too safe:
I have had other outdoor experiences that are significant to me, but I wouldn ’ t class them as adventure and they have been in a controlled
environment. (Student B, female)
You can have adventure activities, you could have… you could go for a paddle but I go to paddle and train everyday, and that's in my comfort zone… I go for a little adventure up a river, but it's not real adventure, as I see it. (Student D, male)
When I think of adventure I… you know, I don't think of, you know, going for a walk around the park. (Student E, male)
Some experiences are extreme and go beyond being adventures:
Hmm… There's a fine line between exciting and then getting on to fear, I think, you know, once you've crossed line it's… I don't think you'd class it as
61
an adventure anymore, it's you know… once it gets to be actually… You know, fear for your life or whatever, it's no longer… (Student C, female)
Student F: Hmm… misadventures? Yeah.
CME: Yeah. And would you regard those experiences as adventure? Student F: Hmm. No. (Student F, female)
Challenge
The concept of challenge was a feature of many of the subjects ’ descriptions of their
experiences and also of their definitions of adventure. I asked the subjects for their
definitions or meanings of the word “challenge ”. There were some key points of
similarity between subjects ’ definitions of challenge and adventure, such as being
out of their comfort zone. This was a feature of Subject A ’ s definition of adventure
and was important to a number of other subjects. There was almost unanimous
agreement between subjects that ‘ challenge ’ involved physical effort and a sense
that mental challenge involved participants being out of their comfort zone.
Challenge would be, for me, a situation where I wasn't fully comfortable with,
I wasn't sort of 100 per cent happy that I could always achieve the outcome or it would be done in an almost comfortable sort of way. (PD, male)
Challenge… I actually… probably very similar to adventure, so it's something that's pushing you out of your… out of your zone of comfort and I think that's an important thing that people… I think a lot of times, challenges involve in gaining skill. (Subject A, female)
CME: So are you talking about fear?
Student A: (pause) Aaah… inhibition rather than fear. CME: Inhibition? OK Student A: I think overcoming your, your perceived concept of what you can and can't do, So redefining your personal boundaries. (Student A, female)
Hmm… where I push my boundaries, either physically or mentally, and again
where I've developed and I've learnt something. (Student B, female)
(The phrase “pushing boundaries ” was used by several subjects during interview,
although originally coded separately, this code was merged with
Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone.)
62
Hmm… I suppose it's having to push yourself to… probably you've never pushed yourself either that way before or that far before… (Student C,
female)
Yeah, you've got to be in the stretch zone, you can't be in comfort because you won't learn in comfort. (Student D, male)
I think… it depends whether you define challenge as something physical or something mental. (Student E, male)
Student F: Yeah. There's a mental challenge with climbing, particularly… CME: Yeah. OK. OK. And is fear part of that… mental challenge? Student F: Yeah, definitely. (Student F, female)
Hmm… (pause)… I guess it relates to the concept of effort, so on a daily
basis… hmm… if I'm walking down the street, I don't feel challenged. (Student G, female)
Definitions as a Group
I have included the subjects ’ personal definitions of adventure and challenge, firstly
to illustrate where they agree and differ and also because I wish to discuss later some
discrepancies between their stated definitions and what emerges, through my coding
of their accounts and interviews, as important.
To understand the importance of these aspects of adventure and challenge for the
group collectively, I noted each element from all the definitions. In Microsoft Excel I
created a table (Tables 6 and 7) scoring one for each person who mentioned a
particular aspect, regardless of how many times they mentioned it in total. The
scores for each aspect were totalled and ranked to show the most important aspects at
the top of the table.
In considering these results I felt that aspects scoring three or higher were significant.
I was surprised that ‘Newness ’ scored so highly, as this aspect had not been
prominent in the literature, although I had been aware during the interviews and
coding that this was important for many of the subjects. ‘ Being out of their comfort
zone ’ and ‘ physical challenge ’ appear as aspects of adventure and are also part of
63
most of the subjects ’ definitions of Challenge. ‘ Conditions ’ refers mostly to
weather conditions and also terrain. Another surprise was how often subjects
referred to adventures being ‘ fun ’ , which is reflected in the table. This style of
adventure is quite different from one characterised by overcoming hardship or fear.
I repeated this exercise with the definitions of challenge provided by subjects, (see
Table 7.) These tables demonstrate an overlap between subjects ’ concepts of
challenge and adventure: uncertainty, independence, physical challenge, out of
comfort zone and learning appear as aspects in both definitions, perhaps suggesting
that for many the terms adventure and challenge are almost synonymous.
64
Table 6
Key Aspects of Adventure from Subjects’ Definitions.
Table 7
Key Aspects of Challenge from Subjects’ Definitions.
Code PD A B C D E F G TOTAL
Physical challenge 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8
Out of comfort zone 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Mental Challenge 1 1 1 1 1 5
Fear 1 1 2
Independence 1 1 2
Uncertainty 1 1 2
Difficult situation 1 1 2
Learning 1 1
Code PD A B C D E F G TOTAL
Newness 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Uncertainty 1 1 1 1 1 5
Exciting 1 1 1 1 4
Independence 1 1 1 1 4
Out of comfort zone 1 1 1 1 4
Challenge 1 1 1 3
Conditions 1 1 1 3
Place remote 1 1 1 3
Risk 1 1 1 3
Fun 1 1 1 3
Learning 1 1 2
Outdoors 1 1 2
Physical challenge 1 1 2
problem 1 1 2
Enid Blyton 1 1
Narrow Escape 1 1
Not necessarily extreme 1 1
Not planned 1 1
Time Long 1 1
Planning 1 1
65
Key Concepts from the Data
This section uses analysis to identify the themes that were particularly important to
subjects, both individually and as a group, and present a selection of the data for
those particular themes.
I produced data comparison tables in TA for individual codes and code families by
subject. These were imported into Microsoft Excel. Next I identified the significant
codes and code families for each individual. Looking at the scores for individual
codes I felt that codes with scores over five could be regarded as important to the
subject. This might appear an arbitrary basis for selection, but seemed to work well
and I was prepared to modify the threshold if appropriate. All scores over five were
highlighted to produce a more comprehensible display of data. Examining the
results by individual, the items highlighted as important, reflected my impressions of
the character of each of the interviews. Ranking codes by total scores, I observed
that the highlighted scores clustered towards the top of the table, see Table 8. For
further simplification and as a means of checking these results I produced a similar
table for the code families, see Table 9. This analysis allows a clearer understanding
of the data and forms the basis for the presentation of data.
Comparison of results in Tables 8 and 9 with those in Tables 6 and 7 reveals that on
the whole the same themes emerge as important, aspects of newness and challenge in
particular, although the priority appears to change significantly for some. For
example, in Table 6 and 7 ‘ learning ’ receives a much lower priority than in either
tables 8 and 9, while concepts relating to ‘ place ’ are placed slightly higher. The
concept of ‘ uncertainty ’ , which emerged from analysis of definitions of adventure
as being particularly important in the overall coding, is placed much further down in
these tables. The importance of the code ‘ people>peer ’ (participation in
adventures as part of a peer group) in the overall coding contrasts with its omission in
subjects ’ definitions.
66
Table 8
Individual Code Scores by Subject.
CODE PD A B C D E F G Total Count
Newness 7 2 7 6 9 12 7 5 55
Challenge>Independence 4 3 4 6 14 4 4 5 45
Challenge>Risk Danger 13 3 3 4 4 9 4 5 45
Challenge>Physical 0 2 4 3 10 11 6 8 44
Place>Natural 6 10 4 4 2 7 5 4 42
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone 5 4 3 2 14 8 3 2 41
Learning>Personal 1 3 9 4 10 7 3 4 41
Challenge>Conditions 6 1 6 1 18 3 2 1 38
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone>Mental>Fear 15 1 3 2 5 4 5 2 37
Learning>Impact 4 2 0 0 13 7 6 3 36
Place>Remote 6 7 6 1 5 4 4 2 36
Newness>Place 2 1 3 2 5 2 12 8 35
Adventure>Not Adventure 0 2 7 5 7 2 9 0 32
People>Peer 5 5 3 2 4 1 4 4 29
Reason>Fun 3 8 0 8 2 1 1 6 29
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone>Mental 2 3 5 2 1 7 2 3 27
Challenge>Uncertainty 4 1 2 2 0 4 6 5 25
Activity>Expedition 0 9 0 2 3 2 3 4 23
Challenge>Excitement 1 0 3 6 4 3 5 1 23
People>Solo 2 7 0 2 7 4 1 0 23
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone>Control 5 4 0 2 1 0 3 3 21
Influences>Books Films 0 0 4 2 7 3 2 2 20
Place>Location 3 7 3 0 1 2 1 2 19
Time>Long 2 6 1 2 3 0 2 3 19
Activity>Activity 6 0 2 1 0 4 5 0 18
Activity>Living Outdoors 1 5 2 1 4 0 3 1 17
Challenge>Physical>Effort 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 14
Adventure>Levels>Frontier 1 0 0 0 8 0 4 0 13
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone>Mental>Imagine Negativ 2 0 3 2 4 1 0 1 13
Challenge>Physical>Fitness 0 0 0 0 6 5 0 2 13
People>Family 0 2 3 0 0 4 4 0 13
Challenge 1 1 0 0 1 7 0 1 12
Adventure>Levels>Misadventure 4 2 0 1 4 0 0 0 11
Barriers 0 0 0 0 3 8 0 0 11
Imagination 0 3 4 1 0 0 1 2 11
Learning>Others 0 0 4 1 5 1 0 0 11
Reason>Education 0 4 0 1 3 3 0 0 11
Imagination>Fantasy 0 0 5 1 0 4 0 0 10
Learning>Personal>Reflection 1 3 0 0 2 2 1 1 10
Newness>Not New 1 1 1 2 4 0 0 1 10
Adventure>Levels>Narrow Escape 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 9
Planning 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 5 9
Adventure>Levels>Adventure 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 8
Learning>Cultural 0 0 5 1 1 0 0 1 8
People>Sharing 1 1 2 0 3 0 0 1 8
Pushing Boundaries 0 0 1 1 1 3 0 2 8
Reason>Skills 3 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 8
People>Instructor 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 1 7
Reason>Internal 0 1 1 3 0 0 2 0 7
Influences>Army 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 6
Learning>Skill 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 6
Reason>Escape 0 3 0 0 0 1 2 0 6
Challenge>Out Of Comfort Zone>Mental>Problem solve 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 5
Activity>Travel 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 4
People>As Instructor 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 4
Influences>Family 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3
Learning>Nature 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 3
Learning>Undirected 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
Reason>External 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 3
Time>Short 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3
Influences>Instructors 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2
Learning>Directed 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Influences>Other People 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Learning 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Rites_of_Passage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
TOTAL 131 136 116 95 206 165 135 111 1108
67
The concept of ‘newness ’ , an aspect I had not anticipated from my review of
literature, emerges with the highest individual code, and is scored highly by most
subjects. As a code family, ‘Newness ’ (consisting of two sub-codes) is overtaken by
the larger ‘ Challenge ’ family of codes (with sixteen sub-codes). This has the effect
of reducing the apparent importance of ‘ newness’ in Table 9. In this respect the
ranking of the individual codes is perhaps a more reliable indicator of the importance
of this theme.
Table 9
Code Family Scores by Subject.
Commentary on Gender and Army Influences
I was aware from the interviews that the concept of being out of their comfort zone
was more important to four subjects than to the others. Three of these four shared
two important characteristics, they were male and had some connection with the
army: one was currently in the army, another had been involved in the Territorial
Army, and the third had applied to join the army. As there were no other male
subjects without connection to the Army or female subjects with that connection, I
cannot ascertain whether the importance of this concept (being out of their comfort
zone) has a basis in gender or in their interest in the Army. However, I decided to
produce a comparative data table based on gender. This was again imported into
Microsoft Excel and the codes were ranked as before for both genders, see Table 10.
Again for comparison I produced a similar table for the code families, see Table 11.
Codes PD A B C D E F G Total
Challenge 60 26 38 33 86 68 42 41 394
Learning 10 14 18 8 32 18 10 10 120
Newness 10 4 11 10 18 14 19 14 100
Place 15 24 13 5 8 13 10 8 96
People 8 20 8 6 15 11 9 6 83
Adventure 11 4 7 6 19 3 19 3 72
Reason 6 21 1 13 5 7 5 6 64
Activity 7 14 5 5 7 6 13 5 62
Influences 1 0 4 2 9 9 2 5 32
Time 2 6 1 4 3 1 2 3 22
Imagination 0 3 9 2 0 4 1 2 21
Barriers 0 0 0 0 3 8 0 0 11
Planning 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 5 9
Pushing Boundaries 0 0 1 1 1 3 0 2 8
Rites_of_Passage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Total 131 137 117 95 206 165 136 112 1099
68
Table 10
Individual Codes by Gender. (Colours used to highlight matching categories) C
od
es
Fem
ale
Cod
es
Male
New
nes
s27
New
nes
s28
Pla
ce>
Nat
ura
l27
Chal
lenge>
Condit
ions
27
New
nes
s>P
lace
26
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one
27
Adven
ture
>N
ot_
Adven
ture
23
Chal
lenge>
Ris
k_D
anger
26
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal
23
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Fea
r24
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
23
Lea
rnin
g>
Impac
t24
Rea
son>
Fun
23
Chal
lenge>
Indep
enden
ce23
Chal
lenge>
Indep
enden
ce22
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal
21
Pla
ce>
Rem
ote
21
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
18
Chal
lenge>
Ris
k_D
anger
19
Pla
ce>
Nat
ura
l15
Peo
ple
>P
eer
19
Pla
ce>
Rem
ote
15
Act
ivity>
Exped
itio
n18
Peo
ple
>S
olo
13
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal
17
Bar
rier
s11
Chal
lenge>
Unce
rtai
nty
17
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Fit
nes
s11
Chal
lenge>
Exci
tem
ent
15
Act
ivity>
Act
ivity
10
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Contr
ol
15
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal
10
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one
14
Infl
uen
ces>
Books_
Fil
ms
10
Tim
e>L
ong
14
Peo
ple
>P
eer
10
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Fea
r13
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>F
ronti
er9
Pla
ce>
Loca
tion
13
Adven
ture
>N
ot_
Adven
ture
9
Act
ivity>
Liv
ing_O
utd
oors
12
Chal
lenge
9
Lea
rnin
g>
Impac
t12
New
nes
s>P
lace
9
Chal
lenge>
Condit
ions
11
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>M
isad
ven
ture
8
Imag
inat
ion
11
Chal
lenge>
Exci
tem
ent
8
Infl
uen
ces>
Books_
Fil
ms
10
Chal
lenge>
Unce
rtai
nty
8
Peo
ple
>S
olo
10
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Imag
ine_
Neg
ativ
e7
Peo
ple
>F
amily
9C
hal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Eff
ort
7
Act
ivity>
Act
ivity
8C
hal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Contr
ol
6
Pla
nnin
g8
Infl
uen
ces>
Arm
y6
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Eff
ort
7L
earn
ing>
Oth
ers
6
Lea
rnin
g>
Cult
ura
l7
Pla
ce>
Loca
tion
6
Rea
son>
Inte
rnal
7R
easo
n>
Educa
tion
6
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>A
dven
ture
6R
easo
n>
Fun
6
69
Table 10 continued
Individual Codes by Gender.
Cod
es
Fem
ale
Cod
es
Male
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Imag
ine_
Neg
ativ
e6
Act
ivity>
Exped
itio
n5
Imag
inat
ion>
Fan
tasy
6A
ctiv
ity>
Liv
ing_O
utd
oors
5
Peo
ple
>In
stru
ctor
6A
dven
ture
>L
evel
s>N
arro
w_E
scap
e5
Lea
rnin
g>
Oth
ers
5L
earn
ing>
Per
sonal
>R
efle
ctio
n5
Lea
rnin
g>
Per
sonal
>R
efle
ctio
n5
New
nes
s>N
ot_
New
5
New
nes
s>N
ot_
New
5T
ime>
Long
5
Rea
son>
Educa
tion
5Im
agin
atio
n>
Fan
tasy
4
Rea
son>
Esc
a pe
5L
earn
ing>
Skil
l4
Rea
son>
Skil
ls5
Peo
ple
>F
amily
4
Act
ivity>
Tra
vel
4P
eople
>S
har
ing
4
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>F
ronti
er4
Push
ing_B
oundar
ies
4
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>N
arro
w_E
scap
e4
Rea
son>
Skil
ls3
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Pro
ble
m_so
lve
4A
dven
ture
>L
evel
s>A
dven
ture
2
Peo
ple
>S
har
ing
4In
fluen
ces>
Inst
ruct
ors
2
Push
ing_B
oundar
ies
4L
earn
ing>
Nat
ure
2
Adven
ture
>L
evel
s>M
isad
ven
ture
3P
eople
>A
s_In
stru
ctor
2
Chal
lenge
3R
easo
n>
Exte
rnal
2
Lea
rnin
g>
Undir
ecte
d3
Chal
lenge>
Out_
Of_
Com
fort
_Z
one>
Men
tal>
Pro
ble
m_so
lve
1
Chal
lenge>
Physi
cal>
Fit
nes
s2
Infl
uen
ces>
Fam
ily
1
Infl
uen
ces>
Fam
ily
2L
earn
ing>
Cult
ura
l1
Lea
rnin
g>
Dir
ecte
d2
Peo
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70
Although the results shown for code families showed little significant differences, the
results for the individual codes were surprising. While there was agreement on
‘ n ewness ’ as the most important aspect of adventure, there were noticeable
differences. These were primarily the greater importance placed on the unsettling
aspects of challenge by male subjects; conditions, (weather and terrain), risk and
danger, fear, and being out of their comfort zone emerge more strongly for male than
female subjects. Interestingly female subjects attached slightly greater importance to
physical challenge than the male subjects did. Most interesting perhaps is the much
lower priority attached to ‘ fun ’ by males and their preference for solo activities
rather than participation in a peer group.
Table 11
Code Families by Gender.
Codes Female Codes Male
Challenge 188 Challenge 215
Learning 61 Learning 60
Place 61 Newness 42
Newness 58 Place 36
People 50 People 34
Reason 46 Adventure 33
Activity 42 Activity 20
Adventure 40 Influences 19
Imagination 17 Reason 18
Time 16 Barriers 11
Influences 13 Time 6
Planning 8 Imagination 4
Pushing_Boundaries 4 Pushing_Boundaries 4
Rites_of_Passage 1 Planning 1
Barriers 0 Rites_of_Passage 0
Total 605 Total 503
71
Selected Data
The following is a selection of data relating to the more significant themes identified
in tables 8 and 9. I have tried to avoid duplicating data already included above in
presentation of subjects ’ definitions of adventure and challenge. Additional samples
of the data are included in Appendix C.
Challenge
Subjects were clear that there were mental and physical aspects of challenge, many
spoke of pushing boundaries:
I've described in terms of what adventure is for me in terms of pushing sort of boundaries. (PD, male)
Physical Challenge
When they spoke about physical challenge they were mostly referring to the idea of
physical effort or exertion:
…it's hmm… it's pushing yourself to the limit of what you can physically do… (Student D, male)
…pushing myself through personal boundaries such as blistered feet, sore body… (Student E, male)
…part of the fun of it is Monday morning, aching arms, could hardly lift the chalk to write on the blackboard (laughs) that was… yeah… You could
definitely feel that you've been challenged physically, yeah. (Student F, female)
For some subjects (two were male, one female) physical fitness was an important
aspect of physical challenge:
We weren't… if we weren't as fit we wouldn't have been able to errm… even
attempt to think about doing that sort of distance and those sort of heights… (Student D, male) … so there's a side of physical fitness or the physical challenge where you really have to push yourself physically. (Student E, male)
The more I biked the stronger I became. What a positive feedback situation. This response was really significant for me. (Student G, female)
72
Mental Challenge
Self-awareness, self-belief and the ability to counter poor self-confidence were aspects
of mental challenge for some subjects:
I always say "Oh I can't do that" just in case I don't do it. And then I don't have to feel like I failed. (Laughs) So I can't do a lot of things, so there's a lot of mental boundaries with everything for me. (Student B, female)
Hmm… I guess believing in myself that I can work through something… that I can work through the challenge… hmm (pause)… hmm… try to figure out my own limitations of what I'm doing so if I'm starting to feel slightly unsafe do I feel OK in this environment… and at which point do I say "No, this isn't OK
for me anymore" and communicate that to the people that I'm with… or to myself… and just be honest with myself. (Student G, female)
Out of Comfort Zone
The concept of being out of one ’ s comfort zone was an important aspect of
challenge to nearly all subjects. Although related to the idea of “pushing
boundaries ”, it tended to be used to describe a mental aspect of challenge
Challenge would be, for me, a situation where I wasn't fully comfortable with, I wasn't sort of 100 per cent happy that I could always achieve the outcome or
it would be done in an almost comfortable sort of way. (PD, male) … because I work on the principle that we work on in the military in terms of adventure training, you only learn when you're in the stretch mode, comfort zone… (Student E, male)
… and I think this idea of being out of your comfort zone and pushing yourself that little bit harder than just going for a walk round the park with the dog or… (Student E, male)
… if you don't have the butterflies in your stomach… then it's more likely that you're going to make a mistake and you're not going to clip on properly, whereas if you're a bit like (sharp intake of breath) you know, pumping but it's not because you're scared it's just because the adrenaline is starting to flow. (Student E, male)
Fear
Fear was at the heart of subjects ’ ideas of being out of one ’ s comfort zone and was
the most important aspect of mental challenge. Some subjects regarded fear in a
positive light:
73
In the two accounts I gave, large fear was a major ingredient, but I think there needs to be that, almost that edge of sort of you know to give you fear of
something… (PD, male) Fear is your friend in a sense that you know… if there's no adrenaline or you know there's no apprehension then there's something wrong. (Student E, male)
Others saw it in softer terms, similar to the ideas of self-awareness mentioned
previously:
CME: So are you talking about fear? Student A: (pause) Aaah… inhibition rather than fear. CME: Inhibition? OK
Student A: I think overcoming your, your perceived concept of what you can and can't do, so redefining your personal boundaries. (Student A, female)
For others fear was not an essential or desirable aspect of challenge:
Yeah. And I suppose I do associate the extreme adventures with fear… as an over-riding thing rather than satisfaction. (Student F, female)
Hmm… no, I don't think it's a requirement for me when I talk about adventure, because I think I can be challenged and not be fearful… (Student G, female)
Independence
The concept of self-reliance and independent or unaccompanied experiences was
highly important to all subjects and for some an essential aspect of challenge and
adventure:
…people would come from all over Europe to do a course at OB in Fort William rather than do it on the other, far more attractive OB situations, throughout the sort of world, and one of the main reasons was because their parents wanted them to have a truly wild experience by themselves. (PD,
male) I suppose being on my own, that does make it more of an adventure. It was certainly more of a… a challenge to decide "yeah, right, I'm going to do that" and actually go out and buy the ticket. (Student C, female)
It was an adventure because we had huge amounts of autonomy and
independence… (Student D, male)
74
I can't quite understand why some of my, what might be called adventure experiences, I don't see as adventures, and the only thing I can think of is that
they weren't self reliant because… (Student F, female)
Risk or Danger
Risk or danger was particularly important to the male subjects and seems to be
related to themes of fear and excitement and also weather conditions.
After recording stopped, interviewee explained that in his role in the army it was specified that any activity or adventure should present significant risk to life and limb for participants. (Research note on interview with Student D, male)
Whereas as a kid, you know you want it to be risky, you know, because that's what attracts most people is the thought “Oh, you know, I might sort of slip or whatever…” (Student E, male)
Conditions
This code relates to subjects comments on weather conditions and in some cases on
terrain. Most of the students referred to adverse or difficult weather conditions either
in their written accounts or in interview. For some, Student D (male) in particular,
this was a particularly important part of challenge.
… adventures always seemed to be themed around somewhere very remote or maybe very difficult sort of weather… (PD, male) Yeah, it was something different and challenging, walking up mountains and we were walking in low visibility and the weather was disgusting. (Student B,
female) As a resu… this… that was one reason it was an adventure, the other reason it was adventure was, I believe, because errm… of the conditions. (Student D, male)
Due to the time of the year and the elements, the whole experience was challenging due to the fact that everything was all new to us, we had never really done anything like this before and we were in another environment. (Student E, male)
Uncertainty
Another aspect of challenge relating to excitement and possibly fear, this was the
second most important aspect of adventure in subjects ’ definitions, although it was
75
not placed so highly in the overall ranking of codes. This code seems to be linked to
the idea of newness, particularly for Student F (female).
And I think you can have an adventure without an unforeseen event happening, but when they do happen it is a definite point for growth, development and also in terms of memorable (laughs) experience. (Student A, female)
For me I like doing things where I'm not sure …[of] the whole outcome… (Student E, male) Hmm, yes… it's… I suppose that's the bit about the unknown, going
somewhere… adventure for me usually means somewhere that I haven't been before… (Student F, female)
Excitement
This code covered aspects of adventure where subjects talked about excitement or
adrenalin. For some exciting meant something new or different, and for Student F
(female) it does not require an adrenalin rush.
And the skydive was just a one off burst of adrenaline and then it was finished. (Student C, female) The first night I had problems sleeping due to the adrenaline in my system. (Student D, male)
So it's not… it doesn't have to be extreme for me at all in fact, I'm not much of an adrenalin junkie or anything… (Student F, female)
Learning
Although not very important in subjects ’ definitions of adventure, this was more
important in the overall ranking of coded data. Various aspects of learning emerged.
Impact
As well as talking about what they learnt from their experiences, subjects indicated
that they had had a profound impact on their lives and were life-changing.
Huge adventure. And that impacted on my life and that's how I really defined these adventures is because they have… they've had a changing experience in my life. (Student D, male)
76
… because of doing the… having these adventure experiences, then my life was changed a lot as well… I think that… I mean they're a really central part
of my life… And the absence of them for a… or… or not doing so much of them for a few years… well, really affected… my life. (Student F, female)
Personal
Although subjects referred to learning about other people, different cultures or
learning new skills, mostly learning related to learning about themselves.
You know for me, the only true learning would be then when I was in that situation by myself. (PD, male) The experience was significant as I had a number of realisations about myself and my life due to the amount of alone time I had for reflection. (Student C,
female) It changed my outlook on life, but this was not apparent until I returned. It took some time to re-adjust to life back home in England. (Student D, male)
I'd grown up. As much as you can at the age of 30, or whatever it is… (Student D, male) Hmm… definitely hmm… a kind of self-confidence that I would say is quite deep… not a… a… not particularly to do with relating to other people and
things but just a sort of calmness and stuff, self-reliance… (Student F, female) Hmm… well from… firstly from a personal perspective I learn what I'm capable of doing or what I'm not capable of doing… (Student G, female)
Newness
Newness achieved the highest individual score of all codes. This emerged strongly in
both the written accounts and the interviews. For some it is an essential ingredient in
adventures, for others it is a desirable but optional extra.
So yeah it would be something where I'd have to think about something in a sort of new way, basically. That's probably be the key ingredient I think for
the sort of challenge or even if I didn't have to think particularly in sort of a new way to something that I'd done before and I was doing it again but it was in a situation which wasn't familiar to me. (PD, male) … doing something that they're not familiar with, I think is very important.
(PD, male)
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CME: If you're, if you're thinking of going out to have an adventure, are you… are you automatically looking to do something new?
Student A: No. CME: No. Student A: (Pause)… but then I probably wouldn't call it an adventure (laughs). (Student A, female)
Yeah, I don't think Snowden would be such an adventure now I've been up there before… (Student B, female) I think that it was an adventure because I was experiencing something
completely new. (Student C, female) If it's novel it makes it all the more important… (Student D, male)
The amount of fun, the novelty of the mode of travel and being in a new
environment made it seem like a true adventure. (Student G, female)
Place
A particularly significant aspect of newness for subjects was that adventures
happened in new places, often involving ideas of exploring.
Adventure for me usually means somewhere that I haven't been before… or a route that I haven't been on, obviously not unexplored land (laughs)… (Student F, female)
Repeating experiences in the same location did not amount to adventures:
The more I go to the same place, probably the hmm… I probably find it less and less to be an adventure err… (Student G, female)
Place
The written accounts and definitions given during interviews indicated that the
setting of adventure experiences was important. Usually in the countryside, although
not always the case as with the travel experiences, subjects spoke in terms of locations
that were ‘ natural ’ and ‘ remote ’ . These qualities usually coincided.
And that's for me an adventure would probably would have to be a lot of
backcountry… (Student A, female) I would go to the mountains… oh, yeah, somewhere natural and wildernessy. (Student B, female)
78
Hmm… you know if you've got mountains and big powerful rivers and that sort of thing I think it all adds to the experience. (Student C, female)
…some of the scenery and some of the things I've seen, but yeah I think err… you know certainly the landscape and the mountain region certainly does it for me… (Student E, male)
Loved the mountain scenery, and the feeling when out in the open, in magnificent places, feeling the power of the weather. No man-made sounds. (Student F, female)
Remoteness was a relative concept for two subjects, but still important.
A sense of adventure? – comes from being in a snowhole, in a remote setting, poking your head out into the darkness (from complete stillness into wild weather) and knowing that you are relatively speaking alone in a wild place. (PD, male)
It's gotta be remote… maybe not geographically remote… but removed from the majority of civilisation… so it doesn't have to be thousands and thousands of miles away, it could be just jump in a boat on the coast of Wales and paddle two miles round the coast and there's no-one there. (Student D, male)
…for it to be wild and not to see many people, it's really important. (Student F, female)
People
Subjects who spoke about solo adventures often spoke about reflection, personal
learning and self-reliance or independence. Those speaking about experiences as
part of a peer group, often talked about sharing. This was particularly important for
female subjects.
So, well I … I like sharing the experience too, I like to be stood at the top and have somebody else… be like, you know, “ I saw this with you ”… (Student A, female)
I prefer adventures with other people…I like to share experiences. (Student B, female) I just find sharing the experience with somebody else and… just being able to communicate what… what I'm experiencing and hearing from somebody else
what they're experiencing really adds to the adventure. (Student G, female)
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Reason
This code relates to the reasons or motivations behind subjects ’ experiences.
Enjoyment or ‘ fun ’ were very important to subjects.
…and I would definitely class that as an adventure, I mean it was fun. (PD,
male) …there's gotta be fun involved and people don't talk about that piece as much, it's kind of innate and understood that you're gonna have fun when you go and play outside… (Student A, female)
With us, he was just looking after his family and trying to help us to have enjoyable experiences. (Student F, female) The experience was significant because it was my first outdoor journey and I
just remember how much fun I had. The amount of fun… (Student G, female)
Influences
Bearing in mind Tanner (1980) and Palmer ’ s findings (1993) about the importance
of books and films as influences on their subjects, I was interested to see whether
subjects ’ ideas of adventure were similarly influenced. I asked subjects whether they
had read Swallows and Amazons (Ransome, 2001a), and what else they might have
read. PD (male) and Students A (female), D (male) and E (male) stated that they were
not big readers when they were children, although both PD (male) and Student D
(male) had seen the film Swallows and Amazons, which they regarded as a good
example of adventure.
That is definitely adventure - they're independent, they're challenging themselves, they're doing… they had bad weather, they had… (laughs)… had
long distances to go, they were very much independent on their own… (Student D, male)
Student F (female) also had read some of Ransome’ s books as a child, and felt that
they were a particular influence when she was learning to sail. Blyton ’ s books were
mentioned by Students B (female), C (female) and E (male). Lewis ’ Narnia books,
Rowling ’ s Harry Potter books and Tolkien ’ s “The Lord of the Rings ” were also
mentioned. In light of the discussion in “Commentary on Gender and Army
Influences ” above, it is interesting to note that the four subjects who describe
80
themselves as not big readers, and for whom books were not particularly influential,
were the same four subjects who seemed to attach greater importance to being out of
their comfort zone. For the reasons explained above, I am reluctant to attribute the
lack of influence of books etc. to gender differences (in the case of PD (male), Student
D (male) and Student E (male)). It is possible that the Army influence might take its
place with these three subjects. I think it is reasonable to conclude that for those
subjects that were keen readers in childhood, the books they read may have
influenced their ideas of adventure later in life, and that those ideas were less
dependent on the idea of being out of one ’ s comfort zone.
Imagination
An important theme emerging from Swallows and Amazons (Ransome, 2001a) was the
importance of imagination as part of the characters ’ experience of adventure. This
was raised during interviews. Imagination, in the sense of fantasy or role-playing, was
important to two subjects, Students B (female) and E (male).
…imagination for me is a big part of adventure. Like up in the Cairngorms, I was thinking about “what could live in that loch ” when I was getting my water. (Student B, female)
For Student B (female), imagination enhances her adventures, but not all experiences
require the same application of imagination:
I probably have to put less imagination into something like walking up the Cairngorms than I would walking round the park. (Student B, female)
Most subjects spoke of imagination in terms of anticipation of experiences and
locations and also potentially negative consequences. For Student D (male)
imagination was often a terrifying, retrospective aspect of his adventures:
I have nightmares about things that could have gone wrong when I come back… I've drowned a lot of times… you know, they say you fall out of a building or something, you never hit the ground, when you dream about drowning, you actually drown. (Student D, male)
Overall, imagination did not seem to be particularly important to subjects. The
characters in Swallows and Amazons were younger than my subjects, it is possible that
81
this aspect might be more important for younger people. Few of the subjects in this
study recounted stories of adventures from that period of their lives.
82
Discussion of Findings
Complexity
Perhaps the most striking feature of my research has been the variety and complexity
of the data. Subjects described a wide range of experiences, differing in choice of
activity, location, intensity, emphasis and other characteristics. Experiences ranged
from formal, facilitated educational activities, to family trips and informal
experiences, either alone or with their friends. It is not surprising that the variety of
experience is reflected by a similar variety in understanding or interpreting those
experiences. Analysis of the data in Tables 6, 7 and 8 reveals the uniquely personal
nature of subjects ’ concepts or definitions of adventure. This complexity is further
demonstrated by apparent inconsistencies in subjects ’ individual accounts and
interviews. PD (male) identified the importance of risk and danger in his definition of
adventure, but the third experience in his account, snow-holing, was characterised as
relaxed and comfortable. Student A (female) identified the importance of the
unforeseen in adventures, later suggesting that although making for a “memorable ”
experience, she could have adventures where this was not a feature. Student C
(female) echoed this tendency in respect of ‘newness ’ .
This suggests something important about adventure: that it is not a fixed or stable
concept that lends itself to simple and rigid definition, but one that varies or evolves
according to circumstances. For each individual, different aspects of adventure were
“ essential ” components, (although not always essential, as seen above). The range
of essential components includes: newness, being out of their comfort zone, wild and
remote locations, physical effort, uncertainty, independence or self-reliance, sharing
experiences, risk and danger, and adverse weather conditions. This suggests a set of
aspects or components of adventure that operate in different combinations according
to individual preference or circumstances.
The number of possible combinations of these components, suggests that simple
definitions of adventure in the literature of outdoor adventure education are
inappropriate and do not describe people ’ s understanding of their experiences of
83
adventure. There are also important implications for the practice of outdoor
adventure education. The fact that different aspects of adventure experiences are
important to different people suggests that practitioners need to exercise care in
arranging activities that include as many of these components as possible, to allow as
many participants to experience the activity as an adventure in their own terms.
How do you facilitate an experience so that the people who value being out of their
comfort zone can do so, without compromising the needs of participants for who this
is not so important? The importance of independent experience and self-reliance,
remote locations, adverse weather conditions, risk and danger pose a challenge for a
profession that is increasingly concerned with safety. Most of the experiences
described by subjects were informal or recreational, without formal instruction. This
raises questions about the role of the outdoor educator in people ’ s experiences of
adventure. Above all, educators need to be adaptable in their facilitation of outdoor
adventure education if they are to co-ordinate so many interchangeable aspects of
adventure.
Influences
The development of subjects ’ definitions of adventure appears to be influenced by
an equally varied set of factors: upbringing, culture and by continuing, personal
experience of adventure. For some subjects, books and films were clear influences on
their understanding of adventure, while others were influenced by their interest or
involvement in the army. Some subjects found inspiration in their parents, others in
instructors or teachers. Subjects also had their own terms for adventure, speaking of
“ soft adventure ”, “mini-adventures ”, “weekend adventures ”, “extreme
adventures ” and “real adventure ”. Each of these terms was clearly understood and
differentiated by subjects.
84
Components
Newness
‘ N ewness ’ was the single most important aspect or component of adventure
identified by this subject group. The importance placed on ‘newness ’ was
unexpected and not reflected in my review of literature. This was mostly expressed in
terms of experiences occurring in new places, suggesting exploration, something
advocated by Gair (1988) and also an important aspect of Swallows and Amazons
(Ransome, 2001a). This ‘newness ’ seems to link with other aspects such as being
out of one ’ s comfort zone, uncertainty and possibly fear. Rubens (1999, p.27)
discusses young people ’ s motivation for participation in outdoor adventure
education and refers to Ames ’ suggestions that tasks should be “novel or diverse;
challenging ”. Greenaway (1998), however, warns that “providing ‘ new
experiences ’ ” is not on its own the basis for learning.
Challenge
At the heart of definitions of adventure in the literature of outdoor education, is the
concept of challenge seen in terms of overcoming hardship or fear. This is not
reflected in this subject group ’ s concepts of adventure. Most subjects identified the
importance of physical challenge in terms of effort or exertion, with none of the
negative connotations inherent in the term ‘ hardship ’ . Bad weather conditions
were frequently mentioned, (described as “disgusting ” by Student B, (female)), but
generally not described in a negative way. When asked, some agreed that hardship
would be a challenge, but did not elaborate further or seemed slightly surprised by
the question. Student B (female) referred to the physical hardship of months of living
on rice and lentils in Sri Lanka. Student E (male) referred to the physical after-effects
of Duke of Edinburgh Award expeditions, but again appeared not to see this as
adverse. Student D (male) was dismissive of the place of overcoming hardship in
modern adventure:
Hardship in terms… another way of looking at it would be yes, ok, the fact that there's bad conditions… and that would be deemed as I suppose
85
hardship, but it wouldn't be the first thing that I'd think about… (Student D, male)
You're thinking about Shackleton, Scott, that sort of thing, they had hardship,
that was real hardship. (Laughs). I don't think we do that now with adventure. (Student D, male)
Student D ’ s suggestion that this is an outdated concept is supported by Cook (1999)
who suggests that the character of modern outdoor education has its origins in
military training and public schools from exactly this period.
Rather than overcoming fear, subjects identified a mental aspect of ‘ challenge ’ ,
mostly in terms of being out of their comfort zone or “pushing boundaries ”. While
this included risk, danger and fear for Students A (female), D (male), E (male) and PD
(male), themes of newness, uncertainty and independence were generally more
important to this subject group. Some of these subjects seemed so comfortable with
being out of their comfort zone, that I wonder whether they experienced excitement
and “exhilaration ” (Student A, female), rather than being out of their comfort zone
in the true sense. For most subjects fear was an unnecessary or undesirable feature of
their adventures, although Student E (male) saw it in a positive light stating, “it
focusses the mind… my mind better…”.
Place
Most of the experiences described and definitions provided by subjects indicate the
importance of the setting or location of their experiences. Subjects agreed that
adventures took place outdoors in the countryside, or in natural or remote settings
and many emphasised the importance for adventure in going to new places. Student
D (male) spoke about apparent remoteness, echoing Yaffey (1990).
Learning
Most subjects described some of their adventures as having a life-changing effect on
their life. It was apparent that the experiences had made a significant impact on
86
each individual and that some form of learning or change had taken place. Many
claimed to have learnt about themselves and their capabilities. In general, claims
about learning were not elaborated. Student A (female) and PD (male) both
described car accidents and indicated that learning of a technical nature had taken
place. There were also claims for learning about other people, cultures and the
natural environment. The claims that learning occurred are significant in light of the
fact that about two thirds of the experiences described were undertaken on an
informal or recreational basis – usually expressed by use of the word “fun ” – either
in a group of peers or solo.
Uncertainty
The literature of outdoor education identifies uncertainty of outcome as a dimension
of adventure, (Hunt, 1989; Hopkins & Putnam, 1993; Hattie, Marsh, Neill &
Richards, 1997; Priest, 1989; Higgins, 2001). This was also an important feature in
subjects ’ definitions of adventure. There was a tension between the importance
placed on ‘ uncertainty ’ as a feature of adventure and learning outcomes such as
the need for better planning and preparation.
Type of Experience
The experiences described in the written accounts can mostly be characterised as
broad adventure, as defined by Rubens (1999) and Higgins & Nicol (2002). Most
took the form of expeditions (20 of 35) or travel. Most of the experiences took place
over an extended period of time. In her definition of adventure, Student A (female)
specified a minimum of five days. Although the expeditions could also be categorized
as living outdoors, no experiences were described that could only be described as
living outdoors. My characterisation of Swallows and Amazons (Ransome, 2001a) as
‘ l iving outdoors ’ might with hindsight be inaccurate: the characters engaged in a
number of other activities, particularly sailing, walking and swimming. This suggests
that Swallows and Amazons represents a hybrid experience, in the same way as the
expeditions or journeys described in this research.
87
The majority of experiences described were informal, and recreational, (by which I
mean they were not instructed or facilitated with any intended educational outcome),
undertaken either alone, with other family members or a group of friends. In spite of
the informal nature of most of these experiences, or arguably because of it, the
subjects were emphatic about the impact that the experiences had on them. The
learning resulting from these experiences might be described as developmental by
Barrett & Greenaway (1995), but it is striking that many of the experiences described
could not be characterised as “high intensity”, as they suggest (Barrett &
Greenaway, 1995, p.5). Furthermore, in educational terms, the outcome of many of
these experiences is not “predetermined ” (Hunt, 1989, p.18) but “goal free ”
(Loynes, 2002, p.122); and the learning that occurs is “not outcome focussed or
process oriented; it is emergent ” (Loynes, 2002, p.122).
Gender Differences
The differences in priorities identified in Tables 10 and 11 are particularly
interesting, but should be treated cautiously. This study involves a group of eight
with three male subjects, all three of whom have had or continue to have some
involvement or interest in the army. It is unclear whether the difference in priorities
observed is the result of gender differences or a reflection of this other characteristic.
It is also possible that the differences observed relate to particular personality types or
preferred learning styles. No data were available for this subject group in this
respect.
Research on gender issues in outdoor education covers women ’ s access to outdoor
education, careers and learning outcomes; little is written about the nature of their
experiences or concepts of adventure. Focussing on structured or facilitated
experiences, the literature describes outdoor education as male-dominated (Allin &
Humberstone, 2006; Warren, 1996; Mitten, 1996; Neill, 1997), suggesting that
women bring different characteristics and expectations to outdoor education. Warren
(1996) suggests that “standardized ” courses staffed by women instructors are an
inadequate response to these differences. It is suggested that women have issues with
88
perceptions of competence and physicality (Allin & Humberstone, 2006; Mitten,
1996) and that women, more than men, “define themselves in connection to others ”
(Mitten, 1996). Although my data show no evidence for the former suggestion, it
provides some support for the latter.
Warren (1996) and Neill (1997) observe that concepts of the “hero ’ s journey ” or
the “quest ”, as models for course design, may be less appropriate for women than
journeys. In this context Warren (1996, p.16) asserts: “ a woman rarely hears a call
to adventure ”. The importance of journeys and extended experiences for my
subject group tends to support this. Aspects identified as being important to women
include engaging with nature (Warren, 1996; Neill, 1997), sharing experiences with
other people (Mitten, 1996; Pohl, 2000; Neill, 1997) and experiences without
predetermined agendas (Mitten, 1996, p.79). Most interestingly perhaps is Mitten ’ s
observation that in her work with female groups, reducing stress on participants
improves their performance (Mitten, 1996, p.81).
Further research focussing on gender differences in concepts and experiences of
adventure is recommended, taking into account personality types and learning styles.
Adventure and Outdoor Education
The importance to my subjects of their experiences was striking but not particularly
surprising, as I treasure the memories of my own adventures. The fact that so many
of these experiences are informal, unaccompanied and recreational raises an
important question: how do they fit into outdoor education? The element of
uncertainty appears opposed to needs to plan sessions, arrange equipment, ensure
appropriate safety measures, identify learning outcomes etc. Mat Goodyear once
asked me: “How can you plan for adventure?” (personal communication, February
2005). Perhaps the answer lies in Student G (female) ’ s need for some planning of
the broad framework of an activity but “not too much planning ”; or perhaps these
experiences can only be achieved on an informal and recreational basis. Maybe
rather than impelling people into experience as suggested by Hahn and Mortlock, we
can help them impel themselves.
89
Conclusions
Reading and discussing my subjects ’ accounts of their adventures has revealed the
uniquely individual and personal nature of those experiences, and the concepts and
meaning that they have derived from them. Rather than defining a small number of
indispensable features, these concepts instead identify a larger set of interlinking and
interchangeable aspects or components of adventure, combining in different ways in
different circumstances. This suggests that simple definitions of adventure, based on
a fixed set of components do not adequately describe people ’ s experiences. Subjects
also indicated a number of different influences on the development of their concepts
of adventure, including books and films, the army, their family and friends,
instructors and teachers and perhaps most importantly their own experience of
adventure.
This subject group indicated a strong preference for extended experiences of the
broad adventure type. This has significant implications for outdoor education
provision, much of which appears to consist of shorter activities resembling narrow
adventure experiences. Further implications are raised by the fact that so many of
this group ’ s significant experiences of adventure are informal activities, experienced
either alone or with friends or family, without predetermined outcomes or
accompanying facilitators or instructors.
This study also reveals that for this subject group challenge, central to their ideas of
adventure, is defined in terms of physical effort and being out of their comfort zone,
whatever form that might take. Traditional ideas of challenge as consisting of
overcoming hardship or fear were not supported and appear outdated and
inappropriate.
‘ N ewness ’ emerges from this study as the most important single aspect of
adventure, particularly in terms of activities happening involving new places. This
echoes the importance of exploring for the characters in Swallows and Amazons
90
(Ransome, 2001a). This is perhaps also supported by Mortlock ’ s observation of the
popularity of gorge-walking (1984, p.47) with young people. I have observed the
same in respect of coasteering, mentioned also by Student E (male).
My research also suggests possible differences of importance for men and women of
the various aspects of adventure discussed, with a preference by men for the more
unsettling aspects of adventure and by women for physical challenge and the social
aspects of sharing their experiences. There appears to be little in the existing
literature on gender issues within outdoor education addressing this, suggesting that
further research is required on both males and females.
Reflexive Note
When I rediscovered Swallows and Amazons (Ransome, 2001a), I realised that it
described exactly the type of adventures that I, as an outdoor educator, wanted to
help other people to experience. Many of the experiences described by my subjects,
and most of my own experiences of adventure, share important characteristics with
Swallows and Amazons. My earliest memory of adventure is sitting with my father by a
campfire, aged eight, behind the garden shed cooking sausages and beans and
brewing tea in an empty tin can. There was no element of fear or hardship; we were
not remote, we were no more than fifty yards from our house, not to mention our
neighbours, but we could not see houses or other people. Although this experience
has few of the qualities identified in the literature of outdoor education, it was still an
adventure and retains that quality in my memory.
My professional experience of outdoor education has rarely involved this type of
experience. I have observed and instructed many short, introductory sessions, often
without significant outcome, that characterise narrow adventure. I am reassured that
the experiences described by my subjects suggest a preference for broad adventure
rather than narrow adventure. Ideally in my future work this is the type of adventure
I would like to help people experience. I remain concerned though, that due to
attitudes to risk and safety, and also cost, opportunities to do so may only arise
91
informally in my private life, capacity as a parent, rather than through my role in
outdoor education.
92
Future Research
If we are to understand the value of adventure in outdoor education, further study of
the nature of people ’ s experiences of adventure and the factors that influence their
concepts of adventure is worthwhile. Subjects in this study revealed the importance
of a number of influences, including family, childhood, friends, books and the Army.
This study has suggested a possible link between gender and concepts of adventure,
which merits further investigation. Additionally it would be interesting to explore the
influence of learning styles and personality types on people ’ s understanding of
adventure. On the whole, subjects in this study tended to speak about adventures
experienced after the age of ten. This might suggest that they no longer regard
experiences before that time as adventures. It would therefore be interesting to
explore how people ’ s ideas of adventure change with time or age.
For each of these studies I would again suggest a qualitative methodology, using the
collection of stories of adventure, coupled with semi-structured interviews, but
perhaps involving a larger group of subjects, or possibly a number of groups. I would
also advocate that further studies seek to create a simpler coding scheme than my
own.
93
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Appendix A: Data Gathering Instruments
1. Briefing letter for Stage One: Written Autobiographical Account
2. Interview schedule
101
1. Briefing letter for Stage One: Written Autobiographical
Account
102
2. Interview Schedule
Thanks.
Recording, transcription, coding.
Checking by third party.
Anonymity.
1. Personal details
• Age
• Sex
• Background (brief)
Origins
Family
School
Work
• PG Dip or MSc
2. The nature of adventure
• What does the word adventure mean to you?
• Describe the most important characteristics of your adventure
experiences?
• Is the potential or actual loss of control important? Misadventure?
• Can recreation be adventure?
3. Overcoming fear and hardship, self-reliance
• What does the word ‘ challenge ’ suggest to you?
• Is fear an important aspect of your adventure experiences?
• How important are risk and safety in your experiences?
• How important are effort and perseverance?
• Is “self-reliance ” an aspect of adventure
103
4. Solo or accompanied
• What role, if any, do other people play in your adventures?
5. Place
• What sort of place do your adventures take place in?
• Is the place important to your experience?
• How?
6. New – does the activity or place need to be new?
7. Imagination – what part, if any, does this play in your experiences?
8. Learning and change
• What have you learnt from your adventures?
9. Stage of life
• The experiences you describe take place from early adult life. Did you
have any adventures in your early childhood/teen years
10. Swallows and Amazons – book and film.
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Appendix B: Intercoder Reliability Check
The following includes the sample of data sent to my second coder, showing initial
matches and codes resolved after discussion.
Key
Code matched on first attempt
ML code matched one of multiple codes assigned by CE
Similar or related codes assigned
Data As coded by ML As coded by CE
ML
comments
on revisit
CE
comments
on revisit
we spent 16 days circumnavigating the island on bikes and camping over
night under canvas Activity>Expedition Activity>Living_Outdoors
During the ferry operation the weather worsened and the engine failed Activity>Travel Challenge>Conditions
looking back I have very fond memories of being outside in a secure loved
environment, reenacting adventure I had read in books or seen in films. Imagination>Fantasy Imagination>Fantasy
despite some memories of being physically challenged and scared at times Challenge>Physical Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone
t was pretty challenging as the sun was relentless and the heat exhausting-
around 33F. Challenge>Physical Challenge>Conditions
My earliest significant outdoors experience I remember is walking up
Snowdon Place>Location Activity>Activity I carried no radio/no flares and had no means of attracting attention; and
conditions (visibility) was poor and any boats in the vicinity would not have
visually seen me. In a last desperate attempt to start the engine before being
blown onto the area of rocks ( I was beginning to plan to swim to a buoy I
had seen downwind), the engine started and I made my escape and travelled
to the nearest safe harbour at Toscaig. Adventure>Levels>Narrow_Escape Adventure>Levels>Narrow_Escape
Camping was generally wild camping and seemed adventurous to me. Activity>Living_Outdoors Activity>Living_Outdoors
My memories consist of the camping experience Activity>Living_Outdoors Activity>Living_Outdoors
we were self-sufficient and often alone Challenge Challenge>IndependenceThe aspects that made the trip significant were: it was my first trip to a non
westernised country, it was my first foreign trip where I didn't know anyone
before the day we left Activity>Travel Newness>Place
on the British School Exploring Society expedition to the White Sea of
Russia. Activity>Expedition
It was very wet, windy, dark and cold Challenge>Conditions Challenge>Conditions
it was my first experience of a developing country, I witnessed real poverty
for the first time and was quite unprepared for what it was really like Newness Learning>Cultural
we sometimes turned back due to bad weather Challenge>Conditions Challenge>Conditions
The amount of fun, the novelty of the mode of travel and being in a new
environment made it seem like a true adventure. Adventure>Definition Adventure>Definition
six weeks sea kayaking and trekking in Arctic Russia Activity>Activity Time>Long
I think that it was an adventure because I was experiencing something
completely new, Adventure>Definition Newness
I also remember being cold and wet Challenge>Conditions Challenge>Conditions
Description: trekking Manchu Pichu trail
Location: Peru Place>Location Activity>Expedition
This is a significant memory for me as I have always been a bit scared of
heights and falling off ridges and rocks etc… I think this might be why. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>FearThe people involved were all people I met on the way. I got close to a scottish
couple, two Irish girls and and two english lads and I got to know each of
them over a period of months through either travelling with them or keeping
in touch and meeting up periodically People>Sharing People>Peer
We made a trip of several days Time>Long Time>Long
14 day ski tour Time>Long Time>Long
The goal of the year was to break the deadlock that I had gotten into with my
career and decide what it was that I really wanted to do with my life. Reason>Escape Reason>Internal AGREE
The visibility was really low that day and the terrain was quite slippery. Challenge>Conditions Challenge>Conditions
I went to help in Sri Lanka after the Tsunami and was part of a team that
built a refugee camp for over 1000 people. People>Sharing Activity>Travel
At one point my friend and I both fell and we both admitted to feeling like we
were going to drop off the side of the mountain Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Adventure>Levels>Narrow_Escape
I went with a girl I had just met in England and the rest of the team were
strangers People>Peer People>Peerit s partly a learning experience, and it s that learning experience which you
can have from anything really, like something like light the stove, or I don't
know… going fishing or anything… something really quite mundane, yeah?
But there would be an element of… well not an element, but a large part of
sort of hazard or risk. Whether or not you deliberately set out to have that
kind of risky experience or it happened but that would have to be part of it.
That would be a major core ingredient. So if there wasn't any hazard, risk or
danger then it wouldn't be adventure for me. Challenge>Risk_Danger Adventure>DefinitionThere were obvious goals for all the activities like teambuilding, leadership
to some degree, communication played a large as well as trust, personal
growth and all the other PSE stuff. Reason>Education Reason>Education
105
The scale of the French alps is impressive Place>Location Place>Natural EITHERThe experience was challenging as I had to learn to rely entirely on my self,
live out of a backpack and carry it with me all the time, get used to not being
as clean as when I'm at home and basically just learn to be a bit streetwise. People>Solo Challenge>Independence AGREE
I was in Sri Lanka for 2 months, with 4 different projects but spent the most
time about 4 weeks with this camp Place>Location Time>Long
the experience was very frightening and put me in a situation where I
honestly believed I would not survive Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Fear
the pure beauty of the surrounding wilderness Learning>Nature Place>Natural AGREE
The experience was significant as I had a number of realisations about myself
and my life due to the amount of alone time I had for reflection. Learning>Personal>Reflection Learning>Personal AGREE
The experience was hugely challenging both physically working in the heat Challenge>Conditions Challenge>Physical
"weekend adventures". Activity>Activity Adventure>New_LabelsWe had to fly to the east of the country and then take a bus for 24 hrs before
we ran out of road then walked for three days before getting on the river, very
remote under the third highest mountain in the world. Place>Remote Place>Remote
The experience was exciting in that we were in such a new environment Newness Newness>Place AGREE
it was pretty physical as I walked pretty much everywhere with a pack on Challenge>Physical Challenge>Physical
This is the most significant experience in my life that led to my personal
development and knowledge of who I am and what I want. Learning>Impact Learning>Personal AGREE
5 day canoe trip Time>Long Activity>Living_Outdoors
So it doesn't necessarily have to be climbing or anything like that, it's just an
experience that is pushing into your stretch zone where you're challenging. Challenge>Definition Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneAGREE
a large team of mixed ability men and women People>Sharing People>Peer AGREEAlthough I am half Singhalese it was still a culture that I am not hugely
familiar with and in the area we were in it was Tamil speaking so I had no
local or language knowledge. Learning>Cultural Place>RemoteA memorable moment came when we had reached the top, rock spires just
piercing the clouds and not having any idea on how to get down, spending
some 2hrs trying to figure out what to do. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Learning>Impact
Some in the snow, exploring fresh snow and new places. Place>Natural Newness>Place
month long cycle touring trip Time>Long Activity>Expedition
Aaah…not necessarily sure, like going to the mall, would definitely be out of
my comfort zone but I wouldn't necessarily call it an adventure. Adventure>Definition Adventure>Not_Adventure
DOES NOT
FEATURE
AS CODE?
Codes
merged
coming out the other side as a changed person with life changing experiences
that I can draw upon and pass on to the next generation for years to come. Learning>Personal Learning>Personal
Snow-holing on the Cairngorm plateaux (Scottish Highlands) Place>Location Activity>Activity
My second major adventure experiences came in the form of the three DoE
expeditions Activity>Expedition Activity>ExpeditionStudent B
Hmm… I guess my adventures and what I say adventures are, somewhere
where I've learnt something…
CME
right
Student B
…about myself, somewhere where I've learnt something about other people,
or about the place Learning>Others Learning>Cultural
not quite knowing what… what's going to happen Challenge>Uncertainty Challenge>Uncertainty
as part of my preparations for my winter mountaineering assessment Activity>Activity Reason>Skills
and when I think of adventure I… you know, I don't think of, you know,
going for a walk around the park or… Adventure>Definition Adventure>Not_Adventure
DOES NOT
FEATURE
AS CODE?
Codes
merged
I was joined by a work colleague and friend. People>Peer People>Peer
… for me it's something where there's a… a bit of risk involved, but whether
that's perceived or whether that's an actual risk… Adventure>Definition Adventure>DefinitionOK, so like a journey, it's something exciting. When you say exciting, what
do you mean, what makes something exciting?
Student B
Different, so not something day-to-day Newness>Place Challenge>Excitement
I realised that at times it would affect my mood and I would end up becoming
competitive with my friend, although I never overtly stated it. Learning>Personal>Reflection Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental… and I think this idea of being out of your comfort zone and pushing
yourself that little bit harder than just going for a walk round the park with
the dog or… or you know… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneThe whole experience was challenging in a controlled way, in that I/we
allowed lots of time to build the snowhole, did not over-tax ourselves during
the day and had fun. Challenge>Definition Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneAGREE
Aaah… I love rivers and lakes, so for me it's probably going to take place on
water. Place>Location Place>Natural
… I see it more as a lot of those unknowns are happening because of the
natural environment… Place>Natural Place>Natural AGREEas a group we had to be pretty independent and work well as a group of 5
people, 2 boys and 3 girls due to the fact that we only saw our leaders at
certain points over the 4 days each People>Sharing Challenge>Independence
you know it's something out of the ordinary and it's not something you'd do
everyday, sort of thing. Newness Newness
… and, yeah… I… I… part of me thinks that err… there's a bit of a physical
component to it, that with an adventure comes a… Challenge>Physical Adventure>Definition
And that's for me an adventure would probably would have to be a lot of
backcountry, Adventure>Definition Place>RemoteA sense of adventure? – comes from being in a snowhole, in a remote setting,
poking your head out into the darkness (from complete stillness into wild
weather) and knowing that you are relatively speaking alone in a wild place. Place>Natural Place>Remote
The more I biked the stronger I became. What a positive feedback situation.
This response was really significant for me. Challenge>Physical>Fitness Challenge>Physical>FitnessObviously like most things, the goals and objectives of the Award are many
but three really sum it up for me. Teamwork, Communication and
Leadership through a residential experience of sorts. Reason>Education Reason>External
if it's an ex… if the unexpected is happening… if hmm… you kinda have to
think on your feet and… Challenge>Independence Challenge>Uncertainty
So I wouldn't say that was a big… a special… a special thing… I suppose
adventures might be more high risk… or perceived high risk Challenge>Risk_Danger Challenge>Risk_DangerFor me I like doing things where I'm not sure that the whole outcome, and
from the start hmm… I want to be pushed and I want to be out of my comfort
zone, so that I know at the end of the experience, Wow, you know that means
something to me and I've really… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Learning>Impact
106
For me I like doing things where I'm not sure that the whole outcome, and
from the start hmm… I want to be pushed and I want to be out of my comfort
zone, so that I know at the end of the experience, Wow, you know that means
something to me and I've really… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Adventure>Levels>Adventure
climbing, walking, camping Activity>Activity Activity>Activity
Hmm… so I think there has to be a certain amount of control there Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control So, no, I don't think 'new' would be … I think it's heightened if it's a new
experience and if you're on unfamiliar kind of ground or territory, or an
unfamiliar, an unfamiliar experience almost basically in terms of you don't
have almost a reservoir of something to look back on and say "Well in this
situation before I did this and I got away with something. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Newness
if you're on unfamiliar kind of ground or territory, Newness Newness>Place AGREE
I guess there's a balance there, I like to have some planning… Planning Planning
Hmm… where I push my boundaries, either physically or mentally, and again
where I've developed and I've learnt something Learning>Personal Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental
But as long as there is… there are sort of… you know… safety procedures in
place Planning Challenge>Risk_DangerYeah. OK. So a degree of control but…
Student G
Yeah.
CME
… not too… not too much.
Student G
Yeah, not too much. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control
If I get in a spot where it's completely out of control, I think, that's when you
get a lot of danger in it and risk management type things start coming in. So
what I think out of control the situation, you're not on top of it, that's … you
know… you're in too deep on an ice climb and you're above your skill level
or something like that or…
CME
Yeah
Student A
You end up merging with a river that's a class 6 and not gonna take an open
boat down that… So those are the kind degrees of out of control that I would
not be comfortable with. Adventure>Levels>Misadventure Challenge>Risk_DangerStudent B
When I think of adventure, I think of Enid Blyton and…
CME
Yeah.
Student B
… and think of that kind of adventure (laughs)… what I've been taught was
an adventure Imagination>Fantasy Adventure>Definition
… have to problem solve through… through some things… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Problem_solve
… It's this feeling of being on this cliff-face, which is kind of a… just an
unlikely place for humans to be… Place>Natural NewnessAnd I think you can have an adventure without an unforseen event
happening, but when they do happen it is a definite point for growth,
development and also in terms of memorable (laughs) experience. Adventure>Levels>Frontier Challenge>UncertaintyAnd I think you can have an adventure without an unforseen event
happening, but when they do happen it is a definite point for growth,
development and also in terms of memorable (laughs) experience. Adventure>Levels>Frontier Learning>Impactp y p y g
that border line between frontier adventure and misadventure.
PD
Yep, I would agree with that.
CME
Yeah, and that's an area, that's the area you would tend to search out.
PD
That's the area I was looking for, and that doesn't mean that I don't recognise
or understand the value of adventure which can come from (cough) …
stepping stones over a river, with your son, or fishing or anything in terms of
that level of activity. Adventure>Levels>Narrow_Escape Adventure>Levels>FrontierHmmm… yeah, so that was physical hardship, but also for me physical
hardship would be walking up Arthur's Seat and… but I don't know if I'd call
that an adventure though, it might have to be a sort of physical challenge and
something else. Challenge>Physical Adventure>Not_Adventureif you get to this state of being too scared…
Student C
Yeah…
CME
Does that stop it being an adventure at all. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Adventure>Not_Adventure EITHER
Because an adventure has to be fun I think.
CME
Yeah, OK.
Student C
And if you think you're going to die. If you seriously think you're going to
die, its…
CME
Yeah
Student C
It's not fun Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Adventure>DefinitionStudent D
No actual shadowing going on at all, on the actual walk…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… which I think in this day and age you probably wouldn't be able to do to
the same extent, hmm… Barriers BarriersStudent E
… you know, if you're leading something, you know as a teacher with kids or
whatever, again you have to really sort of knuckle down and make sure that
it… there is a sort of perceived risk but obviously there's no actual risk
involved otherwise… but hmm… but yeah you can, but hmm… again it's
very difficult sometimes to distinguish between a recreational adventure…
CME
Hmm…
Student E
… and sort of full-on, hardcore sort of thing, so… yeah it does… Adventure>Levels>Adventure People>As_Instructor
107
Well for example, if I was going to go camping somewhere unknown but it
didn't involve any challenge with map reading or physical challenge Adventure>Levels>Play Challenge>Definition
Yeah it was something different and challenging, walking up mountains and
we were walking in low visibility and the weather was disgusting Challenge>Conditions Newness
It was Easter, very cold Easter, lots of water, huge amounts of water, lots of
rain…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
Hmm… very high wind-chill as well. Snow, whiteout conditions in some
places.
CME
Right.
Student D
Real testing conditions that I can still remember, vividly now. Challenge>Conditions Challenge>ConditionsSo in that sense whether you're in control or out of control, or it goes to a
near miss, or something like that point of disaster it's still I would say on the
same par as a sunny day walking on the hill. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Controland it wouldn't be a given outcome, it wouldn't be an automatic "I will be
able to do this." It would be a sort of… perhaps, you know 70:30 split in that
I probably could get away with this but there's an element that I might not. Adventure>Levels>Frontier Challenge>Uncertaintyan amount of walking that I know's gonna make me feel tired (laughs)… just
an amount of walking that's challenging or an amount of climbing that…
that… Challenge>Physical>Effort Challenge>Physical>Effortan amount of walking that I know's gonna make me feel tired (laughs)… just
an amount of walking that's challenging or an amount of climbing that…
that… Challenge>Physical>Effort Challenge>Physical
would you describe it? How would you explain it?
Student C
Hmm… I suppose it's having to push yourself to… probably you've never
pushed yourself either that way before or that far before.
CME
Yeah
Student C
Hmmm… It's always interesting to see how you get on with things, and…
and how your body reacts to stuff…
CME
Yeah
Student C
Depending on whether it's a physical challenge or more mental. Challenge Challenge>Definition AGREE
I suppose it's having to push yourself to… probably you've never pushed
yourself either that way before or that far before. Challenge>Definition Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneEITHERStudent G
Hmm… (pause)… I guess it relates to the concept of effort, so on a daily
basis…
CME
Yeah.
Student G
… hmm… if I'm walking down the street, I don't feel challenged, I'm putting
in an… an amount of effort that just feels comfortable for me, whereas when
a challenge is presented, specifically a physical challenge, the amount of
effort I'm putting in both mentally and physical… and physically, you know,
it steps up a notch…
CME
Yeah.
Student G
… and it's you know if I… if I rate my walking down the street at a level
zero…
CME
Uhuh.
Student G
… then biking up a hill might be at a level 5 effort…
CME
Uhuh.
Student G Challenge>Physical>Effort Challenge>Physical>EffortErr… well. In ???… if the outcome's unknown then it's cha… it's something
challenging as in I might not be able to accomplish it then… then… yeah…
then risk's sort of get on with it… Challenge>Risk_Danger Challenge>UncertaintySo yeah it would be something where I'd have to think about something in a
sort of new way, basically. That's probably be the key ingredient I think for
the sort of challenge or even if I didn't have to think particularly in sort of a
new way to something that I'd done before and I was doing it again but it was
in a situation which wasn't familiar to me. Challenge Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneDISAGREE
Agree ML's
coding
… and (pause) you've never done it before or you're really pushing yourself,
then obviously I class that as more of an adventure… Adventure>Definition Challenge>PhysicalUhuh… yeah. And challenge is part of adventure for you?
Student G
Hmm… yeah, I think… whether it be mental or physical yeah… Challenge Challenge>Physical AGREEHmm… so you know there is adventure every year in all these activities but
unless… I see that as recreational adventure because uh… it's the same
activity and pretty much the same em… you know we go to the same spot… Adventure>Levels>Play Adventure>New_Labels… and I do feel really strongly about that, that sometimes… people only
associate adventures with these kind of 50:50 outcome things that are what I
would consider extreme adventures… Adventure>Levels>Frontier Adventure>Levels>FrontierStudent C
You know… I really had to go out on a limb and…
CME
Yeah
Student C
… speak up and make myself understood. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control Challenge>Independence
… and certainly they had never done it independently and it's got… it has
words onit like "on their own" and "independently"… Challenge>Independence Challenge>Independence
Student E
For… for the group it's… I'd say that's probably proper adventure, because…
CME
Yeah.
Student E
… they've never been there before, whereas I… I go every year… Adventure>Definition Newness>Place
108
Hmm… Yeah… the same… I don't know if I'd call it an adventure if I went
into a counselling group, and I was pushing those emotional boundaries. I
don't know if I'd call that an adventure. I think the physical element… Barriers Challenge>Physical
And we moved… and we did some real miles and some real ascent as well, it
was a lot of up and down, because we took in every peak, ever major peak… Challenge>Physical Challenge>PhysicalBecause I just don't think I could keep it up, the adrenalin like weekend after
weekend, but I know when I was doing my teaching job, I did want to go on
adventures, as I would call them, every weekend… like that Challenge>Excitement Adventure>Levels>Adventure
Because I just don't think I could keep it up, the adrenalin like weekend after
weekend, Challenge>Excitement Challenge>ExcitementStudent G
… processes, were I to see fear is it? Hmm… no, I don't think it's a
requirement for me when I talk about adventure, because I think I can be
challenged and not be fearful… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>FearBut in the third one, it was… I felt quite comfortable in the third situation. It
was more that if something sort of happened then I would be put in the sort of
situation that would be very dangerous and I wouldn't have been in control at
all. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control Challenge>Risk_Danger I suppose being on my own, that does make it more of an adventure. It was
certainly more of a… a challenge to decide "yeah, right, I'm going to do that"
and actually go out and buy the ticket. People>Solo People>Solo
and there's the risk of safety which is… which is hmm… something to look at
on… Challenge>Risk_Danger Challenge>Risk_Danger… so there's a side of physical fitness or the physical challenge where you
really have to push yourself physically, you know and it's hard work and the
sweat's streaming off you… Challenge>Physical Challenge>Physical>FitnessI like the fact that it's a continuum, because I think you can get some of the
same things… same benefits from erm… different levels of ad… of
adventure, so the way that he says that two and three really overlap, I would
really agree with. Adventure>Levels>Adventure Adventure>Definition AGREE
and depending on the situation there, sometimes there are sort of leaders or
instructors involved as well, if you're doing something a bit more technical. People>Instructor People>Instructor
Fitter than I've ever been probably… Challenge>Physical>Fitness Challenge>Physical>Fitness
Yeah we were reliant on each other and ourselves, yeah, ourselves as a group Challenge>Independence Challenge>Independence
I've described in terms of what adventure is for me in terms of pushing sort
of boundaries Adventure>Definition Challenge
with situations that you know they're not comfortable for whatever purpose
or reason Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone
there's more sort of… in your head anyway, there's more of a chance that
things could go wrong and so you've got that sort of fear factor starting and Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneAGREEStudent B
I prefer adventures with other people,
CME
Yeah
Student B
I like to share experineces. People>Sharing People>Sharing
… you know, "Oh gosh, we just fell" (laughs), it was a little overwhelming
but I mean… I've been a way more scared than that… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneEITHER
Hmm… you know if you've got mountains and big powerful rivers and that
sort of thing I think it all adds to the experience. Place>Natural Place>Natural
if you hear the word challenge what does it suggest to you straight away?
Student A
Challenge… I actually… probably very similar to adventure, so it's
something that's pushing you out of your… out of your zone of comfort and I
think that's an important thing that people…
CME
OK
Student A
So expeditions being the frame of the trip, challenge or adventure being the
piece of the trip that pushes you through and and you … you have to
overcome or gain a skill in to develop and…
CME
Gain a skill? That's quite interesting.
Student A Challenge>Definition Challenge>Definition
I think a lot of times, challenges involve in gaining skill.
CME
Yeah
Student A
Whether it's a soft skill or a hard skill depends on the trip, it depends on the
person, it depends on what the challenge manifests itself as, because I do
think challenge goes beyond being able to climbe up a rock. A lot of
people… equate just skills with challenge, so being in a boat and getting
through a set of rapids the way you're supposed to where learning that
technique or for climbing or leading or something like that but I think that
there are challenges that come in soft skills that people overlook and have
actually seen it quite a bit. Challenge>Definition Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Problem_solve
… so in my first few stages of doing adventure in the outdoors, I found
myself to be really reliant on the people who I was with in terms of hmm…
just depending on their experience and having them define their own
boundary… safety boundaries that define them for me…
CME
Yeah.
Student G
… hmm… but I find more and more, the more trips that I'm doing, and the
more adventurous I mean I'm finding myself to be way more reliant on my
own judgement… Challenge>Independence Challenge>IndependenceStudent B
Hmmm…Yeah, quite important, as I said I've never had an adventure sitting
on the beach.
CME
Yeah
Student B
Or… shopping in town. Adventure>Definition Adventure>Not_Adventure AGREE
109
… for me feeling confident and… both physically and mentally in
approaching an adventure… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Learning>Personal
Hmm… I think in terms of… I think your brain starts to go into overdrive as
to you know what could potentially go wrong. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Imagine_Negative… they're not always sure of it but you kind of sort of say "Look this is going
to be hard and it's not going to be hard physically, it's going to be hard
mentally… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental… they're not always sure of it but you kind of sort of say "Look this is going
to be hard and it's not going to be hard physically, it's going to be hard
mentally… Challenge>Physical>Effort Challenge>Physical
I would go to the mountains… Place>Location Place>Remote AGREE
I would go to the mountains… Place>Location Place>Natural AGREESo are you talking about fear?
Student A
(pause) Aaah… inhibition rather than fear.
CME
Inhibition? OK
Student A
I think overcoming your, your perceived concept of what you can and can't
do, So redefining your personal boundaries. Learning>Personal Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Fear
how well you know you work… how you got on compared to other people
and you know how you were within the group and that sort of thing. People>Sharing Learning>OthersStudent B
Umm… yeah I think so. Like I could be walking up the same path that we
did in the Cairngorms and it wouldn't be new but…
CME
Yeah,
Student B
… In snow it would be completely different, or … even in the same weather
conditions something else could go wrong. Newness>Not_New Newness
…you know, if you're not… if there's no adrenaline or you know there's no
apprehension then there's something wrong. Challenge>Excitement Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Fear
or me it would be related to this sort of fear or danger or risks and there
would be something maybe Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Risk_DangerYeah. And I always knew how long you were going to walk for, the… or if
we hadn't decided, we would be part of the decision whether we were going
to carry on or not. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>PlanningStudent G
nerr… I just find sharing the experience with somebody else and…
CME
Hmm.
Student G
… just being able to communicate what… what I'm experiencing and hearing
from somebody else what they're experiencing really adds to the adventure. People>Sharing People>SharingStudent G
Hmm… For safety reasons… it's pretty big…
CME
Yeah.
Student G
… (laughs) err… and I just think it's generally more fun. Challenge>Risk_Danger Reason>Fun
Getting blown off the edge. Place>Remote Challenge>Conditionsand we'd be very adventurous. Hmm… I suppose, yeah, now I…
imagination for me is a big part of adventure. Like up in the Cairngorms, I
was thinking about "what could live in that loch" when I was getting my
water Imagination Imagination(Pause)… errr… I think sometimes in big groups with friends then it's… it
hasn't… it's been more like… and it's partly because of this loss of… of
understanding where it's going and loss of control of it in a large group… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Control People>PeerOne thing that just strikes me while you re talking is a lot of the time you re
talking about adventure, you're talking about adventures that you're managing
for other people.
Student A
Yeah.
CME
What about the ones that are purely for you?
Student A
Oh those are just fun! (Laughs) People>As_Instuctor Reason>Fun
… of the experience are running away and I don't have an understanding of
the risks.So I think that my best ones have been in pairs or… People>Sharing Challenge>Risk_Danger
the more I go to the same place, probably the hmm… I probably find it less
and less to be an adventure err… Newness>Not_New Newness>Not_NewBut the challenge for me, I mean the adventure for me, when I go on a
personal trip that's entirely about me, is more into the physical, the skill side,
developing that because I don't find much challenge and I know that I can
adapt to a lot of the other stuff that participants, or new people to the area
haven't… So for me, it definitely comes in in skills and they just tend to be a
lot more fun Reason>Skills Reason>SkillsWhereas as a kid, you know you want it to be risky, you know, because that's
what attracts most people is the thought "Oh, you know, I might sort of slip
or whatever…" Challenge>Definition Challenge>Risk_Danger AGREE
With us. He was just looking after his family and trying to help us to have
enjoyable experiences. People>Instructor Reason>FunAnd me and a particular person I'll call up if who I want to come … is also
looking to escape that, just take off and cut loose, so you can be out with just
you and no responsibilities and no dates set or anything like that. Reason>Escape People>PeerStudent G
… I'm sure I'd probably if I was with new people and they'd never been there,
I'd probably end up taking more of a leadership role, just based on my
experience and the context of the place…
CME
Yeah.
Student G
Yeah, it would still provide an adventure for sure…
CME
Yeah. OK.
Student G
… Just due to the challenge it would still present in terms of the physical
push, just because I'd been through along the St Lawrence biking…
CME
Yeah, yeah.
Student G Challenge>Physical Newness
110
It was just, we just called it errm… adventure training and it was part of
the… I was a member of the Combined Cadet Force at… Adventure>Definition Reason>EducationOtherwise I don't really class it as an adventure, if I'm not pushing myself and
if I'm not, you know, if at the end of the day I'm not looking back up the
mountain going, (sharp intake of breath) "Whoa, that was… there were some
moments there James, you know you need to be careful, otherwise… you
know, etc etc… then… Adventure>Definition Challenge>Physical>Effort
Self-reliance is freedom! Challenge>Independence Challenge>Independence
for it to be wild and not to see many people, it's really important. Place>Natural Place>Remote
for it to be wild and not to see many people, it's really important. Place>Natural
I mean there are some adventures where, due to what you're doing, you can't
push yourself as you would do in other adventures Barriers ChallengeStudent D
Yeah. But it was recreational as you would imagine it for a 15 year old
public school boy who…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… played a lot of rugby and wanted to do something away for the holidays,
not sit at home sometimes… Adventure>Levels>Play Reason>Fun
I… because I do a lot of solo stuff, I have to be very self-reliant because I
find it very hard to trust other people… People>Solo Challenge>Independence EITHERIs that how you see adventure… as a journey?
Student C
I think so. I think there's definitely a kind of hmm… (pause) what's the word,
not progression but aah… you know… I'll go into it at the beginning having
no idea you know what's going to happen and then you know you'll go
through whatever it is that you're doing and then you'll come out at the end
and I'll think "Wow! I did all that and what have I gained from it and…?" Learning>Personal>Reflection Adventure>Definition Because I think adventure, even though I said initially you need to have sort
of fear or danger or hazard or risks in it, You can still have an adventure
experience at any point I believe in the life or in a day, they don't have to be
planned and you know the example of sort of stepping stones. Adventure>Definition Adventure>DefinitionBut, err… I feel that I don t… I m sort of past that point now of sitting there
and reflecting, I'm not… I've had the time to really be comfortable and
confident, sorry…
Student A
But the idea of solos, though, I think it is very important to people… going
down the adventure road, and in terms of growth and development… and
especially to myself it's important that it happens at some point, I do think
that for me right now it's not important, aaah… I actually don't really like
them. (Laughs). People>Solo Learning>Personal>Reflection
Yeah, you've got to be in the stretch zone, you can't be in comfort because
you won't learn in comfort. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneYeah (both laugh). Hmm… Yeah, you know, I might imagine… I might
think about consequences I guess… if I quickly turn my bike into this car
what would happen? But it's not a prevailing thought process that happens
for me. I tend to… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Imagine_Negative
nd I would definitely class that as an adventure, I mean it was fun, Adventure>Definition Reason>Fun
Well I enjoy the peace and definitely have benefitted from that solo, think
about it, reflect, all that kind of stuff but personally, you know, I've got a little
touch of the ADD and sometimes go a little mental after four days. (Laughs). People>Solo People>SoloI think it could be, it might not have hmm… (pause)… the strength of the
memory might not be as prominent but I've had many day things that I've
done in a day… in a day that I've found to be quite adventuresome or… Time>Short Learning>Impact
… because you then step… you then move up out of the comfort zone into a
more challenging stretch zone, where you're being stretched… Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone
Hmm… sort of… I would say probably 85% of the time I'll be on my own,
hmm People>Solo People>Solo
you know for me, the only true learning would be then when I was in that
situation by myself Learning>Personal People>Solo
you know for me, the only true learning would be then when I was in that
situation by myself Learning>Personal
And the skydive was just a one off burst of adrenaline and then it was
finished. Challenge>Excitement Time>Short
And the skydive was just a one off burst of adrenaline and then it was
finished. Challenge>Excitement
I think that… I mean they're a really central part of my life. Learning>ImpactStudent G
… hmm… and then from… from a more… concrete… or less personal, just
learning about bike maintenance or you know, or…
CME
So sort of skills?
Student G
Skill-based stuff or you know doing the trip in the Andes… Reason>Skills Learning>Skill AGREEp
Student C
I suppose not, no. Not really, no.
CME
No.
Student C
No… assuming there is a point like to have fun or something like that but …
CME
OK.
Student C
… there doesn't have to be a specific "I'm doing this because…" I don't think Adventure>Definition Reason>FunThere was a completely sort of free abseil sort of down it and you know this
rock came down and hit my friend and hmm you know we had to sort of
climb out basically. Activity>Activity Adventure>Levels>Misadventure
You might be going somewhere new. Newness Newness>Place EITHER
Student D
Err… (laughs)… what happens physic… physicologically? Hmm… my
heart rate goes through the roof…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
…my… I can feel the adrenalin…
CME
Uhuh.
Student D
…errm… I don't sleep very well that night afterwards…
CME
Yes, you said that (laughs)
Student D
I… yeah… my pulse doesn't drop after I come off the water or done Challenge>Excitement Challenge>Excitement
111
… you know we'd play soldiers, you know… you know what it's like, you
run around you know with your rucksack on pretending you're both soldiers
so running around sort of thing so that was good… Imagination>Fantasy Imagination>Fantasy
their parents wanted them to have a truly wild experience by themselves. Reason>External Challenge>Independence
it's hmm… it's pushing yourself to the limit of what you can physically do Challenge>Physical Challenge>PhysicalIs there a point at which it stops being stretch zone and becomes panic?
Student D
It's… you tend… I tend not to get into the … to become… if I'm in… if I'm
afraid…
CME
Uhuh.
Student D
… then I'm really into the panic mode and then the learning doesn't take
place… it's not really adventurous anymore, it's just bloody stupid! Adventure>Levels>Misadventure Adventure>Levels>Misadventure
And so that is definitely when I'm having adventures rather than just going
for a walk in the park. Adventure>Definition Adventure>Not_Adventure
DOES NOT
FEATURE
AS CODE?
Codes
mergedIn… apart from the out… outdoor centre like all the Duke of Edinburgh stuff
is in like a mountain setting sort of thing, hmm… I think you know where
there's a landscape and where there's a view etc etc, hmm… Place>Natural Place>Remote
… and I'm having to use all the skills I have…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… all the awareness I've got of the situation, and my senses are really sharp,
because you're coping with it, but you know you're coping with it…
CME
Uhuh.
Student D
… because you've got the skill and because you've had the experience… Reason>Skills Adventure>Levels>Frontiersome of the scenery and some of the things I've seen, but yeah I think err…
you know certainly the landscape and the mountain region certainly does it
for me Place>Natural Place>NaturalStudent D
The fear is that… Yeah…
CME
We might get… it might get…
Student D
It might get worse.… it might … you might not be able to see the hand in
front of your face instead of the guy in front of you…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… and just the guy in front of you and err… you know the fear is that it could
really close in could get ten times colder and…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
…and… and err… you know that you might get lost.
CME
Yeah. Ok
Student D Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Feary , y g g g , y
you automatically looking to do something new?
Student A
No.
CME
No.
Student A
(Pause)… but then I probably wouldn't call it an adventure (laughs)\
CME Right
Student A
So there is maybe an element of newness in adventure. Newness NewnessYou know, so … I think it's also played a big role (laughs) imagination comes
in on something ????? I laugh because you look at repairs to gear on trip or
modifications that need to be made for people to get out there and that's a
very imaginative process and sometimes when you're out there (laughs) and
you've probably had it, something goes on your bag or something goes on
your boat, you've gotta get pretty damned creative. (Laughs) Imagination ImaginationIf there was no newness in an… in an experience would it feel as as
adventurous for you?
Student E
No, not at all no. Newness Newness
So… and again imagination comes into that, I learn that quite a bit about
myself. I've learned a lot about family, my relationship in reflection… Learning>Personal>Reflection Learning>Personal AGREE
it may be… maybe one or the other but it might not be both, it might be just a
mental hmm… effort. Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental
One of the things I have discovered is that Nature is a huge source for faith
and belief maybe that's why I escape there. Place>Natural Reason>Escape
Self-reliance, right, yes… certainly all the work I've done soloing…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
Hmm… I wouldn't push myself as much as I would do in the team…
CME
Right.
Student D
… mainly because it's a lot more dangerous when you're doing it on your
own, aah… and you don't tend to push yourself because you know if you're in
a team you know you can push yourself a lot more, because you've got the
team to rely on. People>Solo Challenge>Risk_Danger
Student F
Yeah. And I suppose I do associate the extreme adventures with fear…
CME
Yeah.
Student F
… as an over-riding thing rather than satisfaction or…
CME
Yeah.
Student F
… everything coming together as you're…
CME
And I… yeah, go on.
Student F
… but then I don't know whether I'm hmm… defining them in the same way Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Fear
112
Student E
… I learn somethng new, whether it's about plant life or animals or…
CME
Yeah.
Student E
… landscape Learning>Nature Learning>Nature
hmm… yeah there are other adventures I've done solo…
CME
Uhuh.
Student D
… which are different, they're still adventures…
CME
Yeah. How are they different?
Student D
… but they're personal experiences…
CME
Right.
Student D
… rather than shared experiences… People>Solo People>SoloYeah, so you… quite a bit of driving in between stations and then, I'd say it
was circuit adventure maybe, you go around the training stations and learn a
little adventure. Adventure>Definition Adventure>New_LabelsStudent E
… and you kind of forget that what you might have done ten years ago or 15
years ago…
CME
Yeah.
Student E
… you know, when you could do that with kids because there wasn't so… it
wasn't so strict as it is now: Barriers Barriers
… until I wrote that, I thought that the more technical challenging expedition
that I did two years later in 2001…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
was more of an adventure. It wasn't.
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… because it wasn't new, because I'd been there before… Newness>Not_New Newness>Not_New
… until I wrote that, I thought that the more technical challenging expedition
that I did two years later in 2001…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
was more of an adventure. It wasn't.
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… because it wasn't new, because I'd been there before… Newness>Not_New Adventure>Not_AdventureStudent E
… the fact that obviously the instructor kind of knew well… there was some
risk in it but they managed that risk or whatever…
CME
Or they made an assessment?
Student E
… or they'd made an assessment of me or they thought "He looks like he can
handle that…" People>Instructor Challenge>Risk_Danger… and for a… particularly what I would… wanted to put in there was
adventures of solo travelling in another country that weren't necessarily
outdoor hmm… although I… I would always spend a lot of time on my
holidays out of doors… People>Solo Activity>Travel… I'd never met anybody on the team before, I wasn't as good a kayaker then
err… I'd never seen the volume of river like that before and it was a total
challenge. Activity>Activity Newness
on a coasteering thing Activity>Activity Activity>ActivityHuge adventure. And that impacted on my life and that's how I really defined
these adventures is because they have… they've had a changing experience in
my life… Learning>Impact Learning>PersonalStudent D
The first one I went to Nepal in 1999 and did the Tomor, that really changed
me, and it took me, I remember coming back and my boss saying…
CME
Uhuh.
Student D
"Hi, welcome back, take a couple of weeks just to readjust" and I went "No,
I'm fine". It wasn't until that evening that I realised that I was totally, you
know, still out there. (Laughs) Rites_of_Passage Learning>Impact
See… and that really fits with the other stuff, even though… it could be
exploring and partly in a city as well. Activity>Living_Outdoors Newness>Place
(Pause)… It's gotta be relatively novel I think…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… because, as I said if I went back to the same place again…
CME
It wouldn't do the same.
Student D
It's not the same, the same again. It's an adventure maybe, if the challenge is
there, then it probably makes it adventurous again… Newness NewnessStudent D
… hmm… I've drowned a lot of times…
CME
Right.
Student D
… you know, they say you fall out of a building or something, you never hit
the ground, when you dream about drowning, you actually drown (laughs)…
it's not… well… pretty much… pretty much err… there…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… hmm… it's pretty sc… that is scary, actually that's probably the worst…
CME
Some… sorry…
Student D
… thing about imagination… I don't think about it too much afterwards, Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_Zone>Mental>Challenge>Out_Of_Comfort_ZoneAGREE
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… so… I feel like there's so much of your personality gets built up and added
onto by people around you and the situations that you're in and you could
kind of strip it down a bit, when you're in these kind of situations and
remember what's important and feel a bit better about myself I suppose as
well… Learning Learning>Personal AGREE
I learn about other people… Learning>Others Learning>Others
I'd say my adventures that I've had since the age of … I don't know… they
started when I was about twelve…
CME
Right.
Student D
… err… have had a large impact on me as a person…
CME
Yeah.
Student D
… than any other part of… any other experience I've had in my life in terms
of playing rugby or family life… Learning>Impact Learning>Impact
It's the chance to… it's a significant thing that you can then reflect on over
time and learn from… Learning>Personal>Reflection Learning>Personal>Reflection
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Appendix C: Selected Data
The following is a selection of the more significant units of data from my research,
which supplements those used in my presentation of findings.
Challenge
PD (male)
I've described in terms of what adventure is for me in terms of pushing sort of boundaries…
Physical Challenge and Effort
Student D (male)
… it's hmm… it's pushing yourself to the limit of what you can physically do… Student E (male)
… pushing myself through personal boundaries such as blistered feet, sore body…
Student F (female) CME: So, in terms of physical challenge, what are you talking about. Just because it was hard or…?
Student F: Hmm… In that… err… an amount of walking that I know's gonna make me feel tired (laughs)… just an amount of walking that's challenging or an amount of climbing that… that…
Student F (female)
Yeah, so coming back from weekend adventures, I'd expect part of the fun of
it is Monday morning, aching arms, could hardly lift the chalk to write on the blackboard (laughs) that was… yeah… You could definitely feel that you've been challenged physically, yeah.
Student G (female) I really wanted to go on a bike trip, where my physical endurance would be
challenged…
Fitness
Student D (male)
CME: That's interesting… is that… is that… that… so that being physically fit, was that part of what made it an adventure? Student D: It made it an adventure… it probably, yes because the fact that we
were fit meant that we were able to challenge ourselves more to take on greater feats.
115
Student D (male)
We weren't… if we weren't as fit we wouldn't have been able to errm… even attempt to think about doing that sort of distance and those sort of heights…
Student D (male)
… over that period of time. I mean we were hmm… and it wasn't just walking, we were moving… Errm… very similar to the way we do now, in terms of tabbing, everything downhill or on the flat we ran, and everything
on… uphill we walked fast, but we did do some parts of it that were less hairy, when the weather calmed down we did run a bit.
Student E (male)
You know people talk about being mountain fit and not mountain fit and you can be really fit in the gym, but put a b… a rucksack on and go for a walk up in the Brecon Beacons or whatever… and you can struggle… Out of comfort zone
Student E (male)
… so there's a side of physical fitness or the physical challenge where you really have to push yourself physically, you know and it's hard work and the sweat's streaming off you…
Student G (female)
The more I biked the stronger I became. What a positive feedback situation. This response was really significant for me.
Out of Comfort Zone
PD (male)
Challenge would be, for me, a situation where I wasn't fully comfortable with, I wasn't sort of 100 per cent happy that I could always achieve the outcome or it would be done in an almost comfortable sort of way, so it would be something I would have to work very hard at, and it wouldn't be a given outcome, it wouldn't be an automatic "I will be able to do this." It would be a
sort of… perhaps, you know 70:30 split in that I probably could get away with this but there's an element that I might not. So that would be challenge for me.
Student A (female)
If I get in a spot where it's completely out of control, I think, that's when you get a lot of danger in it and risk management type things start coming in. So what I think out of control the situation, you're not on top of it, that's … you know… you're in too deep on an ice climb and you're above your skill level or
something like that or… You end up merging with a river that's a class 6 and
116
not gonna take an open boat down that… So those are the kind degrees of out of control that I would not be comfortable with.
Student C (female)
The experience was challenging as I had to learn to rely entirely on my self,
live out of a backpack and carry it with me all the time, get used to not being as clean as when I'm at home and basically just learn to be a bit streetwise.
Student D (male)
… because I work on the principle that we work on in the military in terms of adventure training, you only learn when you're in the stretch mode, comfort zone…
Student D (male)
CME: OK. I'm… so you…you don't think it's possible to learn in… when you're in the comfort zone? Student D: It's probably possible to learn, but it's not as effective.
Student E (male)
… and I think this idea of being out of your comfort zone and pushing yourself that little bit harder than just going for a walk round the park with the dog or…
Student E (male)
It's like when you check your gear, you know, as you're checking your…
your… you know your abseil gear, your belay gear, if you're not panicking… well not panicking, that's maybe the wrong word, but if you're not… you know, if you don't have the butterflies in your stomach… then it's more likely that you're going to make a mistake and you're not going to clip on properly,
whereas if you're a bit like (sharp intake of breath) you know, pumping but it's not because you're scared it's just because the adrenaline is starting to flow and hmm… hmm… there… there's that slight fear until you sort of go over the edge and then you start… you start going down, so I think…
Mental
Student B (female)
I'm one of these people who always says… I always put my… I always say "Oh I can't do that" just in case I don't do it. And then I don't have to feel like I failed. (Laughs) So I can't do a lot of things so there's a lot of mental boundaries with everything for me.
Student G (female)
Hmm… I guess believing in myself that I can work through something… that I
can work through the challenge… hmm (pause)… hmm… try to figure out my own limitations of what I'm doing so if I'm starting to feel slightly unsafe do I feel OK in this environment… and at which point do I say "No, this isn't OK for me anymore" and communicate that to the people that I'm with… or to myself… and just be honest with myself.
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Fear
PD (male)
The experience was very frightening and put me in a situation where I honestly believed I would not survive.
PD (male)
I think there has to be an element, whether it's quite sort of small or very large, In the two accounts I gave, large fear was a major ingredient, but I think there needs to be that, almost that edge of sort of you know to give you fear of something…
Student A (female)
CME: So are you talking about fear?
Student A: (pause) Aaah… inhibition rather than fear. CME: Inhibition? OK Student A: I think overcoming your, your perceived concept of what you can and can't do, So redefining your personal boundaries.
Student E (male)
Fear is your friend in a sense that you know… you know you can do it, you know, if you do feel frightened, it's like people who… who… who when they
abseil of 150 foot cliff wall or whatever…you know, if you're not… if there's no adrenaline or you know there's no apprehension then there's something wrong.
Student F (female)
Yeah. And I suppose I do associate the extreme adventures with fear… as an over-riding thing rather than satisfaction.
Student G (female)
… processes, were I to see fear is it? Hmm… no, I don't think it's a requirement for me when I talk about adventure, because I think I can be
challenged and not be fearful…
Independence
PD (male)
… people would come from all over Europe to do a course at OB in Fort William rather than do it on the other, far more attractive OB situations, throughout the sort of world, and one of the main reasons was because their
parents wanted them to have a truly wild experience by themselves. Student A (female)
Self-reliance is freedom! Student A (female)
It's the freedom of not being dependent on anyone, anyone or anything. Knowing that you've got , you can stop, start wherever you want, you can choose what ever path you want and particularly is how I go on my personal
118
trips, but even if I was leading it, it' absolute freedom. You don't have… you know, I don't wear a watch ever, even when I'm working so I've gotten out of
that completely but it's for a lot of people it'd be equating to that sense of timelessness and just being free to wander and to get back to where your grass roots I guess. It's the most simplest form. And simple to me is… that's where your freedom is.
Student C (female)
I suppose being on my own, that does make it more of an adventure. It was certainly more of a… a challenge to decide "yeah, right, I'm going to do that"
and actually go out and buy the ticket. Student F (female)
CME: self-reliance. How important is that in your adventures? Student F: Really important. And to the point where, yeah, I've got… I'd like to explore it a bit more but I can't quite understand why some of my, what might be called adventure experiences, I don't see as adventures, and the only thing I can think of is that they weren't self reliant because… all of the ones
that I've put on here as good examples, I feel like I was… self-reliant or self-reliant as a pair…
Student G (female)
… so I felt… I still deem that day to be quite adventurous…hmm… but I… not because I was depending on my own skill or… I would have felt quite comfortable and called it an adventure even though I was relying on
somebody else.
Risk or Danger
Student C (female)
That was… you're like you're falling, you're freefalling so you're not in control but I know I've got a parachute on my back and I know the guy that's with me's going to pull that cord and I know that I'm not going to hurtle to my death…
Student D (male)
During conversation after recording stopped, interviewee explained that in his
role in the army it was specified that any activity or adventure should present significant risk to life and limb for participants.
Student E (male)
Whereas as a kid, you know you want it to be risky, you know, because that's what attracts most people is the thought “Oh, you know, I might sort of slip or whatever…”
Conditions
PD (male)
119
… adventures always seemed to be themed around somewhere very remote or maybe very difficult sort of weather…
Student A (female)
And especially being where I'm from we have, and here as well, there's quite
extreme… weather is a big dictator of the experience and to see if you can come out. I hate going outside but by the end can handle being in pouring rain for ten days. They learn something about themselves there, whether or not you intended it or not, but that's something they move through.
Student B (female)
Yeah it was something different and challenging, walking up mountains and we were walking in low visibility and the weather was disgusting
Student D (male)
As a resu… this… that was one reason it was an adventure, the other reason it
was adventure was, I believe, because errm… of the conditions. Student D (male)
It was Easter, very cold Easter, lots of water, huge amounts of water, lots of rain… Hmm… very high wind-chill as well. Snow, whiteout conditions in some places. Real testing conditions that I can still remember, vividly now.
Student E (male)
Due to the time of the year and the elements, the whole experience was challenging due to the fact that everything was all new to us, we had never
really done anything like this before and we were in another environment.
Uncertainty
PD (male)
And at one point, you know they were adventures where I had no idea the adventure was about to you know come round the corner.
Student A (female)
And I think you can have an adventure without an unforeseen event happening, but when they do happen it is a definite point for growth, development and also in terms of memorable (laughs) experience.
Student E (male)
For me I like doing things where I'm not sure that the whole outcome… Student F (female)
Hmm, yes… it's… I suppose that's the bit about the unknown, going
somewhere… adventure for me usually means somewhere that I haven't been before…
Student G (female)
It felt like an adventure because we knew our starting point and our final destination, but day-by-day had to make choices to help us get there.
Student G (female)
120
So I knew that, but what I didn't know was how I was going to feel everyday, what the environment was going to look like, where we were going to stop
that night, you know, and eventually we started figuring it out but it was… we just… we didn't know, and that was OK because we were going on a month long expedition and adventure…
Excitement
Student B (female)
CME: When you say exciting, what do you mean, what makes something
exciting? Student B: Different, so not something day-to-day
Student C (female)
And the skydive was just a one off burst of adrenaline and then it was finished. Student D (male)
The first night I had problems sleeping due to the adrenaline in my system. Student E (male)
… in a s… in a weird way that's what excites me more about the whole experience and the whole adventure thing, is that "Wow! You know if I wasn't careful, you know, that might not have been it and…"
Student F (female)
So it's not… it doesn't have to be extreme for me at all in fact, I'm not much of an adrenalin junkie or anything…
Learning
Personal
PD (male) … you know for me, the only true learning would be then when I was in that situation by myself…
Student B (female)
It gave me something to believe in. (pause) Because I think that's a difficult time when you come out of uni, everyone's expecting you to be someone and you're like "I don't… I could be anyone, who should I be?"
Student C (female)
The experience was significant as I had a number of realisations about myself
and my life due to the amount of alone time I had for reflection. Student D (male)
121
It changed my outlook on life, but this was not apparent until I returned. It took some time to re-adjust to life back home in England. I still go back there
in my mind. Student E (male)
Yeah, I mean, certainly I mean it… it has led me on a direction that I've wanted to go, you know, the whole outdoor thing… and I think that sort of stems from my experiences at Sealyham and DofE, I just love being outside and…
Student F (female)
Hmm… definitely hmm… a kind of self-confidence that I would say is quite deep… not a… a… not particularly to do with relating to other people and
things but just a sort of calmness and stuff, self-reliance… Student G (female)
Hmm… well from… firstly from a personal perspective I learn what I'm capable of doing or what I'm not capable of doing…
Student F (female)
Hmm… I think I'm… I feel like I'm really me when I'm… … I feel like there's a lot of distractions in urban life… and err… and in sort of… in working life and things… that make you behave in certain ways, responding to stuff… rather than just being… and erm… when I'm having an
adventure I'm in control of in some way then … I don't know I just feel like I'm responding in a more natural way and… or that I'm taking on things when I want to… rather than just kind of juggling in… with mundane stuff… and I do feel that normal life is more mundane and more… and frustrating and
sometimes just you know…Yeah… I'm trying not to lose sight of important stuff I think like I remember important things again.
Impact
PD (male) … snow-hole experience is one of many that were a milestone in my experiences working/living in outdoors during eight years of instructional experiences.
Student D (male)
Huge adventure. And that impacted on my life and that's how I really
defined these adventures is because they have… they've had a changing experience in my life…
Student D (male)
I'd grown up. As much as you can at the age of 30, or whatever it is… Student E (male)
… you look back ten years later and you think “you know what that really changed me, or that really shaped the way I think or the way I look at things…”
Student F (female)
122
… because of doing the… having these adventure experiences, then my life was changed a lot as well… I think that… I mean they're a really central part
of my life… And the absence of them for a… or… or not doing so much of them for a few years… well, really affected… my life.
Newness
PD (male)
… also the snowholing itself was relatively sort of new, and I hadn't really done much of that at all basically, in fact that was the purpose in some ways of the trip, just to try and tick it, just to see what it was like for yourself…
PD (male)
So yeah it would be something where I'd have to think about something in a sort of new way, basically. That's probably be the key ingredient I think for the sort of challenge or even if I didn't have to think particularly in sort of a
new way to something that I'd done before and I was doing it again but it was in a situation which wasn't familiar to me.
PD (male)
… doing something that they're not familiar with, I think is very important. Student A (female)
CME: If you're, if you're thinking of going out to have an adventure, are you… are you automatically looking to do something new? Student A: No. CME: No.
Student A: (Pause)… but then I probably wouldn't call it an adventure (laughs) CME: Right Student A: So there is maybe an element of newness in adventure.
Student B (female)
Yeah, I don't think Snowden would be such an adventure now I've been up there before…
Student C (female)
I think that it was an adventure because I was experiencing something
completely new. Student D (male)
… if it's novel it makes it all the more important… Student E (male)
CME: If there was no newness in an… in an experience would it feel as adventurous for you? Student E: No, not at all no.
Student G (female)
The amount of fun, the novelty of the mode of travel and being in a new environment made it seem like a true adventure.
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Place
Student F (female)
… the places we visited were new to me… Student F (female)
Exploring - sense of being somewhere people don't usually go. Student F (female)
… adventure for me usually means somewhere that I haven't been before… or a route that I haven't been on, obviously not unexplored land (laughs)…
Student G (female)
… the more I go to the same place, probably the hmm… I probably find it less
and less to be an adventure err…
Place
Natural
Student A (female) Aaah… I love rivers and lakes, so for me it's probably going to take place on water.
Student A (female)
And that's for me an adventure would probably would have to be a lot of backcountry…
Student B (female)
I would go to the mountains… oh, yeah, somewhere natural and wildernessy. Student C (female)
Hmm… you know if you've got mountains and big powerful rivers and that sort of thing I think it all adds to the experience.
Student C (female)
I think, you know, when you're out in the middle of nowhere and you've got
your big mountains and… you can… you know… it makes you feel… it makes you realise that you're… you're just this insignificant little…
Student E (male)
… some of the scenery and some of the things I've seen, but yeah I think err… you know certainly the landscape and the mountain region certainly does it for me…
Student F (female)
Loved the mountain scenery, and the feeling when out in the open, in
magnificent places, feeling the power of the weather. No man-made sounds.
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Remote
PD (male)
A sense of adventure? – comes from being in a snowhole, in a remote setting, poking your head out into the darkness (from complete stillness into wild
weather) and knowing that you are relatively speaking alone in a wild place. Student D (male)
We had to fly to the east of the country and then take a bus for 24 hrs before we ran out of road then walked for three days before getting on the river, very remote under the third highest mountain in the world.
Student D (male)
CME: How important is the setting of these experiences. How much is that part of the adventure. Student D: Yeah, I think that's quite a big… big one hmm… (pause)… it's
gotta be remote… maybe not geographically remote… but removed from the majority of civilisation… so it doesn't have to be thousands and thousands of miles away, it could be just jump in a boat on the coast of Wales and paddle two miles round the coast and there's no-one there.
Student F (female)
…for it to be wild and not to see many people, it's really important.
People
Peer
Student A (female)
So, well I … I like sharing the experience too, I like to be stood at the top and have somebody else be like, you know, " I saw this with you" and… and … in terms of friends, I guess, one of the times that we get to escape and actually
just hang out and sort of you know a quick coffee stop here and there, it's … I don't know, relationships become a lot more important out there stuff like that so…
Student B (female)
I prefer adventures with other people…I like to share experiences. Student D (male)
Well if I was in a group, I'd have talked to people during the experience, before the experience, during it and afterwards…
Student G (female)
I just find sharing the experience with somebody else and… just being able to
communicate what… what I'm experiencing and hearing from somebody else what they're experiencing really adds to the adventure.
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Reason
Fun
PD (male)
… and I would definitely class that as an adventure, I mean it was fun, Student A (female)
if you're going to stay in the outdoor ed world and it's going to be effective in a certain realm, then there's gotta be fun involved and people don't talk about
that piece as much, it's kind of innate and understood that you're gonna have fun when you go and play outside
C (female)
CME: Does there need to be a point for an adventure? Student C: I suppose not, no. Not really, no. CME: No. Student C: No… assuming there is a point like to have fun or something like
that but … Student F (female)
With us. He was just looking after his family and trying to help us to have enjoyable experiences.
Student G (female) The experience was significant because it was my first outdoor journey and I just remember how much fun I had. The amount of fun…
Influences
Army
Student E (male) … completing the Award with my brother was also cool because we use to treat them like an “Army ” adventure. In fact we both later on in life joined
the TA ’s for four years each due to this fact. Student E (male)
… you know we'd play soldiers, you know… you know what it's like, you run around you know with your rucksack on pretending you're both soldiers so running around sort of thing so that was good…