western civilization i his-101 unit 1 – origins of western civilizations (prehistory to 1700 bce)
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Western Civilization IHIS-101
UNIT 1 – Origins of Western Civilizations (Prehistory to 1700 BCE)
Stone Age Background “Pre-History” started roughly 3-4 million years ago Early man and archeological evidence
Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years ago Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago - 8,000
BCE) Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago)
Deliberately buried their dead Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago)
Possibility of abstract thought Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE)
Homo sapiens sapiens Finely crafted tools Cave paintings at Lascaux
Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux
Upper Paleolithic Age Period of the “Ice Age”
Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around 60˚F in the summer and 30˚F in the winter
There was a jump in human advancement Sophisticated figurative artwork Evidence of religious beliefs More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing
needles, and arrowheads Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies
Small bands of people, constantly moving in search of food
Paleolithic or “Old Stone Age” Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies:
They lacked material wealth There were no societal hierarchies All were hunters and gatherers Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation There was a lack of specialization
By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds left the Near East region The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild
grains to grow
Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE)
Intense social and technological development Development of managed food production
(agriculture) Included the domestication of plants and animals Gradual process with revolutionary consequences In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent Surplus food and storage
This lead to an increase in population Also lead to development of animal domestication
Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent
settlements This led to the rise of villages and small cities This helped to stabilize society
There was the rapid intensification of trade Exchange of commodities and new ideas Increase in wealth
Social stratification Rise of a new class of social elites
There was also the rise of specialization Included the rise of priestly class
Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in Switzerland
Civilization Civilization:
A complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements
Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE Historians disagree as to why it came about
Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China
“Challenge and Response” theory Challenges forced human beings to make the necessary
efforts that led to the rise of civilization This could be due to material forces surpluses such as food Or it could be due to non-material forces such as religion
Civilization Characteristics of civilization:
Development of agricultural skills Rise of specialization A division of labor Urban revolution New political structures including government
bureaucracies and militaries Distinct religious structures Advanced technical skills were developed,
including the use of bronze tools Complex economies, including long-distance trade New social structures based on economic power Development of writing
Civilization in Mesopotamia Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys
Desert region River flood enriches the soil near the rivers Flooding was very unpredictable Development of irrigation systems
Governments were theocracies Priests and priestesses had great power Temples owned much of the city land and livestock Over time, they had to share their power with kings The kings received their power from the gods and
they were seen as agents of the gods
Civilization in Mesopotamia Economy was primarily agricultural
Industry and commerce rose in importance as well Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly
Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper, tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees
Mesopotamian society was broken into three classes Nobles
This included royal and priestly officials and their families Commoners (free citizens)
90% of population were farmers Slaves
The richest people tended to own the most and talented slaves
The Sumerians
Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE) The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE)
Sophisticated irrigation systems Intense temple-building Development of a religious structure
Included the rise of a priestly class Priests were responsible for managing economic resources
Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE) The first city-states start to develop Temple building more prominent and elaborate Writing also developed during this period
Sumerian clay ball with tokens
Development of Writing “Token and ball” system
Objects would be represented with clay tokens Would then be used in a transaction This was later replaced with writing on clay tablets
Pictographs Earliest writing systems Symbols that resembled the physical object they
represented Evolved into representing ideas as well as objects Eventually represented a particular phonetic
sound
Development of Writing Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE)
Abstract writing Used a durable reed stylus Cuneus – Wedge shaped impression in clay
Symbols became more and more abstract Used for every possible consonant-vowel
combination It was difficult to master and took years to learn “Houses of the Tablet”
Evolution of writing
Cuneiform tablet c. 2300 BCE
Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE) Period of constant warfare between the city-states
Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000 people This made competition for resources more intense
Rise of war leaders (lugals) Held the status of king Acted as both secular and religious figures
They led the armies of their gods into battle It was important to them to remain in their god’s favor
Replaced the priests as the leaders of the communities Because of constant warfare, no one lugal
became dominant
Statue of a man worshiping Early Dynastic
Period (c.2750-2600BCE)
Sumerian Religion Religion played a major role in the Sumerian city-
states Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods Each city felt that their city was the property of one
particular god or goddess Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting their own city
The physical environment had a major impact on how the Sumerians viewed the world Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive humidity,
and scorching winds Suffered from the famines that resulted from these
disasters According to Sumerian myth, humans were created to do
the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do themselves
Sumerian Religion They were afraid of being punished by the gods if
they did not worship and praise them enough They sought to appease—or not be punished by—the
gods Performed rituals and sacrifices “Land of No Return”
Development of divination They wanted to discover what the gods were going to
do Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or
omen Rituals and prayers were developed to influence
the gods and ward off demons However, the only people who knew these rituals and
prayers were the priests
Sumerian Technology and Trade They learned how to smelt tin and copper into
bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE)
They used the wheel for transport Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c. 3,500
BCE Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel carts
Development of math system Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for
practical solutions Used multiplication and division and created tables for
the computation of interest Geometry was used for building domes and arches
Sumerian Technology and Trade The Sumerians developed astronomy
They charted the chief constellations Development of a lunar calendar
Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year An extra month was added to bring it into sync with
the solar year They also developed a complex trade system
They traded for raw materials that they did not possess
They built trade routes throughout the Mesopotamian region
Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean
Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BCE
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Akkadians
From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer They had been influenced by the Sumerians
Shared similar cultures but each retained their own language
Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be “outsiders” and barbarians
Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE) The leader of the Akkadians According to legend, as a baby a gardener found
him floating down a river in a basket
Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Sargon was best known for being the first
person to unify the Sumerian city-states He did this by conquering them and adding them
to his own empire He established a new dynastic empire
Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of
the cities Exploited the already developed trade routes to
strengthen the base of his empire His economic influence stretched as far away as
Ethiopia and India
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Naram-Sin (2255 – 2219 BCE)
He continued the expansion of the empire He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the arts He also claimed to be “the god of Agade” (Akkad)
He was followed by a group of three weak successors who were unable to preserve the empire
The reasons why the Akkadians were successful: Shared almost everything with the Sumerians except
language Respected the Sumerian religion and gods Were able to create a unified government where the
Sumerians were unable to
Naram-Sin’s victory stele (Louvre)
Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE) Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE)
Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin Pursued military conquests and centralizing the
government Code of Ur-Nammu
Earliest legal code Required the payment of fines for most crimes
Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE) He continued the successful empire Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur
Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE) He was too weak to rule This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty
Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur
Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE) Sumerian Renaissance
The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in culture However, this did not have a lasting effect on the
region Other groups would have more of an influence in the
region over the next 1,500 years The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE)
Earliest known piece of literature It was based on a series of poems written Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700
BCE) Tales about military conquest and heroism Gilgamesh v. Enkidu – city v. wilderness Pessimistic toward natural environment
Old Babylonian Empire
Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Babylon was a small city-state in central
Mesopotamia It was controlled by the Amorites Location between rivers gave it great economic
and military significance Also between two powerful Amorite cities
Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) He was the sixth king of Babylon One of the first rulers to conquer through
diplomacy rather than sheer force Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and
writing
Hammurabi (1792-1750
BCE)
Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under
Marduk Marduk was the god of Babylon Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the
dominant god of the empire Used Marduk’s supremacy over the other gods as
his justification to rule Code of Hammurabi
A collection of laws used throughout his empire Contained 282 laws which regulated people’s
relationships throughout Mesopotamia Based on actual rulings handed down by
Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi The Code was probably never intended to be
a code of laws in the modern sense Was used as propaganda to publicize the king’s
devotion to justice It reveals a society with strict justice
Lists three classes: the elite, the masses, and slaves
Penalties were severe but they were adjusted based on the social class of the parties involved
Reflected issues and responsibilities the government had to deal with This included slavery, land tenure, commerce,
consumer protection, and marriage
The Code of Hammurabi Punishments for crimes varied according to one’s
social class Crimes against the upper class were punished more
severely Crimes against the lower class were punished more
leniently Old Babylonian Society
Upper class nobles controlled large estates and wealth Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally free
individuals “Dependents” of the palace or temple Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and officials
At the bottom were the slaves In general, the slaves were treated harshly Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war
Development of Civilization in Egypt The Nile River was of central importance to
Egyptian civilization Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of fertile
land for growing crops Egyptian civilization developed along very
different lines than Mesopotamia Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable Land around the Nile did not require extensive
irrigation State intervention was not necessary for food
production so the villages remained small and rural
Development of Civilization in Egypt Nile River valley was protected by natural barriers
Desert to the east and west Rapids (cataracts) to the south Gave a sense of isolation and security Still had access to the Mediterranean to the north so
they were not any trade barriers for Egyptians The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt
The fastest way to travel throughout the land Made transportation and communication much easier
Because of the stability and reliability of the Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and changelessness
Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egyptc.3500-3400BCE
Predynastic Egypt (10,000 – 3100 BCE) The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE
The Nile valley region was able to supply an abundance of food for long periods of time
Increased population The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around 3,200
BCE, all near the Nile Sophisticated fortifications Elaborate temples Attracted industry and travelers
High degrees of social specialization Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt
Narmer Palette c. 3100 BCE
Organization of Egyptian History Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE)
Set the basic framework for Egyptian history In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by dynasties
Today, Egyptian history is divided into three major periods Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms These were periods were each marked with:
Long-term stability with strong monarchical authority and competent administrations
Construction of temples and pyramids Freedom from invasion Intellectual and cultural activities
Between the periods are Intermediate Periods Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and
invasions
Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were
unified by King Narmer Started the first dynasty
Archaic Period is characterized by: Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt) First dynastic rulers came into being Pharaohs were considered divine, not just received
divine favor Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly manifestation of
Horus, the falcon god Development of hieroglyphics
These were “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings” developed during the first two dynasties
They were pictographs that had a sacred value
Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family
and the priest class A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic Script )
was used for everyday business of government and commerce
First writings were carved in stone Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus reed The first uses of papyrus came during the First
Dynasty The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about
with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 It contained three different forms of writing:
hieroglyphs, demotic, and classical Greek
The Rosetta Stone
Close up of the hieroglyphics
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this
period So few documents exist to piece together a complete
history Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute
rulers However, the pharaoh was required to follow the Ma’at
This was a general concept of morality, law, and justice Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to
maintain order and harmony Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the
“cosmic order”
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to
help them run the empire During this period, pharaohs were involved more in
religious matters than political ones A vizier was in charge of administration
This included justice, public works, police, etc. The pharaohs also appointed provincial
governors They were known as nomarchs
Tended to be family members of the pharaoh Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep
them from establishing a power base in their provinces (nomes)
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) An age of prosperity and splendor
This is illustrated by the building of the great pyramids
The pyramids were built as part of a “city of the dead” It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh
Smaller pyramids for his family Contained all the articles a person would need for
the after-life Included furniture, weapons, and food
The original pyramids began as mastabas These were rectangular structures with flat roofs
that served as tombs
An Egyptian Mastaba
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate
tombs? The Egyptians believed that people had two
bodies: a physical one and a spiritual one (ka) By preserving the body through mummification, the
ka could return to it The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday life
to help the ka resume its life after death Mummification was a process of slowly drying out
and preserving a body to prevent it from rotting The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000 BCE It was not perfected until the New Kingdom
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Process of mummification:
First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver would be removed and placed in a special jar (canopic jars)
The heart would remain inside the body because that was needed for the “weighing of the heart”
The brain was then removed through the nose with a special tool
Salt would be placed on the body to absorb moisture The body would then be filled with spices and
wrapped in layers of resin-soaked linen The whole process from start to finish would
take approximately 70 days Mummification of pharaohs and their queens usually
took the longest
The Step Pyramid
Step Pyramid The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd
Dynasty during the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of Heliopolis He probably designed it by building one mastaba
on top of another The first “real” pyramid was built during the
4th Dynasty (c. 2600 BCE) Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped
surface Built during the reign of King Snefru He went on to build a total of three pyramids
Great Pyramid at Giza
Great Pyramid at Giza This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefru’s son,
King Khufu Contains three pyramids
Covers a total of 13 acres Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its base and
stands 481 feet high Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to each of the
four points of the compass Recent research suggests that small groups of
skilled workers were used in the construction In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000 to
30,000 people were used and it took approximately 20 years to build
Number of workers were reduced during the growing season
What the Great Pyramid would have looked like
Ancient Egyptian Society Four social classes:
Pharaoh or god-king Upper Class
Nobles and priests Middle Class
Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople Peasants
Largest percentage of the population They worked the king’s lands, and building projects,
paid taxes in the forms of crops, and provided military service
Slaves Typically captives of foreign wars but they did have
legal rights, including the right to own personal property
Osiris and Isis
Egyptian Religion Egyptian religion was polytheistic
They had over 150 gods in their pantheon Henotheistic – Worshipped mainly one god but
recognize many others One of the most important deities was Osiris
Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who brought civilization to Egypt
According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his brother Seth, who then cut his body into 14 pieces and threw those into the Nile
Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him to life
Egyptian Religion Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of
resurrection and the judge of the dead in Egyptian religion When a person was died, he was mummified and
given the name “Osiris” so he could be reborn Celebrations were held each year for the flooding
of the Nile to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris’ parts and the start of new life
The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the afterlife like the Mesopotamians had They saw death as a necessary step to the
afterlife They believed the afterlife was to be better than
their current lives
Egyptian Religion The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of the
afterlife, but their current lives as well They believed they lived in a stable, paradise-like
universe, governed by the Ma’at They were connected to their gods through their
pharaoh Elaborate rituals took place when a death occurred
This included embalming and mummification as well as burying items with the deceased
A “Book of the Dead” was also buried with the corpse It contained information that the deceased would need
to know for the afterlife This included spells, incantations, and preparations for
the ultimate test: the “weighing of the heart”
Egyptian Religion “Weighing of the Heart”
When a person died, he met with Osiris and other deities to weigh his heart against a feather
The feather itself represented the Ma’at The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of
the dead and mummification If it was balanced, the deceased could move on If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of
the Dead) was there to eat the deceased
Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead
Old Kingdom Science and Technology Astronomy was based on the sun Their solar calendar was more accurate than
the Mesopotamians lunar one It was later adopted by Julius Caesar
Developed irrigation and water control systems
Did not develop the wheel until much later This was because of the number of workers
available so there was no need for it There was no written legal code
Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law
End of the Old Kingdom Several problems led to the end of the Old Kingdom
Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties During this time, nomarchs grew in power
Part of this was due to their positions becoming hereditary The nomes became more independent and the central
authority of the pharaoh weakened People’s loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the nomarchs
Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and economic decline People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Ma’at
End of the Old Kingdom Because of all of these problems, the
priesthood of Ra at Nekhen “demoted” the pharaohs They were transformed from being an incarnation
of Horus and Ra to the lowly position of being the son of a god
This was done in order to wrest power away from weaker pharaohs
The nomarchs then used the situation to seize control Many saw them and priests as the only ones who
could guarantee stability and order
First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC) Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties During this period, a unified country no longer
existed Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt Rival dynasties were created with new centers of
power Thebes in Upper Egypt Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt
It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt),
defeated the rulers of Lower Egypt and then declared that he was ruler of all Egypt
His reign marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom
Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE)
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) The Middle Kingdom period contained the
11th through 13th dynasties The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the
dominant dynasty during this period This was considered the “golden age” for
Egypt During this time, nomes were restructured
They were given permanent boundaries and the position of nomarch was officially made hereditary
On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to know what their duties were and perform them accordingly
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) This was also a period of expansionism
Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the south and built fortresses to protect its new borders
They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-
regency It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BCE) He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for his
future position This was designed to prevent any succession
problems or inept rulers He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) Egypt became more cynical during this period
There was a change in the perception of the pharaoh The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible god-
kings who were higher than the people Having ma’at was not enough Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as a
“shepherd” to protect his “flock” Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them
After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the pharaohs became cynical
They began writing letters to their successors warning them of the constant threats and not to expect any loyalty from the people