Week Three

Dr. Stephen OgdenLIBS 7001

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Audience(“Concepts,” pp. 4-6)

• Identifying the audience is a key factor in analyzing and composing texts.

• considerations for the writer, re: audience– social status: above, = to, or below you in status?– knowledge: what audience knows about your

subject– other factors: age, gender, class, race, affiliations

Texts and messages often have multiple audiences.

Ethos / Speaker: “Voice”(Concepts, pp. 7-9)

• (details later when we discuss persuasion)

• ethos / voice = the writer’s “public image”

• how speaker is positioned in the text, to establish– a strong character (moral / ethical)– credibility (believability, competence)– goodwill with the audience

Texts and messages may have multiple speakers.One speaker can have multiple personalities.

Aristotle: writing is Techne—a science with order & rules.

Middle-Ages through to (British) present: Trivium– Grammar: how words work– Rhetoric: how to arrange words to get them to do

what you want.– Dialectic: how ideas are arranged in writing

• Thus, Good Writing is judged essentially by its EFFECTIVENESS

• Cf: With Quadrivium = ‘Seven Liberal Arts.’

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What is Rhetoric?• refers to principles established in ancient Greece,

focused on speaking persuasively (5th-4th c. BCE)• includes consideration of– motives or purpose of author / speaker– audience– context / genre – ethos, or speaker’s stance (voice / tone)– bias (later on in this course)– arrangement – style (later on this course)

Cautions: form & thesis• As Sargent & Paraskevas (285 ff) state, don’t be

constrained in your writing by– organization: the five-paragraph essay, which is “a

formula, not a composition” (285)– thesis statement: avoid being stressed about

starting your essays with a fully worked out thesis statement• CHANGE “In this essay here’s what I’ll show” • TO: “In this essay, here’s what I’m going to puzzle over”

You as reader vs. as writer

• Professional writers: readers pay to read what they write

• Students in writing classes: writers pay readers (instructor) to read what they write (Sargent & Paraskevas, p. 287)

• Note that “essay” comes from the OF word “to attempt”

• Use your writing as exploration, within the “academic essay” genre

Importance of Arrangement• identify ways to arrange a

‘Discourse’• recognize when to use different

types of – beginnings– endings– development– Transitions

Arrangement = "order of ideas” “disposition”

The Whole Text The Parts of the Text

paragraphs

The 2nd of the 5 classical essay canons:

1. invention: finding & developing a topic

2. Arrangement (.1)3. style4. memory [critical in spoken

discourse]5. Delivery

.1 The art of ordering material to deliver intended information effectively.

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Arrangement Patterns (in the reader)

(Western) readers’ assumption is that essay or oration will have a recognisable pattern. beginning (introduction) Organized middle (body) series of clear transitions (links) definite end (conclusion).

Nb. China & Japan arrange differently: qi-cheng–zhuan–he 起承轉合 ki–sho-ten-ketsu - begin – follow – turn - bind together

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Cicero (~100 BC): Classical Rhetorical Arrangement

1. Exordium—introduces essay subject2. Narratio—states the facts to be essayed3. Partitio—divides into subject’s aspects4. Confirmatio—the proof of your essay5. Refutatio—states & refutes (rebuttal)

obvious objections6. Peroratio—effective summation• 2-5 may be absent (cf. purpose)

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Taxonomic Arrangement (Whole Text)

• Universal, Sequentiale.g. Professional Journal

n TITLE1. Abstract2. Introduction3. Methods4. Results5. Discussion6. Conclusion7. References

Cicero

1 & 2 = Exordium

3 = Narratio4 = Confirmatio

5 = Refutatio6 = Peroratio

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An Organic, or Natural, Arrangement (Whole Text)

• Idiosyncratic (idio = Gr. ‘single’)– Changes for each case– Depends on the position, mood, need or situation of the writer

(relative to the reader(s)

– Reliable elements (in any order) include:• Capture the audience’s attention (Aristotle)• Provide or invoke background data or information• State and Prove the thesis• Anticipate important counter-theses or objections• Conclude with an appeal to reader’s emotion

– To his or her better self

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alternative patterns common in personal essays can be “heuristics” (Sargent & Paraskevas, p. 288)

- “ways to explore … material” always contain these durable elements - but their

order (esp. 2-4) can vary1. capture the audience's attention2. provide necessary background information 3. state and prove the text's thesis or central idea 4. anticipate and address possible countertheses5. conclude w/appeal to the audience's emotions

Introductions: purposesSSW, 68 ff

• an introduction “acquaints and coaxes” • announces essay’s topic• may directly state the thesis• sets the tone• seeks to arouse reader’s interest, draw the reader

into the text• paves the way for writer’s/speaker’s ideas• see & consider using examples, SSW, 68-72

Developing the “middle”

• longest section of essay, paper or story• develops ideas• sustains the reader’s interest• A paragraph or series of paragraphs (in the “middle”) may combine two or more of methods of arrangement.

• You can organize your ideas using: description, narration, process analysis, definition, classification, comparison

Some development strategiesSSW, 62-64

• Chronological - as events unfold in time– telling a story – "step-by-step” - describing a process, as when teaching

someone how to parallel park

• spatial - details given as the eye sees them– describing a physical / visual scene, moving from one part of

what's seen to the next (as in films)

• climactic order - common in personal writing– build to a crescendo, or– reversed, “landing the heaviest punch first” (63)

Some development strategies, con’t

• From easy to difficult– describe a progressively complex series of skills

(particularly physical skills)

• In order of importance– least to most: builds interest in reader– Most to least: captures readers attention (esp. for

manuals & tech. writing.)

• From general to specific: the big picture.– Effective for abstractions & theories (science, e.g.)

• From specific to general: polemic+ persuation17

Transitions• may be a paragraph, one word or a phrase • bridges the reader or listener from one paragraph or

set of paragraphs to the next• professional /technical writing - may rely headings &

numbers to order text– but the sequence still must be logical and convincing– a mere heading does not always = a transition

• essay writing/formal speeches - must imbed the transitions within the text

Transitions - paragr. / words1. Transitional paragraphs in longer essays– announce a “shift” from one group of ideas to another– build coherence; look “behind” and ahead - can

• summarize ideas• repeat thesis• forecast ideas to follow

2. Transitional words, in shorter essays or within a section of a longer essay connect ideas while signaling a change of subject

• see SSW, 64-67 & 72

Conclusion of a discourseSSW, 72-75

• signals that the discussion is complete• doesn’t take off in a new direction, but can add an

interesting closing thought• “drives the point home a final time”• can include a final appeal to the audience’s emotions• for shorter papers, can be a paragraph• for longer essays, can be multiple paragraphs• avoid mechanically using “In conclusion….” See SSW,

72-75

Inadequate Development within a Paragraph

• Length is not the matter: effectiveness is.• Does the paragraph have:– Topic sentence?– Connection (explicit or implicit) to previous

paragraph(s)?– Sufficient supporting examples?– Summation or Linkage to next paragraph?

• Readability & comprehension are the keys.

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Paragraph Coherence: (inter- and intra- paragraph)

• Smooth flow from one sentence to another and one paragraph to another.– Clarity of expression • what kind of word choice does this require?

– Explicit connections between ideas.• *Remember*: writing is the transmission of idea.

– Use: • Connecting words & phrases• Repeated key words• Pronouns• Parallelism

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Paragraph Coherence: Connecting words & phrases

• Showing Similarity: – likewise, just so, similarly

• Showing Contrast:– at the same time, but, instead, in

contrast, or

• Showing results or effects:– as a result, because, therefore,

thus, since, consequently

• Adding Ideas:– also, beside , furthermore, first,

moreover

• Drawing Conclusions:– as a result, in brief, therefore

• Pointing out examples:– for instance, for example

• Showing emphasis & clarity– above all, again, as it is, indeed,

that is

• Indicating Time:– afterward, immediately, previously,

at the same time, now, later, then, presently

• Conceding a Point– granted that, of course, it is true

that, certainly,

• Qualifying your Point– however, none/never-theless

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Paragraph Coherence:

• Repeated Key Words:– Identifying key words & concepts, from the topic

paragraph, is generally useful for the writing process.

– Repeating these words and concepts adds to total coherence. Within a paragraph, very effective.

• Use of Pronouns:– Words that stand for nouns. Be Varied & clear• he, him, hers, one, its, they, theirs, these, those

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Specialised Paragraph Functions:#1. Introductions

• Weak: – “In this paper”– “Wars have always

afflicted mankind”, – “As you know, having

too little time is a problem many of us face.”

– In the modern world today.

– It is my view that….”

• Strong. Use:– A directly stated thesis.

• “The Iraq was to depose the dictator Hussein.”

– A definition.• “Too many tasks relative to time

available creates busy- ness.”

– A quotation:• “The past is our only

knowledge.”

– An arresting statement.• “I died yesterday”

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Specialised Paragraph Functions:Introductions, con’t

• Unusual slant on a familiar theme.– “Professors are people

too.”

• Intriguing claim.– An “A” is easy to earn

• Interesting details– BCIT has the highest

graduate placement rate

• A blend of strategies

• A Question or Problem• Always effective• Can guide and structure

your essay• Stimulates the writer’s

thoughts• Engages the reader in

the matter of the essay

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Specialised Paragraph Functions:Transitional Paragraphs

• Conclusions– Restatement of the thesis– A summary (recapitulation): draw together to reinforce– A Question (yes, again!)– A Quotation– Ironic Twist or Surprising Observation– Clever or Whimsical Ending– Direct challenge– Recommendation or Hope

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