welcome to research methodology

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WELCOME WELCOME TOTO

RESEARCH RESEARCH METHODOLOGYMETHODOLOGY

Dr.C.MURTHYDr.C.MURTHYM.A., M.Phil., (Eco), M.Sc., (Envir) M.B.A. Ph.DM.A., M.Phil., (Eco), M.Sc., (Envir) M.B.A. Ph.D

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PREFACEResearch has been given an important place in our courses of studies in various social sciences. The study of research methodology is very engaging and it has become a part of every research scholar activity

The book covers the theoretical, practical aspects of research methodology as far as possible in a clear and exhaustive manner. Every chapter in this book explains the principles through appropriate descriptive and analytical explanations, for scientific method of research in social sciences and in business management research.

This book is meant for B.B.A., M.B.A., M.A., M.Sc., (Psy), M.Com., M.Phil. and Ph.D. in all social sciences and Master of Business Administration degrees of Indian Universities.

I am deeply indebted to various authors and publishers whose books I have gone through during the process of writing this book. The statistical tools of analysis of data were there in those books. My contribution lies in compiling them and explaining their applications and presenting them in a lucid and novel manner.

I thank my wife, Mrs.Selvarani, my daughter M.Preethi, my son M.Naveen for their patience during the writing of this book.

I am grateful to our fellow research scholars and teachers who have given suggestions on the subject. I also thank to publishers, M/s.Vrinda Publications (P) Ltd., Delhi, for their effort in bringing out the book in an elegant form and at a reasonable price, in time.Valuable suggestions and criticisms from the readers will be appreciated and included in the subsequent editions.

Dr.C.MURTHY

Chennai (Tamilnadu)

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CHAPTER-01 CHAPTER-01

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTIONResearch is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research of any kind is a careful investigation through search for new facts.

We may define social research as the systematic method of discovering We may define social research as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, causal new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them” explanations and the natural laws which govern them” - P.V.Young- P.V.Young

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Study Behavior of Human Beings: Social research deals with the social phenomena.

Discovering New Facts: Social research is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of the old ones.

Scientific Analysis: Social research tries to establish causal connection between various human activities.

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INTRODUCTION

Basic Assumptions of Social Research The application of scientific methods of sociological research is based upon certain

assumptions, which may be classified as below.

Existence of cause and effect relationship It has to be accepted as a basis of social research that there exists cause and effect

relationship between various social activities.

Existence of sequence or law in social activities There is some system some trend behind them. If this trend or system is located it is possible to predict the future course of social phenomena.

Possibility of detached study Even though man is an integral part of the society which he is investigating still it is possible for him to study it by keeping himself separate from the system

Existence of ideal typesPeople can be grouped into fairly, homogenous classes known as ideal type.

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INTRODUCTIONOBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions though the application of scientific procedures.

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group known as descriptive research studies);

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else known as diagnostic research studies);

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems. i.e., concern over practical

problems initiates research; Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to be of service to society; Desire to get respectability

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INTRODUCTIONThe success of a research work to a great extent depends upon the qualities of researcher. The qualities are two fold:

General qualities that are needed for any research. Specific qualities that are concerning the particular research

GENERAL QUALITIES

Scientific Attitude: The first essential quality of a successful research worker is that he must possess a `scientific frame of mind.

Imagination: A research worker must possess a high degree of imagination power. Perseverance : The work of scientific research requires unlimited patience and inexhaustible

perseverance. A Quick Grasping Power : The research worker should possess power to grasp the significance

of things quickly. Clarity of Thinking: The research worker should be very clear in his concepts.

SPECIFIC QUALITIES

The Chief qualities required are as follows: Knowledge of the Subject : The research worker should have a complete knowledge of the

subject under study. Knowledge of the Technique of Research : The research worker should also possess the

intimate knowledge of the technique that is to be applied to the problem. Personal Taste in the Study : The research worker should take personal taste in the study

undertaken.

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Familiarity about the Informants : It is desirable that the research worker should make himself familiar with the people whom he is studying.

Unbiased Attitude : The researcher should have no preconceptions about the subject under study.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH Good research is systematic Good research is logical Good research is empirical Good research is replicable

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA The Lack of a Scientific Training Lack of Interactions Lack of Confidence Analyse Overlapping Lack of Code of Conduct Unnecessary Delays Inadequate Library Management Irregular supply of Government Publications Lac of availability of Published Data Problem of Process of Data Collection

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTIONFUNCTIONS OR USES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

The chief material benefits of social research are as follows: Social Control: Planning is not confined to the field for Economics alone, it has an equal

importance in the field of social organization. Social Cohesion: The study of society creates better understanding between different social

groups Social Welfare: Social welfare or removal of social evils can be achieved through social

research. Social prediction: Social research helps us to formulate social laws which show relationship

between social facts and their causes. Social Growth: Social research helps in the growth lines. Perfection of Tool of Research: As social research progresses the tools of analysis and

methods of research become more perfect with use.

Limitations of Social ResearchDuring the course of conducting a research one has to constantly guard against bias, subjectivity and inaccuracy. Yet, it is difficult to totally avoid them and a minimum of bias and inaccuracy is always present in any research social research happens to be no exception and it is replete with instance of problematic situation where some errors cannot be possibly avoided.

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CHAPTER-02CHAPTER-02 RESEARCH IN RESEARCH IN

BRANCHES OF SOCIAL BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCESSCIENCES

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RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES““Research is the process of gathering, recording and analyzing of critical Research is the process of gathering, recording and analyzing of critical and relevant facts about any problem in any branch of human activity”and relevant facts about any problem in any branch of human activity”

- R.HANSEN- R.HANSENResearch methodology is a way to solve the research problem systematically. In social research, there are different branches of learning such as marketing, management, economics commerce, sociology, psychology and other courses are called social sciences.

MARKETING RESEARCH Marketing research is divided into consumer marketing research and business-to- business

marketing research, or business marketing marketing research investigates the markets for products sold by one business

MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM The marketing informations are : 1. Customer’s expectation, 2. Degree of competition, 3.

Government policies, 4. Channel of distribution, 5. Rival products, 6. Motives of the customer, 7. Supply and demand, 8. Size of the market, and 9. Customer’s satisfaction about the product.

Areas for Marketing Research

Major areas for marketing research identified by the management are: 1. Research on markets, 2. Research on sales, 3. Research on product, 4. Advertising and promotion research, 5. Corporate growth research and Business economic research.

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RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

PROCEDURE OF MARKETING RESEARCH Defining the problems Determining the information needed Determining the source of information Deciding research methods Tabulation, analysis and interpretation of the data Preparation of the report Follow up study.

CONTRIBUTION OF MARKETING RESEARCH Marketing research as a guide will shape the products suitable to the demand. It helps to stimulate the

sales through sales promotions. It plays an important role in decision – making.

LIMITATIONS OF MARKETING RESEARCHMarketing research studies the behaviour of customers, so it is quite impossible to achieve mathematical accuracy.

OPERATIONS RESEARCHManagement asks operation research experts to provide quantitative bases for such decisions which will permit management to make the best operating decisions.

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENTMethodology of Operation Research

The main steps are: 1. Problem formulation 2. Constructing a mathematical model 3. Deriving solutions from the model 4. Testing the model 5. Establishing controls over the solution 6. Implementing the solution.

Kinds of Operations Research Models

Techniques of Operations Research

LIMITATIONS OF OPERATIONS RESEARCHOperation research has certain limitations. Optimal solution calculations cannot be handled manually but require electronic computers which bear very heavy cost.

RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENTManagement Techniques involve solution of problem and arriving at correct decision for the survival and growth of organization.

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RESEARCH DESIGNThe important stages can be broadly classified as :

Formulation of research problem, Survey of literature The conceptual framework. Formulation of research issues Transformation of specific objectives Research hypotheses Coverage, 8. Data source Tools of analysis Limitations of the study Chapter outline Budgeting and cost estimation and report design.

AREAS OF RESEARCHThe major areas of the management are:

Production Management Personnel Management Marketing Management Financial Management.

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RESEARCH IN ECONOMICSThe study of economics, especially mainstream neoclassical economics, raises methodological questions about the character of study of social and human behaviour.

METHODOLOGIES IN ECONOMICSThere are various methods and methodologies to study the problems of economics. Broadly speak these have deductive and inductive dimensions.

DEDUCTIVE RESEARCHDeductive researchers hope to find data to match a theory.

Inductive ResearchThe different methodologies of economics represent the different views of the economists regarding a particular problem

Political Economy approach Analytical and mathematical method Quantitative and qualitative approach to economics.

Economic theories are based on statistical testing and significance of the variables in practical problems, and also framed the mathematical models such as unvaried, vicariate and multivariate techniques.

STATISTICAL AND ECONOMETRIC MODELEconomic theories are based on statistical testing and significance of the variables in practical problems, and also framed the mathematical models such as univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques

Facts and TheoriesScientific enquiry starts with facts and then move towards the theorizing

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RESEARCH IN COMMERCEThe purpose of research in commerce is to understand and solve a business problem.

Process of Research DesignResearch design in commerce is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing research study. Areas of ResearchThere are various areas of research in commerce are: Accounting, Principles of commerce Business organization Income Tax, Cost accounting, Management accounting Banking insurance and research RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is a social science which makes a scientific study to men’s relations in society, their forms, kinds, actions, incidents, etc.

Scientific MethodDifferent steps : 1. Observation2. Recording3. Generalization4. Verification.

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Areas of ResearchSocial pathology Criminology Sociology of law Penology Political sociology Comparative Sociology Urban sociology Rural Sociology.

Methods of SociologyThe major methods of investigation in social phenomena used by sociology are:

Questionnaire Schedule Interview Case study Observation, Social Survey Social Research Statistical Method.

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RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCESRESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

The process of applying the scientific method to the solution of psychological problem or any problems of life in general.

ScienceScience can be defined both as an organized body of knowledge and method and a system of arriving at the truth.

Scientific MethodScientific method is a synthesis of a reason and observation.

Features

It is with the verification of the acquired knowledge. It is the way in which one can test opinions, impressions or guesses by examining the available

guidance. It aims at discovering facts. It is self corrective in nature. It is based on systematic doubt. It is an objective, logical and a systematic method of study.

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Process of Research

The steps of scientific method are: Phenomena are observed Problem is noted and clarified Relationships are identified Hypothesis is derived Hypothesis tested Analysis of the data Conclusions are drawn.

LimitationsThere are several limitations in scientific method they are

Uncertainty Unexplained principles Limited scope Complex human behaviour Difficult Judgement Superstition Difficulties in observation Difficulties in measurement.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF MATHEMATICS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Mathematics plays an important role the development of theory in social sciences. Integral part of social sciences Idea of the Interrelationship Facilitate the formulation of policies Relationship may be written as: Y = f (x1, x2) Studying Political Behaviour Social Transformation of that society Better understanding of social sciences Purposeful instrument of solution of problem

MODELS AND MODELLING IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Model The term `model’ has several connotations. The dictionary meaning of this world is “a representation of a thing”.

Modeling: Models can be understood in terms of their structure and purpose

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Presentation of ModelsThey are as follows

Verbal or prose models. Graphical/conceptual models Mathematical models Logical flow modelsTYPES OF MODELS

Models in social research studies have been classified in many ways. Physical Models Mathematical Models Macro Vs. Micro Models Static vs. Dynamic Models Analytical Numerical Models Deterministic vs. Stochastic Models

OBJECTIVES OF MODELLING Description of the system functioning Prediction of the future Helping the decision maker/manager decide what to do

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CHAPTER-03CHAPTER-03

DECISIONAL RESEARCHDECISIONAL RESEARCH

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

““Research cannot draw decisions, but it helps the marketers in the task of decision Research cannot draw decisions, but it helps the marketers in the task of decision making”.making”.

-R.HANSEN-R.HANSEN

FEATURES OF DECISION-MAKING

Some basic features of decision making are: Goal Directed Activity An Integral Part of Management Intellectual Activity Involves Choice

Types of Business Management Decisions

Business Management decisions are classified under the heads

Organizational and Personal Decisions Basic and Routine Decisions Programmed and unprogrammed decision Individual and group decisions Functional Decisions

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

Decision steps and Research Objectives

Definition and Analysis of the problem Development of alternative solutions Evaluation of alterative solutions Selection of the Best Alternatives Communication and implementation Follow - up action Variations in the Selection of Alternatives

Process of Selection

There are nine steps involved in process of alternatives selection in business. Situation analysis Problem definitions Setting up of objectives Generating Alternatives Evaluation of alternatives Deciding on optimal choice Potential analysis Implementation Setting up feedback system.

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DECISIONAL RESEARCHSOURCES OF BUSINESS UNCERTAINTIES

Some of the main sources of uncertainties in business: Market fluctuations Industry fluctuations Competition Technology changes Taste fluctuations Cost fluctuations Cost fluctuations

UNCERTAINTY AND DECISION RESEARCHIf everything could be predicted accurately, then decision making would become a fairly simple process.

METHODS OF DECISIONS AND THEORIESThe following methods may be used to reach decisions are:

The expected value criterion The pay off matrix Bayesian analysis, Decision trees Simulation method of analysis.

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

THE EXPECTED VALUE CRITERIONThe expected value criterion method, the decision maker to calculate the expected value of each alternative decision.

THE PAY OFF MATRIXIt represent the decision-maker’s best estimate of outcomes for each combination of strategy and state of nature.

Where = expected valuei = Number of outcomes (I = 1, 2, 3 … n)R = Value of possible outcomeP = Probability of the outcomeThese probabilities may be used as weights to calculate the expected value.

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

BAYESIAN ANALYSIS

Bayesian analysis deals with as possibilities can be revised on account of the availability of new information, probability theory of considerable importance in decision making in research.

Prior Analysis Posterior Analysis Pre-Posterior Analysis

Formula : EMGII – EMVII – CI

CI = Cost of Information

EMGII = Expected monetary gain of imperfect information

EMVIT = Expected monetary value of imperfect information.

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

VALVE(RSLAKHS)VALVE(RSLAKHS)

DECISION TREES

3

2

1

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

Steps of Decision Trees

Identify all the course of action List the possible result Calculate the pay off Assign probabilities Select the maximum pay off

Advantages It helps in a decision in a systematic manner. Business decision maker is considered the possible desirable and undesirable results. It is helpful in communicating decision making process. It can be applied in computer process of final outcome.

Limitations It is expensive method and also time consuming for process It is based on less reliability of data This analysis is ignored the non-quantitative factors such as attitude.

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DECISIONAL RESEARCH

SIMULATION METHOD

Simulation is a technique of a computer programme can be constructed to stimulate what is likely to occur.

Advantages

It helps in a decision in a systematic manner. Business decision maker is considered the possible desirable and undesirable

results. It is helpful in communicating decision making process. It can be applied in computer process of final outcome.

Limitations

It is expensive method and also time consuming for process It is based on less reliability of data This analysis is ignored the non-quantitative factors such as attitude.

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CHAPTER-04CHAPTER-04

BUSINESS RESEARCHBUSINESS RESEARCH

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

““Ethical Business” but it becomes “unethical” when there is no intention to follow up Ethical Business” but it becomes “unethical” when there is no intention to follow up with larger study or to the research firm in the future. with larger study or to the research firm in the future.

- BETRY PETERSON- BETRY PETERSONConcept

Business Research is the systematic and objective identification, collation, analysis, dissemination, and use of information for the purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems.

CHARACTERISTIC OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

The following an important characteristics of business research are Systematic Sound Methodology Scientific approach Objective Unbiased Accurate findings A Classification of Business Research

Organization engage in business research for two reasons Problems Identification Research Problem Solving Research

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BUSINESS RESEARCHBusiness Research Process

The business research process as consisting of six steps they are

Problem Definition An approach to the problem Research Design Formulation Field work or data collection Data Preparation and Analysis Report Preparation and Presentation

ENVIRONMENT CONTENT OF THE BUSINESS PROBLEM

The researcher should analyze the factors that have an impact on the definition of the business problem. Past Information and Forecast Resources and Constraints Business Objectives Buyer Behaviour Legal Environment Economic Environment Marketing Conditions Technological Changes

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

COMPONENTS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

The approach development of business research should include the following components

Objectives Theoretical framework Analytical Model

i. Verbal Model ii. Graphic Model iii. Mathematical Model

Research Questions Hypothesis Relevant characteristics

BUSINESS PLANNING

Planning is the process of establishing individual or organizational goals and the ways to achieve the goals.

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CHAPTER- 05CHAPTER- 05

TYPES OF RESEARCH & TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHESAPPROACHES

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TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES““Research concepts may appear elementary – almost self-evident however, their Research concepts may appear elementary – almost self-evident however, their application requires care”. - HAYNES AND HENRapplication requires care”. - HAYNES AND HENR

Researches have been classified differently depending upon the approach, the purpose and the nature of a research activity.

Fundamental, Pure or Theoretical Research This type of research is original or basic in character

Discovery of a new Theory Development of the existing theory

APPLIED RESEARCH This type of research is based on the application of known theories and models to the actual operational fields

or populations.

Utility to Developing Countries Applied research has practical utility in the developing countries.

Field Investigation Method Applied research often taken the form of a field investigation and aims at collecting the basic data for verifying the applicability of existing theories and models in given situation.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCHExploratory research is designed to provide a background, to familiarize and, as the word implies, just “explore” the general subject.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHESDESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research as the name suggests is designed to describe something

ACTION RESEARCH Action research is also a recent addition to the categories of research known to a modern social scientist.

EVALUATION RESEARCH Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research. The Evaluation Research is of three types, mainly

(1) Concurrent evaluation (2) Phasic or periodic evaluation and (3) Terminal evaluation.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experiments are artificial in the sense that the situations are usually created for testing pruposes.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCHEmpirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.

SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen from the

populations-sociological and psychological variables.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUANTATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind

FIELD INVESTIGATION RESEARCH

A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be unique to this category of research.

EX-POST FACTO RESEARCHIn ex-post research, the researcher’s control on the behaviour of independent variables is very week and in many cases no control is possible.

HISTORICAL RESEARCHHistorical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution

CASE STUDY A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community an institution or any other social unit.

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REVIEW OF LITERATUREREVIEW OF LITERATURE

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

““Nothing is so practical as a good theory”Nothing is so practical as a good theory” - - PHIL BUCHANA PHIL BUCHANA

LITERATURE

Literature in this context consists of books, journals, reports and research thesis, newspaper. Books Journals Reports Research Dissertations and theses. Newspapers Micro Forms

PURPOSES OF REVIEW

The reasons for review of related literature are to gain a background knowledge of the research topic, to identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate

researchable hypotheses; to identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques

of analysis, to identify data sources used by researchers to learn how others structured the reports.

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Subject Catalogues of Libraries Documentation Service Documentation Service Lists of Books and Publishers' Bulletins: Journals Government Reports Research Abstracts Internet Sources

General Business and Economic literature

SIGNIFICANCE OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The researcher should undertake the survey of literature related to the problem because it is an eye-opener for research work.

Help to study the past Basic knowledge of information Proper sources of social results Helps the reliable conclusions Guidelines the Direction of Analysis

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ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCHRESEARCH

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ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

““The computer can facilitate the implementation of different types of The computer can facilitate the implementation of different types of research design”.research design”. - - W.K.JOHN W.K.JOHN

Computer is not only an extension of man’s ability to compute but also help him in storing and retaining data for further research.

SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPUTERS

Computer helps in various field of research promotion and development. It is useful in research programme.

Speed and Accuracy Logical Decisions for Research Perfect memory relating to Research Versatility Diligence Automation Achievement of Modern Knowledge

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EVOLUTIONS OF COMPUTERS

Difference Engine In 1823, Babbage put together a model of the first mechanical computer. It is called the

difference engine.

Analytical Engine Babbage improved on the difference engine and designed a more sophisticated and large calculating machine in 1834.

First Programme Lord Byron’s daughter is famous as the First Programmer

Boolean Algebra George Boole actually applied the solution of alternative choices

Punched Cards A big step forward was taken in the development of information processing in 1890 census of U.S.A.

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ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCHMagnetic media

Major development were taking place in the areas of recording devices by Mr. Valdemer poulson.

Thermionic value In 1906 Lee De Forest invented the Thermionic value.

First Automatic Electro – Mechanical computer In 1930 at Harvard University, Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper got together and arranged for the IBM to build them a general purpose computer.

Generation The term ‘generation” refers to major developments in computer science.

USE OF STATISTICAL PACKAGES / SPSS A number of easy to use packages which run on micro computers to perform standard statistical analysis are available.

INTERFERENTIAL TOOLS IN SPSSResearcher has to look into the actual usage of various statistical tools in different areas of research. For research analysis, the statistical software packages are SPSS, SAS, SX, MYSTAT, etc.

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TOOLS AND MODULES

The following tools and statistical procedures are available in SPSS. Compare Means General Linear Model Correlation Regression Log Linear Classification Data Reduction Non-Parametric Test Time Series Survival Tool Multiple Response Other related softwares

S-Plus Kyplot

Features of software Mathematical Statistical

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ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCHUSE OF INTERNET IN RESEARCH

TECHNICAL TERMS The following are the technical terms are associated with Internet they are

Uniform Resource Location Lotes Notes Search Engine Hypertext Markup Language

COMPUTERISED DATABASES

Classification A classification of computerized databases is helpful. It may be classified as on-line, Internet, or off-line.

On-line Databases Internet Databases Off-Line Database Other methods of Database Bibliographic Databases Numeric Databases Full-Text Databases Directory Databases Special purpose Databases

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IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET

Source of Research Provider Helps in project Management Information supplier Statistical packages Computer Maps Sources of Secondary Data Sources of Government Data E-mail Interview Consistency Check

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RESEARCH DESIGNRESEARCH DESIGN

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RESEARCH DESIGN

““The greatest force in the world is thought”. – BABAThe greatest force in the world is thought”. – BABA

The research design is a blue print of action.

The essentials of research design

It is an activity and time based plan. The design is based on the research questions. The design guides the selection of sources and types of information. It is a frame work for specifying the relationship among the study’s variable. It outlines the procedures for every research activity.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design has to be prepared on account of the following reasons

Blue Print of the Proposed Research Plan Sampling Procedure Gives General Idea Efficiency in Research Reliability

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RESEARCH DESIGN

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Method of data collection Researcher's control of variables Purpose of the study

Descriptive studiesThe research concerned with finding out who, what, where, when or how much is a descriptive study.

Casual studies

If the researcher is concerned with analyzing how one variable produces changes in another, it is called a casual study.

Testing Casual Hypotheses

To test casual hypotheses, three types of evidence can be opted

Co variation between the variables. Time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction. No other possible causes for change in the dependent variable

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RESEARCH DESIGN

CAUSATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Control Group Random Assignment Causation and Ex Post Facto Design Time Dimension Scope The Research Environment: Participants Perceptions Type of investigation Units of Analysis

Extent of Crystallization of Research Question

Combining the approaches listed above four techniques could be derived.Secondary data analysis

Experience survey Focus groups Two-stage design

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RESEARCH DESIGN

ERRORS IN RESEARCH DESIGNError is the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the social research project.

Types of Research ErrorsSeveral types of error can affect the quality of research design. A good research design made an attempts to control the various sources of error.

Random sampling error Non-Sampling error

a. Non-response errorb. Response error

I. Researcher error 1.Information error2.Measurement error3.Population definition error4.Sampling frame error5.Data Analysis Error

II. Interviewer Error1.Respondent Selection error2.Questioning Error 3.Recording error4.Cheating Error

III. Respondent Error 1.Inability error2.Unwillingness error

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TESTING OF HYPOTHESISTESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

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TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the “Research Question”. -N.C. Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the “Research Question”. -N.C. SMITHSMITH

The formulation of hypotheses or propositions as to the possible answers to the research questions is an important step in the process of formulation of the research problem.

MEANING OF HYPOTHESISHypothesis is a tentative proposition formulated for empirical test ing

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Descriptive Hypotheses Relational Hypotheses Causal hypotheses Working Hypotheses Null Hypotheses Statistical Hypotheses Abraham Kaplan Common Sense Hypotheses Complex Hypotheses Analytical Hypotheses

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SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypotheses can be derived from various sources Theory Observation Analogies Intuition and Personal Experiences Findings of Studies State of Knowledge Culture Continuity of Research

THE FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS

Helps Directions Specify the Source of Data Determine the Data Suggest type of research Helps Suitable Technique Development of Theory Possible to Test Theories Constructed Theory

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

An acceptable hypothesis should fulfill certain conditions

Conceptual Clarity Specificity Testability Availability of Techniques Theoretical relevance Consistency Objectivity

STATISTICAL TESTING PROCEDURE

State the null hypothesis Choose the statistical test Select the desired level of significance Compare the calculated difference value Interpret the test

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ONE-SAMPLE TESTS

Parametric Tests Non-parametric tests

The formula for the chi-square (x2) test is

Oj = observed number of cases categorized in the categoryEi = Expected number of cases in the ith category under HoK = the number of categories

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A SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TEST RELATED TO DIFFERENCES

Sl.No.

Sample Application Level of Scaling Suitable hypothesis Test

1. One Sample Distribution Non-Metric 1. K.S. and chi-square for good of fit.2. Run test for randomness3. Binomial test for goodness of fit for dichotomous variables.

2. One Sample Means Metric 1. t-test, if variance is unknown2. Z-test, if variance is known

3. One Sample Proportions Metric 1. Z-test

4. Two independent Distribution Non-Metric 1. K-S-two-sample test for examining the equivalence of two distribution

5. Two independent samples Means Metric 1. Two-group t-test2. F-test equality of variances

6. Two independent Samples Proportions Metric Non-Metric

1. Z-Test2. Chi-square test

7. Two independent samples Rankings/Medians

Non-Metric Mann-Whitney U-test is more powerful than the median test

8. Paired samples Means Metric Paired t-test

9. Paired samples Proportions Non-metric 1. McNemar test for binary variables.2. Chi-square test

10. Paired Samples Rankings/Medians

Non-Metric Wilcoxon matched – pairs signed – ranks test is more powerful than the sign test.


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CROSS TABULATION

A cross tabulation describes two or more variables simultaneously.

Statistics Associated with Cross Tabulation

1. Chi-square Formula

where, nr = Total number in the rownc = Total number in the columnn = Total sample size

v

nncnr

fe

ncomputatiofrequency Expected

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2. Chi-square distribution

3. Phi Coefficient

Formula :

4. Cramer’s V

Cramer’s V is a modified version of the phi correlation co-efficient, and is used in tables larger than 2 x 2.

Formula

5. Lambda coefficient

6. Symmetri Lambda

It measures the overall improvement when prediction is done in both directions.

n

2χ

`1)-(c 1),-(rmin

/n2χV

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SAMPLING AND SAMPLING SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGNDESIGN

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SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Principle – “ You may know by a handful of the whole sock”Sampling Principle – “ You may know by a handful of the whole sock”- PROVERB- PROVERB

The terminology “Sampling” indicates the selection of a part of a group or an aggregate with a view to obtaining information about the whole.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING A SAMPLING PLANThe following are the logical steps involved in the sample execution.

1. Define the target population

2. Select the Data Collection Method

3. Identify the Sampling Frame Needed

4. Select the Appropriate Sampling Method

5. Determine necessary sample size and overall contact rates

6. Create an operating plan for selecting sampling units

7. Execute the overall plan

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CENSUS METHOD

The object of a census or complete enumeration is to collect information for each and every unit of the population.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

Element selection Representation Basis

Probability Non Probability

Unrestricted Simple random Convenience

Restricted Complex randomSystematic StratifiedClusterDouble

PurposiveJudgementQuotaSnowball

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PROBABILITY SAMPLINGSize of sample

Probability of selection = Size of Population

DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE SAMPLING DESIGN

Research objectives Scope of the Research Availability of Resources Time Frame Advanced Knowledge of the Target Population Degree of Accuracy Perceived Statistical Analysis Needs

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SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGNADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sl.No. Techniques Advantages Disadvantages

1. I. Non probability sampling Convenience sampling

Less expensive, less time consuming, most convenient

Bias selection, lack of representative items, not suggested for descriptive and causal research

2. Judgement sampling Convenient, Low cost, not time consuming

Subjective in nature. Does not allow generalization.

3. Quota sampling Simple method, easy to understand the field staff

Biased selection, no assurance of representativeness.

4. Snowball sampling Can practice rare occasions

Time consuming, expensive method

5. II. ProbabilitySimple random sampling

Simple method, easily understood results projectable.

Difficult to construct sampling frame, expensive lower precision.

6. Systematic sampling Easy to make use, sampling frame not necessary, more representativeness.

Chances of biased sample selection.

7. Stratified sampling Includes all sub-population, precision

Expensive method difficult to select relevant variables.

8. Cluster sampling Easy to implement cost effective.

Difficult to compute and interpretations

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METHODS OF METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATACOLLECTION OF DATA

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METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

““The success of an enquiry is based upon the “proper collection of data”. -The success of an enquiry is based upon the “proper collection of data”. -W.G.COCHRANW.G.COCHRAN

SOURCE OF DATA Data source can be broadly categorized into three types viz., primary, secondary and tertiary.

Documentary Sources (Secondary Data)

Books Report of Surveys Memories Accounts of Travels Historical Account Official Published Data Other Unpublished Record

Field Sources (Direct Sources)Direct Observation Information from the informants Information from witnesses

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Data collection method is integral part of the research design

SCHEDULEThe schedule is the form containing some questions or blank which are to be filled by the workers after getting information from the informants.

Purpose of Schedule To attain objectivity To Act as Memory

Essentials of a Good Schedule

Type of Questions Open-end Questions Structured Questions Dichotomous Question Multiple-Choice Questions Leading Questions Ambiguous Questions Ranking Item Question

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QUESTIONNAIRE

Form of Questionnaire

Size of Questionnaire Appearance Clarity Sequence of Questions Catching interest

Factors affecting response

Special Characteristics of The Groups Prestige Sponsoring Groups Importance of the Problem Under Study Nature of Questionnaire Nature of Reaction Size of Questionnaire Sequence of the Questions

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METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATAINTERVIEW

“Interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of a comparative stranger.”

KINDS OF INTERVIEWS

Structured Interview Unstructured Interview Focused Interview Repetitive Interview

TECHNIQUE OF INTERVIEW

Establishing Contact Starting an Interview Establishing Rapport Recall Probe Questions Encouragement Guiding the Interview Recording Closing the Interview Report

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METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATAOBSERVATION

Observation is probably the oldest method used by man in scientific investigation.

KINDS OF OBSERVATION

Participant Observation Non-Participant Observation Non-Controlled Observation Controlled Observation

LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Some of the occurrences may not be open to observation Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed When Observer is at

Hand Not all Occurrences Lend themselves to Study Observational Techniques

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IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Simplest method Useful in Framing hypothesis Greater Accuracy More Convincing Results Test of Validity A common Method for All Sciences

OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Warranty Cards Store Audits Pantry Audits Consumer panels Mechanical Devices

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PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

Word Association Test Sentence Completion Tests Story Completion Test Verbal Projection Tests Pictorial Techniques

Thematic Appreciation Test (T.A.T)

Rosenweiz Test Rorschach test Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT)

Play Techniques Quizzes, Tests and Examinations Sociometry

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A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN RESEARCH

Sl.No. Methods of data collection Features Advantages Disadvantages

1. Non probability sampling Convenience sampling

Less expensive, less time consuming, most convenient.

Bias selection, lack of representative items, not suggested for

descriptive and causal research.

Less reliability of data less chance of accuracy

2. Primary data–field surveyInterview - Personal

First hand and original informations, interview – schedule,

questionnaire, observation.

High sample control, covered both literate and illiterate, face-to-

face communication.

Expensive method chance of more response errors

time consuming

3. Telephone Data collected through telephone. Less expensive less chance of human error suitable for literature

people.

No face-face-communication Non-Response is high ignore and rural areas.

4. Mail Data collected through postal communication.

Less expensive suitable for educated respondents.

Ignore uneducated respondents.

5. Electronic–e-mail, internet Data collected through electronic media.

More accuracy Illiterate ignored cheating error.

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MEASUREMENT OF MEASUREMENT OF SCALING TECHNIQUESSCALING TECHNIQUES

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MEASUREMENT OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

““Scaling the generation of a continuum on which measured, objects are Scaling the generation of a continuum on which measured, objects are located”. located”. - V.S.SRINIVASAN- V.S.SRINIVASAN

Meaning attitudeAttitude is settled behaviour as specifying opinion.

Selection of Measurement ScaleSelection or construction of a measurement scale requires decision in the following six key areas

Study Objective Response Form Degree of Preference Data Properties Number of Dimensions Scale Construction

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METHODS OF SCALING

RATING SCALES

Some of the rating scales used often by researchers are explained below

Dichotomous scale Category Scale Likert Scale Semantic differential scales Numerical Scale Itemized rating Fixed or constant sum scale Staple Scales Graphic rating scale Consensus Scale

RANKING SCALES

Paired Comparison Scale Forced Ranking Scale Scalogram Analysis

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A SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENT OF TECHNIQUES RELATED DIFFERENCES

Sl.No.

Scale Characteristics Examples

Permissible Statistics

Descriptive Inferential

1. Nominal No order, distance or origin Numbers, sex classification Percentage, mode Chi-square Binominal test

2 Ordinal Order but no distance or unique origin

Preference rankings quality rankings

Percentile median Rank-order correlation Friedman ANOVA

3. Interval Both order and distance but no unique origin

Temperature, attitudes, index numbers opinions

Range, mean, standard deviation

Product moment correlation t-test, ANOVA regression, factor analysis.

4. Ratio Order, distance and unique origin

Length, weight, age, income, market shares

Geometric mean Harmonic mean

Coefficient of variation.

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PROCESSING OF DATAPROCESSING OF DATA

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PROCESSING OF DATA

““Researcher should exercise good effort, however, will be vain if the collected data are not Researcher should exercise good effort, however, will be vain if the collected data are not properly and analyzed”. - C.A.MOSERproperly and analyzed”. - C.A.MOSER

EDITING OF DATA This will facilitate coding and tabulation of data. In fact, the editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires

Field editing Central Editing

CODING OF DATA The coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of data.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA In most research studies, voluminous raw data collected through a survey need to be reduced into homogeneous groups for any meaningful analysis.

STATISTICAL SERIESA series is defined as a logical or systematic arrangement of observations or items

VISUAL AIDS IN REPORTSVisual aids are an essential part of report. Carefully presented visual aids can make the report more interesting and understandable.

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PROCESSING OF DATA

TYPES OF VISUALS

Tables A table is a collection of information presented in columns and rows. Tables should contain enough information to enable the readers to understand its contents.

Bar Graphs A bar chart depicts numbers by height or length of its rectangular bars.

Pie chartsA pie chart is used to show the relative sizes of parts of a whole.

PictogramsA chart that uses symbols instead of words or numbers to portray data is known as pictogram.

Organization Charts The organization chart illustrates the positions, units or functions of an organization and the way they interrelate.

Decision ChartsA decision chart or decision tree is a flow chart that uses graphs to explain whether or not to perform a certain action in a certain situation.

Gantt Charts A Gantt chart represents the schedule of project. Photographs Photographs enable to capture the exact appearance of an object and uses visual appeals to

capture the readers' attention

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION

““Researcher’s background and philosophy affect the choice of a data Researcher’s background and philosophy affect the choice of a data analysis strategy”. -E.JAMESanalysis strategy”. -E.JAMES

These tools are summarized in the following list

Measures of central tendency (averages) Dispersion Skewness, Kurtosis and Moments Correlation Regression Index numbers Analysis of time series Interpolation and extrapolation Association of attributes Probability Theoretical distribution Multivariate statistical techniques

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A. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (AVERAGES)

SIGNIFICANCE OF AN AVERAGE To facilitate quick understanding of complex data To facilitate comparison To know about the universe from a sample To help in decision making To establish mathematical relationship

Kinds of Averages

Mathematical Averages

Arithmetic mean

Geometric mean

Harmonic mean

Quadratic mean

Simple

Weighted

Averages of location (position)

Median

Mode

Commercial (Business) Averages

Moving average

Progressive average

Composite average

Central Tendency

(Averages)

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B. DISPERSION

Concept of VariationThe measures of variation are called averages of the second order. Purpose of Measuring VariationThe following are the main purposes of measuring, dispersion.

To Test the reliability of an average To serve as a basis for control of variability To compare two or more series with regard to their variability To facilitate as a basis for further statistical analysis

Methods of Measuring DispersionThe following are the important methods of studying variation.

Range Inter- quartile Range Mean-Variation Standard Deviation Lorenz Curve

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SKEWNESS, KURTOSIS, MOMENTS

Skewness

Symmetry (No Skewness)

Asymmetry (Skewness present)

Positive Negative

Average X = M = Z40 = 40 = 40

X > M > Z32.1 > 30 > 10

X = M = Z30 < 50 < 70

Quartile (Q3–M) = (M–Q1 ) (Q3–M) > (M–Q1 ) (Q3–M) < (M–Q1 )

Curve Normal Skewed to right Skewed to the leftKurtosis

The expression kurtosis is used to describe the peakedness of a curve. The expression kurtosis is used to describe the peakedness of a curve.

Uses of Kurtosis in ResearchMeasurements of kurtosis tell us the extent to which a distribution is more peaked or more Measurements of kurtosis tell us the extent to which a distribution is more peaked or more

flat topped than the normal curve.flat topped than the normal curve.

D.CORRELATIONCorrelation refers to the relationship of two or more variables. Correlation refers to the relationship of two or more variables.

Types of correlation Correlation is classified into many types, but the important are:Correlation is classified into many types, but the important are:1. Positive and negative, 2. Simple and multiple1. Positive and negative, 2. Simple and multiple3.Partial and total 4. Linear and non-linear3.Partial and total 4. Linear and non-linear

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E. REGRESSIONRegression help us to estimate one variable or the dependent variable from the other variable or the independent variable.

F. INDEX NUMBERS

An Index Number is a number which is used to measure the level of a certain phenomenon as compared to the level of the same phenomenon at some standard period. Types of Index Numbers

a) Price Index

b) Quantity Index

c) Value Index

The various methods of construction of index numbers are given below:

MethodsIndex Numbers

Unweighted (Simple)

Weighted

Simple Aggregate

Simple average of price relative

Weighted Aggregate

Weighted average of

price relative

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G. ANALYSIS OF TIME SERIES

An arrangement of statistical data in accordance with time of occurrence or in a chronological order is called a time series.

Components

Long-term Short-term

Secular Cyclical Seasonal Irregular

Regular

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATIONH. INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

Interpolation relates to the past, whereas extrapolation gives us the forecast for the future."

Method of interpolationThe method of interpolation or extrapolation may be broadly classified:A. Graphic methodB. Algebraic methodThe algebraic method may be:

Binomial Expansion method Newton's method of Advancing Differences Newton's Gauss {Forward) method Newton's Gauss {Backward) method Newton's method of Backward Differences Newton's Divided Difference method Lagrange 's method Parabolic curve Fitting

ASSOCIATION OF ATTRIBUTESStatistics of attributes is based on descriptive character association of attribute is measured by the degree of relationship of two phenomena, whose size are not directly measurable, but studied by the presence or absence of a particular attribute.

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I. PROBABILITYThe word probable means likely or chance. Theorems of probabilitySome of the laws of probability to tackle complex situation. There are two important theorems.

The addition theorem and The multiplication theorem

J. THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION

The frequency distributions are of two types: Observed Frequency Distribution and Theoretical Frequency Distribution. The following are important distribution.

Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution Normal Distribution

K. THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTIONThe frequency distributions are of two types: Observed Frequency Distribution and Theoretical Frequency Distribution. The following are important distribution.

Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution Normal Distribution

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L. ADVANCED MULTI-VARIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUESMultivariate analysis refers to a group of statistical techniques used when there

are two or more measurements on each element and the variables are analyzed simultaneously.

One One None

(Nonmetric) (Metric)

Dependence Methods

Number of Dependent variables

Interdependance method

Nominal Dependent variable Level of

Measurement

Interval or ratio

Ordinal Multiple regression

ANOVA MANOVA Conjoint

Spearman’s Rank Correlation

Discriminantanalysis

Cojoint

Factor Cluster Perceptual

Mapping

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION FACTOR ANALYSIS

Factor analysis is the most often used multivariate technique in research studies especially in studies pertaining to social and behavioral sciences.

1. Formulate the problem

2. Construct the correlation matrix

3. Identify the method of factor analysis

4. Determine the number of factors

5. Rotate the factors

6. Interpret the factors

8. Select the surrogate variables

9. Determine the model fit

7. Calculate the factor scores

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATIONUses of Factor Analysis in Research

Interdependency and pattern delineation. Parsimony or data reduction Structure. Classification Scaling. Hypothesis testing. Data transformation Exploration Mapping Theory

CLUSTER ANALYSIS

Cluster analysis, also called as classification analysis or numerical taxonomy is a class of techniques used to classify objects or cases into relatively homogeneous groups called clusters.

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The steps are explained in the clustering procedure are listed below


2. Select a distance measure

3. Select a clustering procedure

4. Decide on the number of clusters

5. Interpret and Profile Clusters

6. Assess the validity of Clustering

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Uses of Cluster Analysis in Research

Segmenting the market Understanding buyer behaviour Identifying new product opportunities Selecting test markets Reducing data

DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

Discriminant analysis is a dependence multi variate technique. The discriminant analysis model involves the linear combination of the following form

D = b0+b,X, + b2X2+b3X3+ + bkXk

D = Discriminant scorebn = Discriminant coefficients or weightsXn = Predictors or independent variable

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Steps in conducting two group discriminant analysis

The steps in conducting two group discriminant analysis are discussed below:


2. Research design issues

3. Assumptions

4. Estimating the discritminant functions

5. Assess the validity of discriminant analysis

6. Interpretation of discriminant

7. Validation of discriminant results

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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATIONA SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS RELATED DIFFERENCES

Sl.No.

Multivariate Techniques Characteristics Significance Limitations

1. I. Dependence methodMultiple Linear Regression

One dependent variable, more independent variable, metric

More accurate prediction complex simultaneous relationship, useful to social scientist

Highly complicated.

2. Non-Linear Regression Polynomial regression model more than are independent variable

Give a better prediction Extremely difficult interpret co-efficient.

3. Discriminants Non-metric, not measurable on quantitative scale of numbers

Classify persons or objects, possible to predict categories, dichotomous classification

user/non-user, high/low

Interpretations becomes more difficult.

4. Canonical Analysis Several dependent variables no metric Useful in marketing research. Computed by computer only

5. II. Interdependence methods factors Factors Analysis

Metric, Interdependence of inter relationships among a total set of variables.

Marketing product preferences, mass of data simplified used in exploratory research.

Complicated tool, unable to give unique solution.

6. Cluster analysis Classify persons or objects into a small number Useful to marketing better understandings of buyer behaviour identifying

homogeneous groups.

Lacks of standard statistical test consuming more time.

7. Multidimensional scaling CMDS To uncover the hidden structure of a set of data Identification of attributes, useful in marketing field.

Preferences are not clear. Empirical limitations extremely difficult to

interpret result

8. Conjoint analysis Joint effect of two or more attributes Estimation of utility function used in decision rules

Not used frequently in research. Fails to capture utility function.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCHRESEARCH

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

““Researcher has the right to be treated ethically as well”.Researcher has the right to be treated ethically as well”.- J.E.NELSON- J.E.NELSON

I. Public Incomplete Reporting Misleading Reporting Biased Research

Reasons for Biased Research The following reasons for biased research are

Improper research approach, Research design is faulty, Lack of scales are validity, Poorly designed questionnaire is used, Poor administered research, Inappropriate samples are collected, Improper statistical methods are employed, Poorly execute the process of research, Inappropriate statistical tools are used, and Inadequate explanations about the real facts.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCHII. Respondents

Deceptive Practices Invasion of Privacy Lacking of concern for subjects Conducting a Survey to Planning

Sugging Frugging

Discomfort to Respondents

III. Client

Abuse of Research Desig Unnecessary Research Unqualified Researcher Disclosure of Identity Non-Confidential Misleading Presentations

IV. Researcher

Improper Solicitation Proprietary Techniques Misrepresentation of Findings

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TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCHRESEARCH

103

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCH ““Hypothesis is a very useful tool to test the significance of difference”.Hypothesis is a very useful tool to test the significance of difference”.

- KARL PEARSON- KARL PEARSON

Terms Associated with Test of Significance

Parametric Tests Types of Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests Types of non-parametric Tests Large Sample Small sample Degree of Freedom (DF) P – Value Parameter Standard Error Level of Significance Test Acceptance Region Test rejection region

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TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCH

Kinds of Tests

Z-test t-test F-test Chi-Square Test Runs Test Binomial Test Mann-Whitney U Test Two –sample Medium Test Wilcoxon matched – pairs Signed – ranks test Sign Test Kolmogov-Smirnov two sample test Kolmogorov – Sminov one sample test

UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS TEST

A single variable analysis is called univariable analysis.

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BI-VARIATE ANALYSIS TEST Social Science researcher would generally come across situations or problems which are complex in nature, involving two or more variables, in which case, an analysis based on only one variable will not be suitable.

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TEST – DEPENDENCE METHOD

Multivariate analysis is the analysis of the simultaneous relationship among three or more phenomena Multivarite analysis approach can be classified into two categories.

Functional methods or dependence method Structured method or Independence methods

DISCRIMINANT ANALYSISDiscriminant analysis, a scoring system is used on the basis of which an individual or object is assigned a score.

CONJOINT ANALYSIS Conjoint analysis is deals with the measurement of the joint effect of two or more attributes that are important from the point of the consumer.

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TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCHPURPOSE OF CONJOINT ANALYSIS

Conjoint analysis has been used in social, business and marketing research purposes. To determining the relative importance of attributes in the consumer choice process. To estimating market share of brands that differ in attribute levels. To determining the composition of the most-preferred brand. To segmenting the market based on similarity of preference for attribute levels. To appling in the areas of new product, identification, competitive analysis, pricing, market –

segmentation, advertising, and distribution.

FORMULATION OF CONJOINT ANALYSIS The results are interpreted and the reliability and validity assessed. There are six steps

Formulate the problem Construct the stimuli Decide on the form of Input Date Select a conjoint Analysis Procedure Interpret Results Assess Reliability and validity.

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MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING (MDS)

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a class of procedure for representing perceptions and preferences of respondents spatially by means of a visual display

CONDUCTING MULTIMENTIONAL SCALING

There are six steps involved in formulation of MDS.

Formulate the problem Obtain input data Select an MDS procedure Decide on Number of Dimensions Label the Dimension and Interpret Configuration. Assesses Reliability and validity.

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNEXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

““Experimentation is a powerful tool at a disposal of researcher, that enables Experimentation is a powerful tool at a disposal of researcher, that enables him to establish causal relationships between variables”.him to establish causal relationships between variables”.

- R.A.FISHER- R.A.FISHER

Experimental designs as powerful tools to study the cause and effects relationship amongst variables in research.

TYPE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research can be classified into two types: 1. Field experiments and 2. Laboratory Experiments.

MAJOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experimental designs can be classified into four major types

1. Randomization Completedly randomized design and randomized block design

2. Latin squares Design, 3. Factorial Design 4. Analysis of covariance.

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

LATIN SQUARE DESIGN

Latin square design, it is necessary to assume that no interaction exist between the treatment effect and either block effect.

Characteristics of Latin Squares

Balanced Arrangement of Data Different Latin Squares Comparisons among treatments Sources of Extraneous Variations Scale of Measurement

Some factors can be measured quantitatively, and different levels for them are chosen on and ordered scale. e.g. level of fertilizer dose, temperature are all factors of this type.

NEED FOR A GOOD EXPERIMENT DESIGN Absence of Systematic Error Precision Range of Validity Simplicity Calculation of Uncertainty

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCEAnalysis of covariance is a combination of the two techniques such as analysis of variance and regression. It is the simultaneous study of several regression.

Uses of Covariance in Research Helps in Randomized Experiments Uses of bias in observations studies Explain the Nature of Treatment Study Regression in Multiple Classification

Sl.No.

Experimental Tools Characteristics Significance Limitations

1. Randomization Equal chance of occurrence in an individual operation, cause and effect relationship of control group and test group

Unbiased estimate, frequently used in marketing, completely flexible

No systematic treatments

2. Randomized block design Treatment of variables in different blocks, randomization treatments are assigned in blocks

Originated in agricultural research.Marketing field also applied.

Involves highly mathematical computation

3. Latin squares A balanced two way classification scheme, balanced arrangement of data.

Several different latin square can be constructed, comparisons among treatments.

Experimental error must be smaller.

4. Factorial Experiments To evaluate the combined effect on the interaction effects of two or more variables.

Exploratory research is used.

Simultaneously in an experiment, applied in agriculture and marketing

Too numerous and complex

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THE RESEACH REPORT WRITINGTHE RESEACH REPORT WRITING

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THE RESEACH REPORT WRITING

A principle of report presentation that states, “keep it simple and straight forward”. A principle of report presentation that states, “keep it simple and straight forward”. -M.DANIEL -M.DANIEL

Types of Reports

Oral Report Written Reports

Time Interval Reports Special Reports Functional Reports

I. Informational Report II. Examination Report III. Analytical Report

Field Report Physical Report Relationship Report

Administrative Report Professional Report Independent Report

Employment Report Private Report Government Report

Formal Report Informal

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STAGES IN REPORT WRITING

Pre-writing Stage Analyzing the Situation Problem Definition Developing the Statement of Purpose Developing a Preliminary Outline Preparing the work plan Investigating information Adapting the report Selecting the Appropriate Channel and Medium

Writing Stage Deciding the Format and Length

Pre-printed form Memo Letter Manuscript

Choosing the approach Structuring the reports Composing Reports

Post-Writing Stage Revision Production the Report Proofreading

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Integral parts of a report The preliminaries Letter- of transmitted Title page Preface Table of contents Guidelines LIst of table LIst of illustrations The text Introduction Background Problem statement Research objectives Methodology Analysis of study and findings and conclusion Reference material Bibliography Appendix

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THE RESEACH REPORT WRITINGRESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is also a type of research report prepared for getting the permission to proceed with the research work.

Structure of the Research Proposal Executive Summary Problem Statement Research Objectives Review of Literature Benefits of the Study Research Design Qualifications of the Researcher Budget Schedule Facilities and special resources

PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH REPORT WRITING Objectivity Coherent Concrete Style Impersonal style Absolute clarity Neat and tidy Simple Language Comprehensibility Physical presentation

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THE RESEACH REPORT WRITINGPRESENTATION OF RESEARCH REPORTS

Presentation has become an important communication medium in organizations because a research report is properly understood if it is accompanied by a presentation.

Communication Dimensions

The major elements of communication dimension, which are relevant to a presentation, are

Purpose Audience Media Message Time Place Cost

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Audio – Visual Aids

Audio Tape recorder Compact disc

Visual (a) Non-Projected

Black board Film charts Models.

(b) Projected Epidiascope Overhead Slide Film strip Slide projector with a timer

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THANK YOUTHANK YOU

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